The Q[ave Matrix

Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principies and African Origins

 . )
..
L

The Clave Matrix

Unlocking Clave
Volume One

www .unlockingclave .e o m
 THE CLAVE MATRIX
Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principies and African Origins

David Peñalosa

Peter Greenwood - Collaborator and Editor

§i;
BEMBES BOOKS

Redway, California
Bcmbe Books, PO Box 1730, Redway, California 95560
707-923-7262

©2009 David Peñalosa

©2009 Bembe Inc.

©20 12 David Peñalosa

©20 12 Bembe Inc.

All Rights Reserved.International Copyright Secured. No part ofthis book or audio CDs may be repro-
duced in any form without written permission from Bembe, lnc.
First Edition published July, 2009
First Revised Edition published December, 2009
Sccond Revised Edition published January, 2010
Sccond Edition published August, 2012

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 10 1478299479
ISBN 13 9781478299479

Editor and Collaborator: Peter Greenwood.

Graphic design and layout: David Peñalosa.
Graphic rendering: Joel Mielke of Carson Park Design and Rahsan Ekedal.
Sound cngineering, mixing and mastering: Tim Gray of Myrtletown Record.\·.
 To my mother and father,

Greta Louise Peñalosa, who wanted me to have "an appreciation of music," but did not
live to see it become my life.

Fernando Peñalosa, whose scholarly abilities eventually surfaced in me.

We don 't ha ve a name for music; it's just an embodiment of the people.
-C. K. Ladzekpo
 Thc Clave Matrix vii

Contents
Audio Track Lists IX

Acknowledgments XI

Introduction XII

From the Editor XIV

The Audio Tracks XVI

The Notes XVI

The Graphics XVI

Chapter One The Primary Beat Cycle

1 Beats
11 Pulses 5
111 Offbeats 6
Summary 8
Exerciscs 9
Chapter Two The Secondary Beat Cycle 21
1 The Triple-Pulse Cross-Beat Cycle 21
11 Tresillo 38
Summary 47
Exerciscs 48
Chapter Three The Standard Pattern 55
lntroduction 55
The 12/8 Standard Bell Pattern 60
11 The 4/4 Standard Pattern 69
Summary 74
Exercises 75
Chapter Four Clave Patterns 85
lntroduction 85
Son Clave 87
11 Rumba Clave 105
111 Thc Eight-Beat and Oftbeat-Eight Cycles 110
IV Clave and the Standard Pattern 112
Summary 113
Exercises 114
Chapter Five Clave Sequence: The 3-212-3 Clave Concept 131
lntroduction 131
1 3-2 Clave Sequence 133
11 2-3 Clave Sequence 135
111 Reversible Sequence- Playing in 3-2 or 2-3 138
IV The Two Halves of Clave Represented as Two Measures 139
V One Chord 142
VI Moving fron One Side of Clave to the Other 143
VII Folkloric and Popular Clave Differences 158
VIII

VIII Folkloric Melodies that Imply a Harmonic Progression 163

IX Incorrect Clave Sequence-"Crossed" Clave (Cruzado) 169
X Counter-Clave or Cruzado? 171
Summary 177
Chapter Six The Lead Instrument 179
Introduction 179
I Lock Mode 179
11 Longer Phrases 199
Summary 211
Chapter Seven Issues of Notation, Terminology and Theory 213
I The Clave Concept 213
11 Confusion About Metric Structure 215
III The Archetypal Structure of the Standard Pattem 220
IV The Mystery of Triple/Duple Rumba Clave 226
V The Timba Clave Schism 230
Chapter Eight How Pulse Notation Corresponds to Standard Notation 233
I 4/4 Beats and Pulses 233
II The Offbeat Eight Cycle 234
III Dotted Notes and Rests 235
IV 12/8 Beats and Pulses 236
V 12/8 Secondary Beats 237
Notes 239
Glossary 253
Bibliography 259
Books and Theses 259
Magazine and Journal Articles, Liner Notes and Websites 262
Discography 265
Sub-Saharan African Music 265
Afro-Cuban Folkloric Music 267
Cuban Popular Music 270
Mambo, Salsa and Related Genres Recorded Outside of Cuba 273
Afro-Cuban/Latin Jazz and Descargas (Jam Sessions) 275
Afro-Brazilian Music 282
Miscellaneous Music Sources 283
Videography 284
About the Author 286
About the Editor 287
 Thc Clave Matrix 1x

Audio Track List 1

Chapter One 33. onbeat and offbeat-six cycles
The Pri mary Beat Cycle 34. standard pattern with diametrically op-
posed beat cycles
l. triple-pulse structurc 35. bombo as onbeat
2. duple-pu lse structurc 36. bombo as offbeat
3. 12/8 and ortbeats 37. 12/8 three-part rhythmic counterpoint
4. 12/8 a oftbeats 38. diametrically opposed tresillos
5. 4/4 e oftbeats 39. 4/4 standard pattern with opposed
6. 4/4 and ortbcats tresillo patterns
7. 4/4 a offbeats 40. 4/4 three-part rhythmic counterpoint

Chapter Two Chapter Four

The Secondary Beat Cycle Clave Patterns

8. three-over-two 41. 12/8 son clave

9. gyil marimba 42. 4/4 son clave
10. "Afro Blue" bass line 43. 12/8 rumba clave
11. palo: six-against-four 44. 4/4 rumba clave
12. palo: 12/8 bombo and ponche 45. 12/8 composite clave pattern
13. columbia 46. 4/4 composite clave pattern
14. columbia slap mclody 47. The two sides of clave oppose each other.
15. columbia opcn tone melody 48. two bombos per 12/8 clave
16. columbia sparse mclody 49. two bombos per 4/4 clave
17. mbira 1 50. conga de comparsa bombo drum with clave
18. mbira 2 51. Oggué iyá batá with clave
19. both mbiras lower rcgister 52. two ponches per 12/8 clave
20. both mbiras uppcr rcgister 53. two ponches per 4/4 clave
21. both mbiras complete composite melody 54. palo cachimbo with clave
22. tresillo 55. abakuá obi-apa (p1ayed on a conga drum
23. tresillo and six-beat cycle simultaneously with both hands) with clave
24. "Alza los pies Congo" bass tumbao 56. guaguancó tumba with clave
25. habanera rhythm 57. bembé mula with clave
26. habanera rhythm as tresillo and backbeat 58. conga drum tumbao with clave
27. "habanera" rhythm: axatse part 59. iyesá mula with clave
28. 4/4 bombo and ponche 60. toque arará itótele batá with clave
29. bombo-ponche bass tumbao 61. Obaloki okónkolo batá with clave
30. guaguancó tumba 62. 12/8 son clave within three-part rhyth-
mic counterpoint
63. 4/4 son clave within three-part rhythmic
Chapter Three
counterpoint
The Standard Pattern 64. 12/8 rumba clave
65. 4/4 rumba clave
31. 12/8 standard pattern
32. 4/4 standard pattcrn
X

