POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates and delivers a flow of mechanical
or electrical energy. The main equipment for the generation of electric power is generator.

TYPES OF POWER PLANT (AS TO SOURCE OF ENERGY)

A. Thermal power Plant

- An electric generating station using heat as a source of energy.

a. Oil Fired Steam

- Makes used of heavy fuel oil, light fuel oil or bunker oil for production of energy.

b. Coal Fired
- Makes used of pulverized coal as fuel.

c. Dendro
- Makes used of wood such as ipil – ipil as a fuel.

d. Nuclear Steam
- Makes used of steam generated in a reactor by heat from the fission process of nuclear fuel (Uranium 235,
Uranium 238)

e. Gas Turbine
- Makes used of combustible gases as a fuel from a gas turbine engine prime mover.

f. Geothermal
- Makes used of generated heat from the inherent steam from the earth’s magma fuel.

g. Solar Steam
- Makes used of steam generated solar radiation.

B. Hydro Electric Power Plant

- An electric generating station using flowing water to drive the prime mover (Hydraulic Turbine).

 HYDRAULIC TURBINE - sometimes referred to as water wheel, is the most important element in
hydroelectric power plant.

TYPES OF HYDRAULIC TURBINE

a. Reaction Turbine
- The water under pressure is partly converted into velocity before it enters the turbine runner.

1. Francis type
2. Propeller type
3. Axial flow turbine

b. Impulse Turbine
- The water under pressure is entirely converted into velocity before it enters the turbine runner. It consists of
one or more free jets of water discharging into an aerated space and impinging on a set of buckets attached
around the periphery of a disk or wheel.
 TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC PLANT

1. Run – of – river
- Using pondage or stream flows as it occurs, more power can be generated in a rainy season than in dry
season.
2. Plant with storage capacity
- Associated with large reservoir. This permits regulated supply of water so that the power output is constant
through the year.
3. Pump storage plant
- Where energy is generated during the periods of high system demand using water, which has been
pumped, into reservoir usually during periods of relatively low system demands.

C. Diesel Power Plant

- A plant of internal combustion engine (ICE) prime mover using diesel as fuel in producing energy.

D. Windmill Plant
- Using a series of windmills as prime mover.

E. Sea Wave Ocean/Ocean Tides Plant

- Makes used of natural rising of tide to simulate flowing water.

F. Solar Or Photo Voltaic Plant

- Chemical conversion of radiant energy of the sun to electric (DC) energy.

TYPES OF POWER PLANT (AS TO USE)

1. Base Load Plant - plant that assumes load requirement under normal condition.

2. Peaking Plant - plant that is normally operated to provide power only during peak load periods.

3. Regulating Plant - plant capable of carrying load for the interval either during off – peak or peak period and usually
respond to the change in system frequency.

4. Reserve or Standby Plant - for peak or system deficiencies.

TYPES OF PLANT RESERVES

a. Cold reserve
- portion of the installed reserve kept in operable condition and available for service but not for immediate loading.
b. Operating reserve
- refers to the capacity in actual service in excess of peak load.
c. Hot reserve
- refers to units available, maintained at operating temperature and ready for service although not in actual operation.
d. Spinning reserve
- generating capacity connected to the bus ready to take load.

VARIABLE LOAD ON POWER STATION

- The load on a power station varies from time to time due to uncertain demands of the consumers.
EFFECTS OF VARIABLE LOAD

- The variable load on a power station introduces many perplexities in its operation. Some of the important effects of
variable load on a power station are:

a. Need of additional equipment

b. Increase in production cost

LOAD CURVE
- The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time.

a. Daily Load Curve : load variations during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours) are recorded half – hourly or hourly and
are plotted against time on the graph.
b. Monthly Load Curve : it can be obtained from the daily load curves of that month. It is generally used to fix the
rates of energy.
c. Yearly Load Curve : it is obtained by considering the monthly load curves of that particular year. It is generally
used to determine the annual load factor.

Importance: the daily load curves have attained a great importance in generation as they supply the following information readily:

a. The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during different hours of the day.
b. The area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the day.
c. The highest point on the daily load curve represents the maximum demand on the station on that day.
d. The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number of hours gives the average load on the station in the day.

