Starch in Food: What Makes Rice Sticky, Why Does Bread Stale,

and Eat Your Beans!

Starch is one of the most common forms of carbohydrates in food. All plants
produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis. As glucose is
produced it is converted to starch, a polymer composed of thousands of glucose
molecules linked together end to end, which is then stored in plant cells for use
as a source of energy. Starch is thus an efficient way of storing lots of glucose in
a minimal amount of space. Mammals also store glucose as a giant polymer
called glycogen, which has a structure that is similar to starch. But starch and
glycogen differ in one important aspect: Plants store glucose in two forms. One is
a smaller linear molecule called amylose, and the other is a much larger
branched molecule called amylopectin, that is shaped like a tree with both short
and long branches attached to a trunk. It is most common for plants to produce
amylose and amylopectin in a weight ratio of about 1:4, although some plants
produce starch containing almost no amylose. This is commonly referred to as
waxy starch (see the science note on waxy versus mealy potatoes). For
whatever reason, mammals evolved to produce only the highly branched polymer
of glucose, and none of the smaller linear form.

The amylose and amylopectin molecules produced by plants are organized into
microscopic particles called starch granules stored within plant cells until needed
for energy. The amylopectin molecules are arranged in alternating layers of
organized crystalline structures and amorphous non-crystalline structures, with
the amylose molecules randomly dispersed throughout. The linear molecules of
amylose, and the ends of the long branches of amylopectin, form helical
structures, both alone and entwined together. When the helical structures pack
together they create the ordered crystalline regions within the granules. The size
and shapes of the granules vary with each plant, but are consistent within each
type of plant. Figure 1 below shows a photomicrograph of starch granules within
empty potato cells. Potatoes contain the largest starch granules of the commonly
consumed vegetables. They also contain a large number of granules per cell.
When starch granules are heated in water they begin to absorb some of the
water and swell, like blowing air into a balloon. As the temperature rises the
granules continue to absorb more water until they reach their maximum volume
and viscosity, called the gelatinization temperature. This temperature is quite
specific for each type of starch, whether it is in corn, wheat, potato, rice, or
sorghum. The gelatinization temperature depends on the type of starch and the
ratio of amylose to amylopectin in the starch granules. Higher amylose delays
swelling and increases the gelatinization temperature. A good example is the
starch in rice. The starches in short, medium, and long-grain rice vary in their
ratio of amylose to amylopectin. Long-grain rice contains about 22-28% amylose
by weight, medium-grain contains about 16-18% by weight amylose, while short-
grain contains less than 15%, to almost no amylose (waxy starch). Varieties of
long-grain rice have a gelatinization temperature above 158°F (70°C), while waxy
short-grain rice gelatinizes at 144°F (62°C). The gelatinization temperature of the
starch greatly affects the texture of cooked rice. This largely explains why long-
grain rice is fluffy, and short-grain rice is sticky. Granules in short-grain rice burst
at a much lower temperature releasing starch molecules that cause rice grains to
stick together, while the granules in long-grain rice tend to remain intact.

Figure 2 below shows how granules of pure cornstarch absorb water and swell
when heated. Notice at 60°C the granules have started to swell, and at 95°C
(203°F) have swollen so much that they are difficult to see, and eventually burst
and release amylose and amylopectin creating an infinite network of entwined
molecules that trap water and thicken to a gel on cooling. This is how cornstarch
thickens gravies and sauces, and turns them to solid gels when refrigerated.
Starch granules do not have to reach the bursting point before they start to
thicken a sauce, as even well swollen granules trap enough water to thicken it.
The reason bread stales and turns firm and dry is also explained by the behavior
of the starch molecules in bread. Fresh baked bread contains about 35% water
by weight with the wheat starch granules swollen and gelatinized. At this level the
large starch and protein molecules are hydrated and flexible, and able to move
about to a certain degree, making the bread soft and tender. But after a few days
the bread becomes firm and appears to dry out. Most people assume it is
because much of the moisture has evaporated, when in fact it really hasn’t. As
bread ages the amylose molecules form helices, which pack together like a box
of pencils, forming crystalline structures that trap water molecules inside the
crystalline regions. This makes the bread appear to be dry, when in fact it has not
lost any significant amount of water. The crystalline structures also make the
bread feel firm. The ends of long branches of amylopectin behave in a similar
way, but these crystalline regions are relatively short and not as strong as those
formed by longer chains of amylose, and will reverse with mild heat. If stale, dry,
firm bread is briefly heated in the microwave these less stable crystalline regions
of amylopectin are disrupted, releasing the trapped molecules of water making
the bread appear softer and more moist, at least temporarily. The process of
gelatinized starch molecules forming crystalline regions with time is called
retrogradation. Starch molecules will retrograde (crystallize) at room temperature,
but undergo this process at a much faster rate in the refrigerator. So don’t place
bread in the refrigerator to keep it from staling, as this hastens the process.
Fortunately, refrigerated bread can be revived by brief microwaving. Bread can
also be stored in the freezer. Once the water molecules are frozen the starch
molecules are also frozen in space curtailing retrogradation. Frozen bread can be
thawed to yield soft, moist bread.

One final point about starch in food. Most starch, especially if it has been heated
and gelatinized, is rapidly digested to glucose, which is quickly absorbed into the
body, elevating the level of glucose and insulin in the blood. The amount of
glucose absorbed over a period of several hours following consumption of a food
is called the glycemic index of the food. Foods with a higher glycemic index
cause the release of more insulin into the blood system, which impacts the
amount of fat stored in fat cells. Retrograded starch is very poorly digested by
digestive enzymes, so much of it passes into the large intestine where it is
digested by the gut bacteria which convert it into short-chain fatty acids, such as
butyric and propionic acids. The cells lining the large intestine use these short-
chain fatty acids for energy. Retrograded starch, also called resistant starch
because it is resistant to digestion, functions as a prebiotic and is beneficial for
the colonic cells. Since retrograded starch is not digested to glucose the calorie
content of foods containing retrograded resistant starch is lower than cooked
high starch foods like rice, potatoes, and fresh white bread. The amount of
retrograded starch is directly related to the amylose content of the starch.
Legumes are especially high in amylose, and therefore resistant starch, which is
a major reason why they are a healthy food. Eat beans for resistant starch!
 Some Helpful References

1) Buleon, A., P. Colonna, V. Planchot, and S. Ball, A Mini Review. Starch

2) Crosby, G. A., Resistant Starch Makes Better Carbs. Func. Foods

3) Jane, J., a. Xu. M. Radosavljevic, and P. A. Seib, Location of Amylose in

4) Tester, R. F., and W. R. Morrison, Swelling and Gelatinization of Cereal

5) Tester, R. F., and W. R. Morrison, Swelling and Gelatinization of Cereal

6) D. J. Thomas and W. A. Atwell, Starches. Eagan Press, St. Paul, MN,