66. 12/8 son and rumba clave share the same Chapter Six
sequence of strokes. The Lead
67. 12/8 rumba clave within three-part rhyth-
mic counterpoint 23. bembé caja with clave
68. 4/4 rumba clave with three-part rhythmic 24. bembé ensemble
counterpoint 25. timbales solo excerpt with clave
69. 4/4 rumba clave with diametrieally 26. abakuá bonkó with clave
opposed eight-beat eycles 27. abakuá ensemble
70. 4/4 son clave with diametrically opposed 28. Matanzas-style columbia quinto with
eight-beat cycles clave
71. 12/8 standard pattem and son clave 29. Matanzas-style columbia ensemble
72. 12/8 standard pattern and rumba clave 30. Havana-style columbia quinto with clave
73. 4/4 standard pattern and son clave 31. Havana-style columbia ensemble
74. 4/4 standard pattern and rumba clave 32. Havana-style columbia ensemble (sparse
arrangement)
Audio Track List 2 33. Matanzas-style guaguancó quinto with
clave (ex. 14)
34. Matanzas-style guaguancó quinto with
Chapter Five clave (ex. 15)
Clave Sequence 35. Matanzas-style guaguancó ensemble
36. Matanzas-style guaguancó quinto with
l. 1-IV-V-IV in 3-2 rumba clave (longer phrase)
2. "Agua que cae del cielo" (3-2) 37. abakuá bonkó with rumba clave (longer
3. 1-IV-V-IV in 2-3 phrase)
4. "El manicero" (2-3) 38. tres solo excerpt
5. conga, bell and clave enter in 3-2 39. timbales solo excerpt in 3-2
6. conga, bell and clave enter in 2-3 40. timbales solo excerpt in 2-3
7. one chord guajeo in 3-2
8. one chord guajeo in 2-3 Chapter Seven
9. "Philadelphia Mambo": maintaining lssues of Notation, Terminology and
clave's integrity Theory
10. "Muñeca" special transition phrase
11. "Que vengan los rumberos": piano
41. rumba clave with displaced strokes
12. "Que vengan los rumberos": ensemble
13. "Philadelphia Mambo": breaking clave
14. "Yemayá olodo"
15. "Chemba chemba" in 3-2
16. "Chemba chemba" in 2-3
17. yambú diana (3-2)
18. "Mi guaguancó" (2-3)
19. "Agua que cae del cielo": cruzado
20. "El manicero": cruzado
21. quinto: displaced tresillo
22. counter-clave quinto phrase with "Anaba-
coa" bass
 Thc Clave Matrix xi

Acknowledgments
Whatever 1 havc accomplished in the work called Unlocking Clave, of which this book is the first
volume, 1 have done so with the help of many generous individuals. All along the way teachers and col-
leagues gave me cverything from enormous amounts of information, toa single thought that happened to
be precisely thc one small picce 1 needed to complete the particular puzzle l was struggling with at that
time.
M y heart-felt gratitudc goes out to all those that have helped me. They are listed here roughly in chrono-
logical arder: Kim Atkinson was my first percussion teacher and his conceptual models remain the foun-
dation of my understanding today; Kwaku Ladzekpo introduced meto Ewe drumming; Marcus Gordon
was a mentor and my first batá teachec he exercised the most profound influence on my development as
a drummer; C.K. Ladzekpo's musical guidance has been one of the true gifts in my life; Carlos Gómez
gave me m y first teaching job. l don 't know if l would ha ve ever taken on the role of teacher if Carlos had
not drafted me. Thanks to Bembé, lnc. for believing in the Unlocking Clave series; Jimmy Durchslag for
the three decades we havc played Cuban music together; Gary Greenberg's analysis of my lesson plans
opened up my eyes to underlying structures l had up until that time been unaware of; John Santos taught
me directly and also a great deal indirectly through his writings and lectures in the 80s and 90s; thanks
to the Northern California batá drummers who shared their knowledge with me-Calvin Holmes, Chris
"Flaco" Walker, Harold Muñiz and Howard Kaufman. I am eternally indebted to my Cuban teachers-
Mario Jáuregui, Regino Jiménez, Roberto Borrell and Jesús Alfonso. Their sublime feel and depth of
knowledge have shown me the ideal for which I will always strive; Eugene Novotney regularly advised
me on music theory, terminology and notation throughout the long process of writing this book ; Michael
Spiro has also provided valuable guidance and feedback; my father Fernando Peñalosa tirelessly proof-
read, translated many pages of Spanish text and as an author, editor and publisher himself, served as my
on-call technical advisor for my countless questions about book-making; Myron Ort (aka Zeno Okeanos)
collaborated with me on terminology concepts and generously shared material from his archives; Kcvin
Moore has expanded m y library tremendously and helped with many of the non-percussion transcriptions
and with their analysis; James Whiting's waveform analysis of rumba clave was very enlightening. The
on-line community of musicians worldwide has been an invaluable source of information and feedback.
Thanks especially to Conor Guilfoyle, Amanda Villepastor and the Yahoo Latinjazz forum moderated
by Luis Moreno . Forum members Richard Graham, Bobby Sanabria, Sonny Bravo , Hilary Noble , Mark
Levine, Walfredo de los Reyes Sr., and Thomas Altmann in particular have been most generous with their
time.
In conclusion, much appreciation goes to my editor and friend, Peter Greenwood. Peter's belief in this
project never wavered for the decade anda half we worked on it. Hi s provocatíve questions urged meto
dig ever deepcr; without him the work in its present form would not exist. We spent years debating some
of the terms and concepts, looking at them from all points of view in our attempt to make them clear,
consistent and accurate; the material herein is truly a result of our collaboration. lt was only later that l
realized what a luxury it was to be able to spend so much time working and re-working the material with
someone who not only understands complex musical concepts but also has the ability to explain them
coherently. Pcter coined many of the terms; in fact, the title of the series, Unlocking Clave, and the title of
this volume, The Clave Matrix, are his creations.
XII