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝑾𝒉)𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 =
𝟐𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

e. The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of rectangle in which it is contained gives the load factor.

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒙 𝟐𝟒

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 𝟐𝟒

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝑾𝒉)𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆

=
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

f. The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
g. The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station.
IMPORTANT TERMS AND FACTORS

- The variable load problem has introduced the following terms and factors in power plant engineering:

1. Connected Load
- It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment connected to supply system.

2. Maximum Demand
- It is the greatest demand on load on the power station during a given period.

3. Demand Factor
- It is the ration of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load. The value of demand factor is usually
less than 1.
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅
𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

4. Average Load Or Average Demand

- The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or month or year).

𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 (𝒌𝑾𝒉)𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒅𝒂𝒚

𝑫𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 =
𝟐𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 (𝒌𝑾𝒉)𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉

𝑴𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒍𝒚 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉

𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 (𝒌𝑾𝒉)𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓

𝒀𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓 (𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝒙 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟖𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 )

5. Load Factor
- The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period. This may be daily load factor, monthly load
factor or annual load factor if the time period considered is a day or month or year. Load factor is always less than 1
because average load is smaller than the maximum demand.

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅

If the plant is in operation for T hours,

𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑻 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 𝑻 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

6. Diversity Factor
- The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on power station. It is always greater
than 1. The greater the diversity factor, the lesser is the cost of generation of power.

𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔

𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

7. Plant Capacity Factor

- It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could have been produced during a
given period.
 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 𝑻
=
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝑻

Thus if the considered period is one year,

𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒌𝑾𝒉 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝟖𝟕𝟔𝟎

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 − 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅

8. Plant Use Factor

- It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours for which the plant was in
operation.
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝑾𝒉
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑼𝒔𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒔𝒆

UNITS GENERATED PER ANNUM

- It is often required to find the kWh generated per annum from maximum demand and load factor. The procedure is as
follows:
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒙 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝑮𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒎 = 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝑾)𝒙 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓

= 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝑾)𝒙 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒙 𝟖𝟕𝟔𝟎

LOAD DURATION CURVE

- When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes, the curve thus obtained
is called a load duration curve.

- The load duration curve is obtained from the same data as the load curve but the ordinates are arranged in the order
of descending magnitudes. The maximum load is represented to the left and decreasing loads are represented to the
right in the descending order. Figures (i) shows the daily load curve and (ii) shows the daily load duration curve.
 - The following points may be noted about load duration curve:

a. The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form. In other words, it readily shows the
number of hours during which the given load has prevailed.
b. The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding load curve. Obviously, area
under daily load duration curve (in kWh) will give the units generated on that day.
c. The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time. By laying out the abscissa from 0
hour to 8760 hours, the variation and distribution of demand for an entire year can be summarized in one
curve. The curve thus obtained is called the annual load duration curve.

TYPES OF LOADS

- A device which taps electrical energy from the electric power system is called a load on the system. The load maybe
resistive, inductive, capacitive or some combination of them. The various types of loads on the power system are:

a. Domestic Load
- It consists of lights, fans, refrigerators, heaters, television, small motors for pumping water etc. Most of the
residential load occurs only for some hours during the day (ie., 24 hours) e.g., lighting load occurs during night time
and domestic appliance load occurs for only a few hours.

b. Commercial Load
- It consists of lighting for shops, fans and electric appliances used in restaurants etc. The commercial load has
seasonal variations due to the extensive use of air conditioners and space heaters.

c. Industrial Load
- It consists of load demand by industries. The magnitude of industrial load depends upon the type of industry.
Industrial loads are generally not weather dependent.

d. Municipal Load
- It consists of street lighting, power required for water supply and drainage purposes. Street lighting load is practically
constant throughout the hours of the night.

e. Irrigation Load
- This type of load is the electric power needed for pumps driven by motors to supply water to fields. Generally this
type of load is supplied for 12 hours during night.

f. Traction Load
- It included tram cars, trolley buses, railways etc. this class of load has wide variation.
TYPICAL DEMAND AND DIVERSITY FACTORS

- The demand factor and diversity factor depend on the type of load and its magnitude.