Introduction
lt is 1979, north coast of California and the cold rain of another winter storm is pelting my tiny cabin,
miles from the nearest paved road-no phone, no utilities. Gale force winds hurl sheets of water at my
windows and bend the tall redwoods like blades of grass. Inside, a small woodstove warms my back, a
single candle lights the room and a 12-volt car battery powers a tiny stereo playing a Los Muñequitos
record. 1'm so intent on finding m y way through that maze of rumba rhythms that 1 no longcr hear the
howling and crashing outside.
Thirty years and many storms later this book arrives to help you find your way through that maze. The
Clave Matrix is the first volume of a series entítled Unlocking Clave and by learning how to unlock clave
you will cometo know one of the most comprehensive systems ever developed for organizing music.
The term matrix has its roots in the Latin mater for mother or womb. The Oxford Dictionary tells us that
a matrix is a" ... mould in which something is castor shaped" and " ... a grid-like arra y of elements; a lat-
tice." Both definitions are accurate descriptions ofthe structure of clave music: matrix was (and still is) the
pcrfect word for this unique rhythmic system so I chose it in spite ofheavy competition from sci-fi movies,
fancy cars, rock groups, cartoon characters and what have you. The following paragraph introduces the
arra y of elements that constitute the matrix of clave music and summarizes the contents of this volume.
We will begin the joumey as al! journeys begin, by putting one foot in front of the other. We can walk
step by step or simply sit and let the tapping of our foot walk for us. We step to the primary beat cycle, let-
ting our feet connect our body to the earth, to the music. Once grounded, we are rcady to express the sec-
ondary beats-cross-beats that regularly and systematically contradict the primary beats. This phenom-
cnon, known as cross-rhythm, presents one ofthe most significant challenges in rhythmic understanding:
feeling and expressing two contrasting rhythms in our body at the same time. The third leve] of rhythmic
counterpoint is the key pattern, or clave, which divides the primary beat cycle into two rhythmically op-
posed cells and generates an alternating momentum like the coils of an electric motor. Ovcr this supportive
structure we will add the fourth and final element-the lead. In a folkloric setting the lead would most
often be played by a particular drum while in popular genres, such as salsa, thc lcad could be a vocal or
instrumental solo. Whatever the genre, the lead is a necessary component, playing the most elaborate and
varied phrases of the ensemble. In Chapter Six of The Clave Matrix 1 demonstrate the function of severa!
lead parts: caja, bonkó, and quinto in the folkloric genres of bembé, abakuá, and rumba, respective! y and
in thc popular genre we look ata timbales solo anda tres solo.
The Clave Matrix and all of the volumes in the Unlocking Clave series are based on the premise that
thc essential structure of sub-Saharan African rhythm consists of four independent patterns that intersect
according to specific rhythmic principies. In Cuba those principies are collectively known as clave, a
Spanish word, meaning 'key' or 'code.' To demonstrate the fundamental s of clave music. 1 will naturally
draw most of our examples from Afro-Cuban folkloric music but of coursc we must also examine music
from Africa, the original source of these forms. Often the different types of instruments and their differ-
cnt timbres obscure the fact that such diverse parts as a Latín jazz bass line, a drum part from Mali and
a marimba part from Ghana all share the same generative principie. But it was in Cuba that essential
rhythmic elements from Sub-Saharan Africa were first given names and writtcn down and it was here that
those elements would be married to European harmony. Cuban hybrids pre-datc North American jazz by
severa! decades and they are the most widely used templates for combining African and European musical
sensibilities. Cuban music has hada pervasive influence on popular music elsewhcre in the Caribbcan and
throughout Latin America.
In the 1940s, Afro-Cuban music became the conduit through which African-American music was "re-
 Thc Clave Matrix x111

Africanized" with Afro-Cuban rhythmic structures and Afro-Cuban instruments (most notably the conga
drum). On the African continent, recordings of Cuban music inspired the first guitar-based dance bands
which began by covering popular Cuban songs they heard on phonograph records.
This series began as a single book, a way of presenting my lesson plans to a wider audience. 1 wished
to reach not only conga drummers and other percussionists, but aJso non-percuss ion instrumentalists who
are often ata loss rhythmically when so loing over a clave-based rhythm section. lt's generally understood
that the unifying factor in all the different aspects of the music is clave itseJf. However, befare Unlock-
ing Clave there was no book that explained exactJy how the principies that generate clave also generate
rhythmically complex solos, at least not beyond the basic question of which attack-points coincide with
clave. Over the years, the project grew in depth and what began as a single book logically expanded into
a multi-volume series.
Other volumes of Unlocking Clave present Cuban folkloric genres such as batá, bembé, iyesá and rumba
and popular genres such as son montuno, mambo, songo and timba. Severa! volumes are devoted entirely
to lead parts: rumba quinto, advanced solo concepts and the rhythmic elements used in instrumental solos.
This first volume reveals the underlying foundation of all these genres by decoding, in great detail, the
individual strands that make up their complex rhythmic weave.
It's 1997, north coast of California. This time it's not winter but a cool summer night on the beach and
burning driftwood is warming usas we play our way through that rhythmic maze called rumba.* Now that
maze is no longer a mystery to me-all the pieces of the puzzle fit. And now, having lived this music for
more than thirty years, I am certain The Clave Matrix will help you understand and feel the rhythms, and
will serve as a valuable resource throughout your musical journey.

David Peñalosa
Arcata, California
2009

* Rumba at Moonstone Beach, Humboldt County, CA. Drummers from left: Jesús Alfonso (lead drummer for Los Mu-
ñequitos de Matanzas), the author and batá master Regino Jiménez. Kim Atkinson standing with chekeré. Photo: Howard
Kaufman, 1997.
XIV

From the Editor

The Clave Matrix As Rhythmic Study For All Musicians
The music presented in the Unlocking Clave series, of which this volume is the first, was born in the
hands and feet of drummers and dancers. Reading it on the page, we are in a mental mode, not the physical
mode of dancing hands and feet. So it's crucial that we bring this mental information into our body and the
simpler and more direct, the better. With our feet, hands and voice-stepping, clapping and speaking-we
can simultaneously express the various parts of the clave matrix and most of the examples herein. For
example, in triple-pulse structure (12/8) you might step four beats in a pattern of R R L L (as many musi-
cians do) while clapping three times over two steps and speaking the bell part. That will give you a direct,
visceral experience of how the primary and secondary beat cycles, and the standard pattern fit together.
Of course if yo u 're new at this, yo u won 't start there- first yo u' lllearn how to clap threc cqually spaced
beats over two equally spaced steps (R L R L) to produce the simplest cross-rhythm of 3:2 (also called
polyrhythm,joint cycle or hemiola). The first four chapters of this volume otTer comprehensive exercises
for hands and feet that provide a useful template for creating your own exercises. For example, the voice
can be incorporated simply by giving it one of the parts assigned to the left or right hand.
By distributing the various rhythms throughout the body-feet, hands and voice-you acquirc a deeper
understanding than you would just from, say, feet and hands because the voicc adds a wholly different
dimension: whereas the feet and hands play with and "against" each other through physical movement, the
voice doesn 't move- it fioats above the action. And, unlike the percussive quality of steps and claps, the
voice can sustain sound. Furthermore, it dominates by the control it exerts over the fect and hands (cspe-
cially the hands) thereby increasing the complexity of the entire interaction.
A body-centered approach offers all musicians, percussionists or not, a comprehensive and system-
atic way to develop rhythmic competence. That, combined with the creative principies of clave music,
produces a powerful tool for teaching, learning, and using rhythm, an arca of musical knowledge that is
all but overlooked in Western musical education. Whereas we focus on harmony, melody, and form, the
study of music in sub-Saharan Africa, India, and Bali, for example, is inconceivable without a thorough
knowledge ofrhythm. Rhythm in those cultures is inseparable from melody and harmony (albeit rudimen-
tary) becausc it is the generating force of the music itself. In India, all musicians- instrumcntalists and
singers-of the classical tradition leam their complex system of rhythmic organization through a highly
developed discipline of vocalized syllables accompanied by hand motions and clapping.
The determining factor in the rhythmic evolution of these cultures has been their adherence to the rhyth-
mic cycle. U pon that foundation, complex systems of rhythmic organization ha ve evolvcd which employ
cycles within cycles, a device that endows the music with a complexity that parallels our many-voiced
harmonies and challenges the rudimentary rhythmic system imposed on us since the Church, back in the
Dark Ages, admitted the voice while barring the drum: we were to sing the praises of God, not dance
them. Now, more than a thousand years later, we are gradually regaining what Reinhard Flatischlcr calls
our "forgotten power of rhythm." We've had plenty of help from Mother Africa, an irony not lost on Duke
Ellington, who said, "lt was a happy day when that first miserable slave landed on this shore."
In the early years of the 20th century, Igor Stravinsky, in "The Rite of Spring," shocked his audience with
jagged, asymmetrical rhythms meant to convey primitive ritual. Purely a theatrical conccit, it couldn't
have been further removed from the real thing. 'Primitive' music has always and everywhere been bound

¡uuuuluclJuMy. Speaking vario

and clapping in vario
study of African, Indian and
 Thc Clave Matrix xv

to the rhythms of nature, that is to say cycles-the rising and setting of the sun, the seasons, thc tides of
the sea, thc tides of breathing, the beat of the heart. The function of cyclical rhythrn in traditional music
and dance is to align thc community, each to each, each to all, all to the forces of nature. And so, whilc
Stravinsky's danccrs in París were desperately trying to stay in step (with the choreographer in the wings,
frantically counting). dancers, singers and drummers on a small island in the Caribbean were playing,
singing and stepping rumba, perfectly locked into their symrnetrical, four-beat cycle.
Art music would follow Stravinsky 's lead for the next fifty years or so until the appearance of composers
who, less concerned with rcflecting the rhythmic and psychic turbulence of modern life, were enjoying the
more grounded, lité aft1rming qualities ofnon-western music. One ofthose, Steve Reich, applied his study
of West African drumming to his compositions and created music of a wholly new order; his "Music for
18 Musicians" is an outstanding example.
The purposc of this brief, biased background is to persuade/inspire you to explore the untapped potential
of cyclical rhythm in general and the Afro-Cuban clave system in particular. You have in your hands a
brilliant exposition of a highly sophisticated system of rhythmic organization- The Clave Matrix. Here,
for the first time in print, is an in-depth analysis that shows, in a logical, step-by-step manner, precisely
how all the rhythmic clernents of this music relate. It does for rhythm what classic works, such as Gradus
ad Parnassum by Johann Fux did for eighteenth century counterpoint or Harmony by Walter Piston does
for that discipline. And, in its rigorous thought process, The Clave Matrix stands shoulder to shoulder with
the pedagogical work of Paul Hindemith, one of the greatest thinkers the art and science of music has e ver
known.
It is our hope that music educators of all persuasions-classical, jazz, general-will recognize that an
experience of the principies that generate clave music will deepen one's understanding of all music, from
Machaut to Messiacn, from Byrd to Beethoven, to our own Bird, Beatles, Brazil, Bali and beyond. In this
volume any profcssor of music has the material (anda systematic way of presenting it) that can be trans-
formed into an entirc course on rhythrn-no instrument required! Just show up for class with your head,
hands and feet in place. In fact, so rich and thought provoking are the concepts of The Clave Matrix that
even without thc physical experience 1 am so urgently urging, the reader will gain a new awareness of the
possibilities of rhythrnic organization.
Let me el ose with thanks and praise to the spirit of the drum for drawing me into the brother-sisterhood
of rhythm. That's whcrc 1 met David Peñalosa who would come, now and then, to show our modest pcr-
cussion group in Mendocino how to navigate the depths of rumba wherein I was paddling desperately with
sticks, bell, and shaker, trying to keep m y head above water. Although a neophyte in that genre, 1 carne to
it with sorne useful preparation for negotiating cross-rhythm that I had gained frorn Reinhard Flatischler's
TaKeTiNa systcm.* Not only rhythmic performance but also a way to write about it-something 1 got
from Flatischler when 1 cdited his book, The Forgotten Power ofRhythm.
When 1 learned that David was thinking about writing a book on Cuban rhythm , we started talking and
when he learned of my editorial exploits I was instantly signed on as 'advisor,' soon promoted to editor
and, when the theoretical going got tough, to collaborator on the initial volurnes. Now, almost fifteen
years later, having spent countless hours talking, writing, refining, rethinking, rewriting, and renewing
our understanding and presentation of these concepts, I am ever more thankful for all l 've learned and
ever more in awe of David's perseverance, his quest for truth and the depth of his insight. How fortunate
we are that he is sharing with us his discoveries of the principies that inform a most profound system of
human thought.

Peter Greenwood
San Francisco
2009
xvi

The Audio Examples

The audio examples for this book provide a vital component to the learning proccss. If you are having
difticulty understanding the written example, its corresponding audio example is sure to help. A shaker
plays the main beats on each track so that you can hear every example within its proper metrical context.
The progression of audio examples builds upon simple structures and gets progressively more complex.
Even without understanding the theory behind the rhythms, you will intuitively grasp a great deal simply
by listening to the examples. Picase go to www.bembe .com for information on how you can download the
audio cxamples.

The Notes
To achieve a smoother flowing text, I ha ve consigned a good deal of background information to notes , of
which there are two categories in this book. The first is found embedded in the text, in a shaded box. For
example, on the first page of Chapter One the note "Unless otherwise qualified , a heat is understood to be
a main heat." is located just below the portion of text that defines what the main beats are.
The second category is found in the Notes chapter at the end of this book . These notes identify com-
mercially available recorded versions of the music examples (highlighted in bold face), the sources of
quotes, additional commentary by the author and certain background information that is not immediately
necessary for the reader's understanding of the material. In addition, the Notes chapter contains many
statements by musicians and scholars who have made important contributions to the understanding of
clave-based music.
In The Clave Matrix you will also find extensive lists of source materials. The cxtensive bibliography,
discography and other lists of sources reflect the music and literature that havc inllucnccd me over the
ycars. They are also a kind of comprehensive catalog that 1 hope will enhance your own research anden-
joyment.

The Graphics
The circle graphics illustrate the rhythmic patterns in their cyclical forms (bclow lcft) and supplement
the linear representations (standard and pulse notation). Other graphics are abstract rcprcsentations of
rhythms. For example, the Unlocking Clave logo (below right) is a representation of the standard pattern .
Sorne designs such as the one at the center of the cover are based on a three-against-two motif. while
others merely imply cross-rhythm through their use of contrasting lines.
1 ha ve used both traditional African carved and woven patterns, as well as my own dcsigns based on tra-
ditional motifs. These various designs visually communicate, either explicitly or implicitly, the structures
found in the music. The ethnomusicologist Gerhard Kubik
( 1999: 61, 62) addressed the connection between the auditory
and visual patterns:
"Rhythmic structures can . .. transcend the auditory and
motional realms and be encoded by analogy in visual forms of
expression, as is demonstrated in cross-relationships between
African music and African designs ... Cultural transmission
works through codes, and the individual can switch between
channels, from the auditory to the motional to the visual."
 Thc Clave Malrix

Chapter One

The Primary Beat Cycle

Congolcsc cosmogram representing a cyclical vicw of human life. 1

I Beats

We begin with thc primary heats (also called main beats) and their subdivisions, the pulses. The main
beats are thc foundation of the rhythmic matrix.

l. The Main Time Referent

Beats are thc largc, cqual units of musical time, which we naturally seek as focal points. 2 The main beats,
(or simply the hellfs*) are those you would normally tap (beat) with your foot to establish a grounded feel-
ing, to keep time.' Thc main beats in clave-based music (or clave music) consist of a repeating cycle of
four beats. You must be able to tap your foot to the main beats while playing the examples in this book in
arder to master them.