Example 1:
A generating station has a connected load of 43 MW and a maximum demand of 20 MW; the units generated
being 61.5 x 106 per annum. Calculate (a) the demand factor and (b) load factor

Solution:
𝑀𝑎𝑥.𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 20 𝑀𝑊
(a) 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 43 𝑀𝑊 = 0.4651
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 61.5 𝑥 106

(b) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = = 7020.5479 𝑘𝑊
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 365 𝑥 24

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 7020.5479

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.3510 = 35.10 %
𝑀𝑎𝑥.𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 20 𝑥103

Note: Minimum unit generated is in kW.. 20 MW is the same as 20 x 103 kW. Always check your units

Example 2:
A 100 MW power station delivers 100 MW for 2 hours, 50 MW for 6 hours and is shut down for the rest of each
day. It is also shut down for maintenance for 45 days each year. Calculate its annual load factor.

Solution:

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = (100 𝑀𝑊 𝑥 2 ℎ𝑟𝑠 ) + (50 𝑀𝑊 𝑥 6 ℎ𝑟𝑠) = 500 𝑀𝑊ℎ
 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 365 − 45 = 320 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 500 𝑀𝑊ℎ 𝑥 320 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 160,000 𝑀𝑊ℎ

𝑀𝑊ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥.𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊 𝑥 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑥100

160,000
= (100)𝑥 (320𝑥24)
𝑥100 = 0.2083 = 20.8333%
Example 3:
A generating station has a maximum demand of 25 MW, a load factor of 60 %, a plant capacity factor of 50 %
and a plant use factor of 72 %. Find (a) the reserve capacity of the plant, (b) the daily energy produced and (c) maximum
energy that could be produced daily if the plant while running as per schedule, were fully loaded.

Solution:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
(a) 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.6 𝑥 25 = 15 𝑀𝑊

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 15
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 30 𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 0.5

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 30 − 25 = 5 𝑀𝑊

(b) 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 15 𝑥 24 = 360 𝑀𝑊ℎ

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦

(c) 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
360
= = 500 𝑀𝑊ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.72

Example 4:
A diesel station supplies the following loads to various consumers: Industrial consumer = 1500 kW; Commercial
establishment = 750 kW; Domestic power = 100 kW and Domestic light = 450 kW. If the maximum demand on the station
is 2500 kW and the number of kWh generated per year is 45 x 105, determine (a) the diversity factor and (b) annual load
factor.

Solution:
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 1500 + 750 +100+450
(a) 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2500
= 1.12

𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 45 𝑥 105

(b) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = = 513.6986 𝑘𝑊
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 8760

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 513.6986

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.205479 = 20.5479 %
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 2500

Example 5:
A power station has a maximum demand of 15,000 kW. The annual load factor is 50 % and plant capacity factor
is 40 %. Determine the reserve capacity of the plant.

Solution:
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑇 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= (15,000) 𝑥 (0.5) 𝑥 (8760) = 65.7 𝑥 106 𝑘𝑊ℎ

𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

65.7 𝑥 106
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 18,750 𝑘𝑊
0.4 𝑥 8760

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 18,750 − 15,000 = 3750 𝑘𝑊

Example 6:
A power supply is having the following loads:

Type of load Maximum demand (kW) Diversity of group Demand factor

Domestic 1500 1.2 0.8
Commercial 2000 1.1 0.9
Industrial 10,000 1.25 1

If the overall system diversity is 1.35, determine (a) the maximum demand and (b) connected load of each type.