The main bcats are the most simple and basic rhythmic element of clave-based music, yet historically
there has been considerable confusion regarding which beats are the actual main beats. For that reason, 1
ha ve dedicated the first chapter to this most fundamental of rhythmic elements.
The main beats determine the meter of the music. They are the "gravitational center" around which all
other rhythmic elements revolve. The main beats are also the emphasis of most dance steps accompany-
ing clave music. 4 From thc philosophical perspective of the African musician, the main beats represent
grounding in ancestral wisdom and a strong purpose or goal in life.5

* Unless otherwise qualified, a beat ís

2 Chaptcr Onc The Primary Bcat Cycle

Cycles

The cyclic quality of the main beat cycle also has philosophical significance in traditional African cul-
ture.6 The chief characteristic of a cycle is recurrence. 7 Natural cycles are a shared experience with rhythm;
one rotation of the earth on its axis makes a day and one orbit of the earth around thc sun, ayear.

Like the four seasons that divide ayear, four beats divide thc musical period into quarters as a means of
basic time measurement. A circle divided into four equal sections represents the division of musical time
into four main bcats.x

4 2

3.

A sequencc of four beats is the most versatile of main beat cyclcs because it works for slow, moderate
and fast tempos. You can tap your foot comfortably toa four-bcat cycle at almost any tcmpo. This is not
truc of two and thrce-beat cycles, which are awkward at slow tcmpos, or six and cight-beat cycles, which
are awkward at fast tempos . The four-beat cycle is the primary cyclc. Accordingly, a sequence of two main
beats is considered a short cycle anda scqucnce of eight main beats , a long cycle.'1
 Thc C lave Matrix ~

graphic below illustrates the binary nature of the primary cycle.

The four main bcats are divided into two cells and each cell is in turn, divided into two beats. The two
black quarters represent beats 1 and 3, the frontbeats and the two whíte quarters represent beats 2 and 4,
the backheats. Each cell has a frontbeat anda backbeat.* 10

1 ls ls 10 11 12

If a circle is big enough, we perceive itas a line. For instance, when we look at the horizon we do not sce
the curvature of the earth, but rather a straight line. We can represent time as both a circle-a clock and a
line-a calendar.

* All of the circular representatíons ofrhyth

dght of the center. The pattems rotate 'Cl
4 Chaptcr Onc Thc Primary Beat Cycle

2. The Main Beats in Standard and Pulse Notation

Clave-based music comes from an aural tradition, hence it was not written down. The first written music
based on clave was the Cuban danzón, which emerged in the 1880s. There are a varicty of ways to write
the main beats in clave music using standard notation. Originally the main bcats wcre written as four
quarter-notes in two measures of2/4 (two quarter-notes per measure).

ex. 1: 1

lB j~--- ~ 1 ~
. ~-~J
..
-----~11

11 12 13 14

Thc four main beats are counted through two measures here in arder to show the complete primary
cycle. In practice though, the two measures are counted 1 2, 1 2 rather than 1 2 3 4 because beat counts
are ordinarily confined toa single measure.*
Unlocking Clave shows all four main beats within a single measure so that cach measure accurately de-
picts the musical period. The main beats are represented as either four dotted quarter-notcs in a measure
of 12/8, or four quarter-notes in a measure of 4/4.

ex. 1:2

1
Wll: ~- ~
•· ~- ~- -ªti
11 12 13 14

* See p. 233, Chapter and p. 213 Chapter Seven, lssues

of Notation, Terminology and
 The Clave Matrix 5

II Pulses

twelve-pulsc cycle sixteen-pulse cycle

Pulses represented in circular form.

Clave music divides time into four main beats. Each beat is subdivided into three or four pulses. Unlock-
ing Clave calls this triple-pulse structure (tp), which is represented in 12/8 and duple-pulse structure (dp),
represented in 4/4. Subdividing the beats creates a twelve-pulse cycle ora sixteen-pulse cycle.

ex. 1: 3
(audio ex. 1: 1)
1Wll: r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :11

1~ ~ 1~ ~~o 171 1:2

tp structurc 11
twelve-pulsc cyclc 1 1; 1; 1; 1: 1 1;

(audiocx. 1:2)
1!11: r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r :11
dp structure 1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
sixteen-pulsc cycle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 JI 12 13 14 15 16

A pulse, or suhdivision is a smaller unit of musical time. A rhythmic pattern is created from a series of
attack-points or strokes-those pulses that are sounded. The pulses are represented as sixteenth-notes in
dp (4/4), counted using the syllables "one, e, and (+),ah (a)" and represented as eighth-notes in tp ( 12/8),
counted using thc syllables, "one, +,a."
ó Chaptcr Onc Thc Primary Bcat Cyclc

Pulse Notation

a percussion clef or
not represent specific pitches,

2. Playing with Rhythmic Precision

The main beats are the primary cycle that grounds the rhythm regardless of how the beats are subdivided
(tp or dp). When changing from one pulse structure to another within a piece of music, the rate of the main
beats remains the same. You should eventually be able to tap your foot to the main beat cycle and feel its
subdivisions while playing any pattem. A strong sense of beat and pulse is essential for playing clave m u-
sic with rhythmic precision. The ability to "play in time" is the first step in playing with afinque, a Cuban
expression for "in the pocket" or "in the groove."

111 Offbeats

An offbeat is a pulse that does not coincide with a beat. For the present, we will concern ourselves only
with thosc pulses not coinciding with the main beats.* In triple-pulse the offbeats are: 1+ 1a 2+ 2a 3+
3a 4+ 4a.

cx.l:4 tp 1111= z r r z r r z r r z r r~
11 1: 1: 12 1: 1: 13 1: 1: 14 1: 1: 1
In duplc-pule the offbeats are: le 1+ la 2e 2+ 2a 3e 3+ 3a 4e 4+ 4a.

cx.l:5 dp
1111= ~ r r r ~ r r r ~ r r r ~ r r rJI
111:1:1:121:1:1:131:1:1:141:1:1:1
* Unless stated
 The Clave Matrix 7

In clave music , basic pattern s are played in their prime position and in displaced positions. The main
beat cycle is thc prime position of tour beats. Oftbeats generate displaced four-beat cycles. Since there are
two offbeats in tp, there are two oftbeat cycles in that pulse structure: the "and" offbeat cycle and the "a"
offbeat cycle.

ex.l:6 tp

"and" oflbcats
(audio ex. 1:3) ¡·:.w 11: k r j j r j j r j j r j :11

11 1: la 12 1: la 13 1: la 13 1: la 1
"a" offbeats
(audioex. 1:4)
1tt j r 7 j r j : r j 7 r :11

Since there are three oftbeats in duple-pulse, there are three oftbeat eycles in that pulse structure: the "e"
offbeat cycle, "and" oftbeat cycle and "a" offbeat eycle.