Solution:
(a) 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1500 + 2000 + 10,000 = 13,500 𝐾𝑤

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

13,5000
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 10,000 𝑘𝑊
1.35

(b) 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
= 1500 𝑥 1.2 = 1800 𝑘𝑊

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 1800

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 2250 𝑘𝑊
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 0.8

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
= 2000 𝑥 1.1 = 2200 𝑘𝑊

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 2200

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 2444.4444 𝑘𝑊
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 0.9

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
= 10,000 𝑥 1.25 = 12,500 𝑘𝑊

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 12,500

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 12,500 𝑘𝑊
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1

Example 7:
A generating station has the following daily load cycle:

Time (Hours) 0–6 6 – 10 10 – 12 12 – 16 16 – 20 20 – 24

Load (MW) 40 50 60 50 70 40
 Draw the load curve and find (a) maximum demand (b) units generated per day (c) average load and (d) load
factor

Solution:
Daily load curve: Load along Y – axis and time along X – axis

(a) From the load curve, the maximum demand on the power station is 70 MW and occurs during the period of 16 – 20 hours.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 70 𝑀𝑊

(b) 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ)𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
= (40 𝑥 6) + (50 𝑥 4) + (60 𝑥 2) + (50 𝑥 4) + (70 𝑥 4) + (40 𝑥 4)
= 1200 𝑀𝑊ℎ = 12 𝑥 105 𝑘𝑊ℎ

𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 12 𝑥 105

(c) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 50,000 𝑘𝑊
24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 24

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 50,000

(d) 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 70 𝑥 103 = 0.714286 = 71.4286 %

Example 8:
A power station has a daily load cycle as under: 260 MW for 6 hours; 200 MW for 8 hours; 160 MW for 4 hours;
100 MW for 6 hours. If the power station is equipped with 4 sets of 75 MW each, calculate (a) daily load factor, (b) plant
capacity factor and (c) daily requirement if the calorific value of oil used were 10,000 kcal/kg and the average heat rate of
station were 2860 kcal/kWh.

Solution:
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 260 𝑀𝑊 = 260 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑊 (ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑)

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = (260 𝑥 6) + (200 𝑥 8) + (160 𝑥 4) + (100 𝑥 6)

= 4400 𝑀𝑊 = 4400 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑊

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑇 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 4400 𝑥 103

(a) 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.705128 = 70.5128 %
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑇 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (260 𝑥 103 ) 𝑥 24

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 4400 𝑥 103

(b) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 24
= 183,333.3333 𝑘𝑊

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (75 𝑥 103 ) 𝑥 4 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 300 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑊

 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 183,333.3333
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.611111 = 61.1111 %
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 300 𝑥 10 3

(c) 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑥 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
= (2860) 𝑥 (4400 𝑥 103 ) = 12.584 𝑥 109 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 12.584 𝑥 109

𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = = = 1258.4 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔 = 1258.4 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 10,000

ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION

- The art of determining the per unit (i.e., one kWh) cost of production of electrical energy.

Terms:
1. Interest – the cost of use of money.
2. Depreciation – the decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and building due to constant use.
3. Annual depreciation – the reduction in the value of plant every year.

COST OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

- The total cost of electrical energy generated can be divided into three parts, namely:

1. Fixed Cost
- It is the cost which is independent of maximum demand and units generated.
- This is due to the annual cost of central organization, interest on capital cost of land and salaries of high officials.

2. Semi – Fixed Cost

- It is the cost which depends upon maximum demand but is independent of units generated.
- This is directly proportional to the maximum demand on power station and is on account of annual interest and
depreciation on capital investment of building and equipment, taxes, salaries of management and clerical staff.

3. Running Cost
- It is the cost which depends only upon the number of units generated.
- This is an account of annual cost of fuel, lubricating oil, maintenance, repairs and salaries of operating staff.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ELECTRIC RATE (OR TARIFF)

- The following elements enters into the cost of the electric energy to consumers.

1. Fixed element – to start the enterprise includes the following:

a. Power plant, lads, building structure, etc
b. Primary distribution lines and substation including supports
c. Management, administrative staff
d. Depreciation
e. General maintenance, required whether the plant is in operation or not

2. Energy element – sometimes called running cost, it is the operating expense to generate power/energy which includes
the following:
a. Fuels
b. Labor for operation
c. Facilities, water, oil supply
d. Maintenance required when the plant is in operation only.
 3. Customer element – cost to bring power to the users/consumers which includes the following:
a. Secondary distribution system, including service drop and meter
b. Personnel for lines, meter readers, collection bills
c. Advertisement
d. Franchise (50 year period)

4. Investors profit/return of investment – controlled by the government.

Note: Fixed elements is dependent on the size of enterprise.

Energy element is dependent on the volume/level of the generated kW or kWh.
Customer element is dependent on the number of customer.

EXPRESSIONS FOR COST OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

- The overall annual cost of electrical energy generated by a power station can be expressed in two forms:

1. Three Part Form

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑆𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
= 𝑅𝑠 (𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑘𝑊 + 𝑐 𝑘𝑊ℎ)
Where:
𝑎 = Annual fixed cost independent of maximum demand and energy output.
𝑏 = Constant which when multiplied by maximum kW demand on the station gives the annual semi – fixed cost.
𝑐 = A constant which when multiplied by kWh output per annum gives the annual running cost

2. Two Part Form

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑅𝑠 (𝐴 𝑘𝑊 + 𝐵 𝑘𝑊ℎ)
Where:

𝐴 = A constant which when multiplied by maximum kW demand on the station gives the annual cost of the first part
𝐵 = A constant which when multiplied by the annual kWh generated gives the annual running cost.

IMPORTANCE OF HIGH LOAD FACTOR

- The load factor plays a vital role in determining the cost of energy. Some important advantages of high load factor
are listed below:

a. Reduces cost per unit generated

- A high load factor reduces the overall cost per unit generated. The higher the load factor, the lower is the generation
cost. It is because higher load factor means that for a given maximum demand, the number of units generated is
more. This reduces the cost of generation.

b. Reduces variable load problems

- A high load factor reduces the variable load problems on the power station. A higher load factor means
comparatively less variations in the load demands at various times. This avoids the frequent use of regulating
devices installed to meet the variable load on the station.
Note: The unit used is in Rupee (Indian currency) and paise. This is in respect to the author of the book used. Given the
conversion to peso, so you will have an idea on the amount used in generating stations.
1 Rs (Indian Rupee) = 0.67 peso; 1 Rs = 100 paise (in peso, its equivalent is centavo); 1 crore =10 x 106 Rs;
lakh = 10 x 104 Rs

Example 1:
A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000 kW. Calculate the cost per unit generated from the
following data: Capital cost = Rs 95 x 106; Annual load factor = 40 %; Annual cost of fuel and oil = Rs 9 x 106; Taxes,
wages and salaries etc = Rs 7.5 x 106 and Interest and depreciation = 12 %.

Solution:

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑥 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= (50,000) 𝑥 (0.4)𝑥 ( 8760) = 175.2 𝑥 106 𝑘𝑊ℎ

Annual fixed charges

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 12 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
= 𝑅𝑠 [(0.12) 𝑥 (95 𝑥 106 )] = 𝑅𝑠 11.4 𝑥 106

Annual running cost

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑡𝑎𝑥𝑒𝑠, 𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑐
= 𝑅𝑠[(9 𝑥 106 ) + (7.5 𝑥 106 )] = 𝑅𝑠 16.5 𝑥 106

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠

= 𝑅𝑠 [(11.4 𝑥 106 ) + (16.5 𝑥 106 )] = 𝑅𝑠 27.9 𝑥 106

27.9 𝑥 106
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 0.159247 = 15.9247 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒
175.2 𝑥 106

Example 2:
A generating plant has a maximum capacity of 100 kW and costs Rs 160,000. The annual fixed charges are
12 % consisting of 5 % interest, 5 % depreciation and 2 % taxes. Find the fixed charges per kWh if the load factor is
(a) 100 % and (b) 50 %.

Solution:

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 100 𝑘𝑊

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠[(0.12) 𝑥 (160,000)] = 𝑅𝑠 19,200

(a) When load factor is 100 %

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= (100) 𝑥 ( 1 ) 𝑥 (8760) = 876,000 𝑘𝑊ℎ

19,200
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 𝑅𝑠 ( ) = 𝑅𝑠 0.021918 = 2.1918 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒
876,000

(b) When load factor is 50 %

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 = (100)𝑥 (0.5)𝑥 (8760 = 438,000 𝑘𝑊ℎ

19,200
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 𝑅𝑠 ( ) = 𝑅𝑠 0.043836 = 4.3836 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒
438,000
 Note: By decreasing the load factor from 100 % to 50 %, the fixed charges per kWh have increased two – fold. This
illustrates the utility of high load factor.