& r. z r. & r.
ex. 1: 7 dp
l=.ut1::r·~~ n~ ~ ~ J±I
"e" oftbeats
(audio ex. 1:5)

11 1: 1+ la 121: 1+ la 131: 1+ la 141: 1+ la 1

"and" offbeats
(audio ex. 1:6)
H&: r z r 7 r j r

"a" offbeats
J
• j• j•
d•
j•
J•
(audio ex. 1:7)
 Chaptcr Onc Thc Primary Bcat Cycle

An oftbeat cycle can be thought of as a displaced four-beat cycle. Therefore, in sorne contexts, an oftbeat
cycle may be mistaken for the main beats. A helpful exercise is to play the various oftbeat cycles while
tapping your foot on the main beats. This is an important skill in playing clave music and to feel comfOlt-
able with it takes practice.

l. Beats are the large, equal units of musical time which we naturally seek as focal points.
2. The main beats (or primary beats) are those you would normally tap (beat) with your foot to establish
a grounded feeling to keep time. The main beats are also the emphasis of most dance stcps accompanying
clave-basecl music.
3. In clave-based music the primary cycle, or musical period, is divided into four main bcats.
4. Each main beat is subdivided into three or four pulses. A pulse, or subdivision, is the regular, smaller
unit of musical time.
5. The primary cycle in triple-pulse structure (12/8) consists of twelve pulses. Duple-pulse structure
(4/4) has sixteen pulses.
6. Triple-pulse structure (tp) has two offbeats: the "and" and "a." Duple-pulse structure (dp) has three
oflbeats: the "e", "and" and "a."
7 . In clave music, basic patterns are played in their prime position and in displaced positions. Thc pri-
mary beat cycle is the prime position of four beats.
8. Sin ce there are two offbeats in triple-pulse, there are two offbeat cycles in that pulse structure: the
"and" oftbeat cycle and the "a" offbeat cycle. Put another way, there are two displaced four-beat cycles
in triple-pulse structure.
9. Since there are three offbeats in duple-pulse, there are three offbeat cycles in that pulse structure: the
"e" oftbeat cycle, the "and" offbeat cycle and the "a" offbeat cycle. There are three displaced four-beat
cycles in duple-pulse structure.
 Thc Clave Matrix 9

Exercises for Chapter One

Congo!ese cosmogram .11

Introduction

We can break down thc most complex ensemble rhythms to their fundamental components, illustratc
their generating principie, and understand the rhythmic structure on a "molecular" level, but that will not
necessarily enable you to play the music any better. Ultimately, you need to get these rhythms into your
body, make them second nature, make them yours. All ofthe different patterns and pattern combinations
shown in this book can be practiced in the form of exercises. Therefore, at the end of sorne chaptcrs you
will find a series of excrciscs that you can practice. If you read music these exercises will be self-explan-
atory, but if not. listen to thc corrcsponding audio tracks which are very clcar, intuitively comprehcnsiblc
and require no rcading skills. In all the audio examples a single shaker marks the main beats.
The exerciscs in this book can be done nearly anywhere; all you need is a foot and two hands. You can
practice ata piano, drumset, table, couch, or sitting on a bus.lf you have a long plane flight you can pass
thc time by quictly practicing these exercises on your knees . These exercises will get the rhythms inside
your body, so that they become yours. You need to spend enough time practicing though. Justas the music
is composed of repetitious patterns, so does the process of learning the music require repetition. Only aft:er
repeatedly playing a rhythm will you gain insight into its nature and be able to play its proper articulation
with case.
As the exerciscs incrcasc in complexity, there are more stages involved. You begin with a simple version
and progress with more challenging versions. If you are having trouble with a particular exercise, stop and
return to the previous stage. lf you can do the simplest version, you will be able todo the most complcx.
You just need to spcnd enough time at each stage before proceeding.

1 Main Beats

The simplest way to tap your foot is to use your strong foot (right foot for right-handed people) whilc
sitting.

ex. lE:
1 Wll: J. J. J. J.
foot
10 Chaptcr Onc Thc Primary Beat Cyclc

Walking

When we walk, we generate our own binary "metronome," R-L, R-L, etc. You can think of each step as
marking a main beat. If you walk slowly, the tempo is slow; if you run, the tempo is fast.

ex. lE: 2

1Wll: J. J. J. J. ==41

1~ 1~ 1~ 1~
feet

Bccause we possess this natural timekeeper, practicing the exercises while walking is twice as produc-
tive for most people as practicing while sitting. lf you are struggling with a pattcrn that is particularly
difficult to tap your foot with, you need to play the composite for a considerable amount of time in order
to internalize it. If you walk while tapping the pattern on your body, you will internali ze the pattern more
quickly, more deeply and you will be less likely to forget it.
1 recommend that you expcriment with walking practices. For cxample, take a walk around the block
while tapping the various offbeat cycles.

Four-Step Pattern

The following exercise involves the use ofboth feet and creates a four-beat cyclc. While not particularly
practica! for walking, this is a useful stepping pattem for practicing the examples shown in Unlocking
Clave.

ex. lE: 3

1
1 W-.+.:--11:J+-.
-"R"'- ----~--J.- --+J-.- --J.-+-- -·~
feet ---+-1~---+--1~ ---1--1~ ------ll
~1----~
r = unaccentcd right hand
Four-Step p.,.f1,.,......, 1 = unaccentcd left hand
l. R R = right foot or right hand
2. L = left foot or left hand
3. T = both hands togcther
4. F = foot
 Thc Clave Matrix 11

Marking time in this wuy, each of the two cells comprising the main cycle is associated with one of thc
two sidcs of your body. You shift your weight from one side of your body to the other as you move from
one cell to the other and as you begin each new cycle. You will find it more beneficia) to step this pattcrn
while standing because then you will feel the shift in weight. This stepping sequence is uscd in many
dances which clave music accompanies.