Example 3:
Estimate the generating cost per kWh delivered from a generating station from the following data: Plant
capacity = 50 MW; Annual load factor = 40 %; Capital cost = 1.2 crores; annual cost of wages, taxation etc. = Rs 4 lakhs;
cost of fuel lubrication, maintenance etc. = 1.0 paise/kWh generated. Interest 5 % per annum, depreciation 6 % per
annum of initial value.

Solution:

The maximum demand on the station may be assumed equal to the plant capacity.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑊
Annual fixed charges

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠[(120 𝑥 105 ) 𝑥 (0.05 + 0.06)] = 𝑅𝑠 13.2 𝑥 105

𝑊𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑥𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠 4 𝑥 105

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠[(13.2 𝑥 105 ) + (4 𝑥 105 )] = 𝑅𝑠 17.2 𝑥 105

Annual running charges

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= (50 𝑥 103 ) 𝑥 (0.4) 𝑥 (8760) = 1752 𝑥 105 𝑘𝑊ℎ

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙, 𝑙𝑢𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑡𝑐. = 𝑅𝑠[(1752 𝑥 105 ) 𝑥 (0.01)] = 𝑅𝑠 17.52 𝑥 105

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠[(17.2 𝑥 105 ) + (17.52 𝑥 105 )] = 𝑅𝑠 34.72 𝑥 105

34.72 𝑥 105
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 𝑅𝑠 ( ) = 𝑅𝑠 0.019817 = 1.9817 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒
1752 𝑥 105

Example 4:
A generating station has the following data: Installed capacity = 300 MW; Capacity factor = 50 %; Annual load
factor = 60 %; Annual cost of fuel, oil etc = Rs 9 x 107; Capital cost = Rs 108; annual interest and depreciation = 10 %.
Calculate (a) the minimum reserve capacity of the station and (b) the cost per kWh generated.

Solution:

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
(a) 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (1)
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2)

Equate equations (1) and (2):

𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 300 𝑥 0.5

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = = 250 𝑀𝑊
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 0.6

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 300 − 250 = 50 𝑀𝑊

(b) 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= (250 𝑥 103 ) 𝑥 (0.6) 𝑥 8760 = 1314 𝑥 106 𝑘𝑊ℎ
 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠 108

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 9 𝑥 107

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠[(108 ) + (9 𝑥 107 )] = 𝑅𝑠 19 𝑥 107

19 𝑥 107
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 𝑅𝑠 ( ) = 𝑅𝑠 0.1444597 = 14.4597 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒
1314 𝑥 106

Example 5:
Compare the annual cost of supplying a factory load having a maximum demand of 1 MW and a load factor of
50 % by energy obtained from (a) a private oil engine generating plant and (b) public supply.

(a) Private Oil Engine Generating Unit:

Capital cost = Rs 12 x 105; Cost of repair and maintenance = Rs 0.005 per kWh generated; Cost of
fuel = Rs 1600 per 1000 kg; Interest and depreciation = 10 % per annum; Fuel consumption = 0.3 kg/kWh generated;
Wages = Rs 50,000 per annum

(b) Public Supply Company:

Rs 150 per kW of maximum demand plus 15 paise per kWh

Solution:
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 = (1000) 𝑥 (0.5) 𝑥 8760 = 438 𝑥 104 𝑘𝑊ℎ

(a) Private oil engine generating plant

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (0.3) 𝑥 (438 𝑥 104 ) = 13.14 𝑥 105 𝑘𝑔

1600
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑅𝑠 [(13.14 𝑥 105 ) 𝑥 ( )] = 𝑅𝑠 2,102,400
1000

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅𝑠[(0.005) 𝑥 (438 𝑥 104 )] = 𝑅𝑠 21,900

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 50,000

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠[(0.1) 𝑥 (12 𝑥 105 )] = 𝑅𝑠 120,000

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠(2,102,400 + 21,900 + 50,000 + 120,000) = 𝑅𝑠 2,294,300

(b) Public supply

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 ( 150 𝑥 1000) = 𝑅𝑠 150,000

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠[(0.15) 𝑥 (438 𝑥 104 )] = 𝑅𝑠 657,000

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠(150,000 + 657,000) = 𝑅𝑠 807,000

 FINAL ACTIVITY: EE 526 Lecture
INSTRUCTIONS:

a. Solve the following problems.

b. Copy and answer and present neat and complete solution.
c. Round off answers up to the 4th decimal place.
d. Hand written then scan or take picture of your solution.

PROBLEMS:

1. At the end of a power distribution system, a certain feeder supplies three distribution transformers, each
one supplying a group of customers whose connected loads are as under:

Transformer Load Demand factor Diversity of groups

Transformer No. 1 10 kW 0.65 1.5
Transformer No. 2 12 kW 0.6 3.5
Transformer No. 3 15 kW 0.7 1.5

If the diversity factor among the transformers is 1.3, find the maximum load on the feeder.

2. A power station has to meet the following demand:

Group A : 200 kW between 8 AM and 6 PM.

Group B : 100 kW between 6 AM and 10 AM
Group C : 50 kW between 6 AM and 10 AM
Group D : 100 kW between 10 AM and 6 PM and then between 6 PM and 6 AM.

Plot the daily load curve and determine (a) diversity factor, (b) units generated per day and (c) load factor.

3. A generating station has a connected load of 40 MW and a maximum demand of 20 MW, the units
generated being 60 x 106. Calculate (a) the demand factor and (b) the load factor.

4. A base load station having a capacity of 18 MW and a standby station having a capacity of 20 MW shares a
common load. The following data were given:

Annual input standby output = 7.35 x 106 kWh

Annual base load station output = 101.35 x 106 kWh
Peak load on standby station = 12 MW
Hours of used by standby station = 2190 hours

Calculate: (a) the annual capacity factor of standby station and (b) the annual load factor of the base load
station.

5. A power station has a peak demand of 80 MW and load factor of 0.60. If the capacity factor is 50 % and
utilization factor is 80 %, find the daily energy produced in MWh.

6. An industry having a maximum demand of 1000 kW works for 320 days in a year, 8 hours per day. Assuming
that it works at full capacity all the time during working days, calculate the daily load factor.

7. The power customer has 4 circuits of 220 – volt three phase. The circuits have the maximum demand as
follows:
 Circuit 1 = 35 amperes
Circuit 2 = 46 amperes
Circuit 3 = 72 amperes
Circuit 4 = 57 amperes

The diversity factor is 1.5, and load factor is 50 %, and the power factor is 80 %. What is the approximate
kW demand of the customer?

8. From the following data, estimate the cost per kWh for the generating station:
Plant capacity = 50 MW
Annual load factor = 40 %
Capital cost = Rs 12 x 106

Annual cost of wages, taxes etc = Rs 400,000 ; cost of fuel, lubrication, maintenance = Rs 1,752,000; annual
interest and depreciation = 10 % of initial value.

9. In a particular area both steam and hydro stations are equally possible. It has been estimated that capital
costs and running costs of these two types will be as under:

Plant Capital cost/kW Running cost/kWh Interest

Hydro Rs 3000 3 paise 5%
Steam Rs 2000 10 paise 5%

If the expected average load factor is 40 %, which is economical to operate, steam or hydro?

10. The energy cost of a 100 MW steam station working at 40 % load factor comes out to be 12 paise/kWh of
energy generated. What will be the cost of energy generated if the load factor is improved to 60 %? The
fuel cost of the power station due to increased generation increase the annual generation cost by 5 %.

SUBMISSION:

1. Due to this pandemic, activities should be submitted online.

2. You may submit ALL ACTIVITIES GIVEN to my email add: vvc_slu_2011@yahoo.com or messenger.
3. Submission will be on or before May 18.
4. Please indicate your name and subject.
5. You may scan your work or take pictures.
6. Please compile your activities for future use in case there will be a problem in your grades.

Thank you.. STAY SAFE AND GOD BLESS.