11 Pulses

l. Triple Pulse Structure ( 12/8)

Now we will subdivide cach beat into three pulses . Your hands will tap out the pulses while you tap your
foot to the main bcats. The simplest way to practice the following exercise is to sit in a chair. Tap your foot
while alternating your hands (r-1-r-1, etc.) on your knees, tabletop or other hori zontal surface. Try verbal-
izing the pulses while you play them: "one, and, a, two, and, a," etc.

ex . lE: 4

l'~ml. • ~ ¡. ~ ~
¡. ~ ~ ¡. ~ ~
1
L
R :ji
F

hands r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

With your hands, accent those pulses coinciding with the main beats, shown as capitalletters in the fol-
lowing example: R-L-R-L. Notice that the main beats coincide with alternate hands: right-left, etc. Once
you are comfortable , verbali ze the pulses while you play them , accenting those pulses coinciding with a
foot: "ONE, and. a, TWO, and, a", etc.

ex. lE: 5

::>- ::>- ::>- ::>-

rW"J ~• J ,J~ j ~ j ,J~ • ~.:l]J 1

-r r· ¡· ¡·
hands R 1 r L r 1 R 1 r L r 1
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
 12 Chaptcr Onc The Primary Beat Cycle

Next, alternate your feet by walking or stepping in place: R-L-R-L. Tap the pulses on your thighs.

ex. lE: 6
hands R 1 r L r 1 R 1 r L r 1
feet R L R L
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Stcpping in a four-beat pattern (R-R-L-L) further develops this exercise:

ex. lE: 7
hands R l r L r 1 R l r L r 1
feet R R L L
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Notice the relationship between the hands and feet as they play the main beats.

2. Duple Pulse Structure (4/4)

Now, we will subdivide each beat into four pulses. Duple-pulse structure refers to beats dividcd by two
ora multiple thereof. In clave music the regular duple-pulses are quadruple subdivisions of thc bcat. Your
hands tap out the pulses whi1e you tap your foot to the main beats. Alternate your hands (r-1-r-1, etc.) on
your knees, or other surface.

ex. lE: 8

~ J J J ~ J J J ~ J J J ~ J ~il
L
R
F
1111:
hands r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 13

With your hands, accent thosc pulses (R) coinciding with the main beats. Try verbalizing thc pulses
while you play thcm, acccnting those pulses coinciding with a foot: "ONE, e, and , a , TWO , e, and, a,"
etc.
··::-:-.- :::::=- :::::=-
:::::=-
ex. lE: 9

~ ~ ~ ~
L
rnd-i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
R
F

hands R 1 r 1
1
R 1 r 1
1
R 1 r 1 R
1 1 r 1
:11

foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Next , alternate your fcct by walking or stepping in place: R-L-R-L. Tap the pul ses on your thighs.

ex . lE: 10
hands R 1 r l R 1 r 1 R 1 r 1 R 1 r 1
feet R L R L
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Stepping in a four-beat pattern further deve1ops this exercise.

ex . lE: 11 hands R 1 r 1 R 1 r l R 1 r 1 R 1 r 1
feet R R L L
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

The remaining cxercises use only your strong foot. Nonetheless, 1 recommend that you continue to ex-
plore the regular R-L-R-L walking pattern and the more elaborate R-R-L-L stepping pattern with the sub-
sequent exerciscs. Stepping with both feet will significantly strengthen your grounding in the main beats.
14 Chaptcr Onc Thc Primary Beat Cyclc

111 Oftbeat Cycles

l. 12/8 Offbeats

Offthe Beat

Tap out the triple pulses with your hands while you tap your foot to the main beats. Next, accent the off-
beats, those pulses offthe beat. The offbeats altemate: LR, RL, LR, RL, etc, so that the repcating sequence
is two rights and two lefts.

ex. lE: 12
:::>- :::>- :::>- :::>- ::>- >- ::> ----:>-

~~~~1. J~ ~ J
J=t~ 1 ¡.
L
R
F :1.
IWII
hands r L R 1 R L r L R 1 R L
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Practice playing just the offbeats while tapping your foot to the main beats . This excrcise in vol ves play-
ing continually alternating hands: R, L, R, L, etc. Your feet are marking the main beats, but your hands are
not; they are playing only offbeats. Once you get comfortable with this, verbalize the pulses, acccnting the
offbeats while tapping them: "one, AND, A, two, AND, A", etc.

ex. lE: 13

L
. ~1---J--1-
Filf&i·.f-.. 7 .~
~ _J ]-...~-
--+--'/· J .· i=--Jl --1
R
F r r r· · - -¡· -
hands R L R L R L R L
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 15

12/8 "and" Offbcat Cyclc

We begin with the and of 12/ft Play the triple pulses on your knees while tapping your foot to the main
beats. Ncxt, accent the and oftbcats shown here in capital letters: L-R-L-R. Once you are comfortable,
verbalize the pulses too, accenting the and offbeats: "one, AND, a, two, AND, a," etc .

ex. lE: 14
-:> ~
>- >-

~
L
R
F Dlnf ~ l. ~ ~
¡. ~
~ l. ~ ~ ·11
·¡

hands r L r 1 R 1 r L r 1 R 1
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Practice playing just thc and offbeat while tapping your foot to the main beats. Now, your foot is tapping
the main beats whilc your hand plays only the and pulse.

ex . lE: 15

1
ll ~ + + ll
1 1
ll
H
l il~ + + + + + :JI
F
¡· ¡· ¡· ¡·

~~ 1: la ~~ ~~ la ~~ 1: la
hand
foot
1: 1: la 1
12/8 "a" Oftbeat Cyclc

Play the triple pulses on your knees while tapping your foot to the main beats. Next, accent the a pulses
shown here in capital letters: R-L-R-L. Once you are comfortable, verbalize the pulses too, accenting thc
a offbeats: "one, and, A, two, and, A," etc.

ex. lE: 16
>- >- ~ >-

J J~
rDt~ ¡· ~ ~¡· ~ ~ ¡·J ~ ~
L --
R
F
, .. ···-·-
- _ _:J]
16 Chaptcr Onc Thc Primary Bcat Cycle

ex. lE: 16 continued

hands r 1 R 1 r L r 1 R 1 r L
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Ncxt, practice playing just the a offbeats while tapping your foot to the main beats.

ex. lE: 17

H
F 1Wll). ~ f. 7 f. 7 o f. 7 = ~

h~:~ 1~ 1+ 1~ 1~ 1+ 1~ 1~ 1+ 1~ 1: 1+ 1~ 1
2. 4/4 Oftbeats

Offthe Beat

Tap out the duple pulses with your hands while you tap your foot to the main beats. Next, accent the
oftbeats, which alternate: LRL, LRL, LRL, LRL, etc, so that the repeating sequencc is two 1efts and one
right.

ex. 1E: 18

L
R
F

hands r L R L r L R L r L R L r L R L
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 17

Practice playing just thc offbeats while tapping your foot to the main beats . This exercise in vol ves play-
ing a continua!! y alternating hand sequence: right, left, right, left, etc. Your foot taps the main beats while
your hands play only offbeats . Once you are comfortable, verba1ize the pulses too, accenting the oftbcats:
"one, E, AND. A, two, E. AND, A," etc.

ex. lE: 19

L
R
F
lllH f(i~
. i .. i
J J J :¡ J • 1

• :¡1

i i
hands R L R L R L R L R L R L
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

4/4 "e" Offbcat Cycle

Play the duplc pulses on your knees while tapping your foot to the main beats. Next, accent the e pulses
shown below with the capital letter L. Once you are comfortable, verbalize the pulses too , accenting thc e
offbeats: "one. E, and, a. two, E, and, a," etc.

ex. lE: 20
::>- ::>- ::>- ::>-

L
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ J~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
1•
1

1tll:~
r :11
R
F
r
hands r L r 1 r L r 1 r L r 1 r L r 1
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
18 Chaptcr Onc The Primary Beat Cycle

Practice playing just the e offbeats while tapping your foot to the main beats.

ex. lE: 21

H
F ~ ~~~:-=-r~----=--·
- - - ==--
r::::¡¡::¡::¡f-----#-++1 ~r~~·==--~~~;~~:=
_ i~ · · ·~
~::~ ~ ~ 1 1 1+ 1a ~~
1 1 1+ 1a 1 ~~ 1 1+ 1a 1: 1 ~ 1+ 1a 1

4/4 "and" Offbeat Cycle

Play all the duple pulses on your knees while tapping your foot to the main beats. Next, accent the and
pulses shown here in the capital letter R. Once comfortable, verbalize the pulses too, accenting the and
otlbcats: "one, e, AND, a, two, e, AND, a," etc.

ex. lE: 22
:>- :>- :>- "">-

~
L
R
F 1111: 1~ 1 1
.,_ ~ ..~ ~
1
~ ~.. 1.,_ ~
1 ~ ~~
hands r 1 R 1 r l R l r l R 1 r 1 R 1
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

The 4/4 and pul ses are the easiest oftbeats to play because they reside exactl y halfway between each
main beat.
Practice playing just the and offbeats while tapping your foot to the main beats.

ex. 1E: 23

H
F

hand H H H H
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 1!)

4/4 "a" Offbcats

Play all thc duplc pulses on your knees while tapping your foot to the main beats. Next , accent the a
pulses shown below with capital letter L. Once comfortable, verbalize the pulses too, accenting the a
offbeats: "onc, e , and, A, two , e, and, A ," etc.
>- >- >- >-
ex. IE:24
L

~J ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~• ~ ~
~ ~
R
F
1111:
~ • ~ 1 :11

hands r 1 r L r 1 r L r 1 r L r 1 r L
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Practice playing just the a oftbeat while tapping your foot to the main beats.

ex. 1E: 25

H
F

Conclusion

A strong sense of beat and pulse is essential for playing clave-based music. If you find it difficult to
maintain a steady beat in later exercises, 1 recommend that you practice walking the beats. Nothing
internalizes thc main beats better. If you experience difficulty maintaining a steady pulse "grid" over
the beats, you may find verbalizing the pulses helpful.
The e, and, anda offbcats are all displaced four-beat cycles. Be careful you don't feel the offbcats as
main beats. Playing offbeats while feeling fully grounded in the main beats takes practice. lf sorne of
these exercises are awkward for you, don't despair, keep practicing and you will succeed. As a general
rule, it 's best to begin with the exercise immediately preceding the one giving you trouble. Feeling
comfortable with the previous exercise will prepare you for the next, more challenging one.
Playing with rhythmic precision, an absolute necessity in clave music, comes directly from your
ability to generate a grounded sense of inner pulsation, a strong sense of time. If in later chapters, you
encounter difficulty in playing certain challenging patterns, you should return to these fundamental
exercises as a way of strengthening your sense of time.
20 Chaptcr Onc Thc Primary Bcat Cycle

triple-pulse structurc and primary beats duplc-pulsc structurc ami primary bcats
 Thc Clave Matrix 21

ChapterTwo

The Secondary Beat Cycle

sccondary bcat cycle in circular form

The secondary heat cycfe is the next tier of the rhythmic matrix. This secondary cycle is composed or
cross-heats (or counter-heats), beats that regularly and systematically contradict the primary beats. Cross-
beats create excitement, rhythmic tension and a sen se of forward momentum.

1 Triple Pulse Cross-Beat Cycle

Cross-beats are generated in triple-pulse (6/8, 12/8) by grouping the subdivisions in pairs: strokc-rest,
stroke-rest, stroke-rest.

ex. 2: 1

~wf~~:: __ rj__ j r j~

~~ 1+ 1: 12 1: la 1
The three cross-bcats are cvcn more apparent when written as quarter notes. *

ex. 2: 2

1~1 1: r r r
)t*' The
t)f ".
measure above is evenly nlvrn,,n i'eflect the proper metric
_;.Stroc¿ture:.Unlocking Clave occasionally repres,ent:s-ct:ol !~OilWIImstancm·1g such ex-
"~~eptions,example 2: 1 represents the felt ;am;ttWritt(!n within the
' éontext of the main beats.
~ :'f( '·,"i
22 Chapter Two The Secondary Beat Cycle

l. Three Over Two (3:2)

Three cross-beats combined with two main beats results in the cross-rhythm three-over-two (or three-
against-two). This can be understood as the rhythmic ratio 3:2, which is the most basic rhythmic cell in
clave-based music. 1

cx.2: 3
(audio ex. 1: 8)

Hcre is 3:2 represented in the shorthand form of three beats over two beats.

ex.2:4

¡·

1: 1

The following excerpt is from a piece played on a Dagara (Ghana and Burkina Faso) marimba called
a gyiU The left hand (lower) plays the main beats while the right hand (upper) plays cross beats. The
resulting composite rhythm is 3:2.

ex. 2: 5 gyil
(audio ex. 1: 9)

J ¡· J
Thc ratio 3:2 is a universal phenomenon that is found in music, mathematics, architccture and nature.'
 Thc Clave Matrix 23

Gyil.
24 Chaptcr Two The Secondary Beat Cycle

Cross-Rhythm

Polyrhythm is the joíníng oftwo or more rhythms. The regular and systematic superimposition of cross-
beats over main beats creates a specific sub-set of polyrhythm called cross-rhythm. All clave-based music
is generated through cross-rhythm.5
From the philosophical perspective of the African musician, cross-beats can symbolize the challenging
moments or emotional stress we all encounter. Piaying cross-beats while fully grounded in the main beats,
prepares one for maintainíng a Iife-purpose while deaiing with life's challenges.(, Many sub-Saharan lan-
guages do not have a word for rhythm, or even music.7 From the African viewpoint, the rhythms represent
the very fabric of life itself; they are an embodíment ofthe people, symbolizing interdependence in human
reiationships. 8
In many folkloric dances, the steps emphasize the main beats, while the drums emphasize cross-beats.
In this way, the dancers and drummers collectively create 3:2. The drums play three cross-beats over the
dancer's two steps (beats). Very often the dancer's upper body moves in contrary motion to the feet. 9
There are many variations of this modei, but dances that reverse the relationship by stepping on cross-
beats are rare. 10
In traditionai European ("Western") rhythms, the most fundamental parts typically emphasize the prí-
mary beats. By contrast, in rhythms of sub-Saharan African origín, the most fundamental parts typically
emphasize the secondary beats. Thís often causes the uninitíated ear to misinterpret the secondary beats
as thc primary beats, and to hear the true primary beats as cross-beats. In other words, the musical "back-
ground" and "foreground" may mistakenly be heard and felt in reverse .
Your ability to play clave music comfortably will íncrease in direct proportion to the easc with which
you can play cross-beats while feelíng the main beats. If you focus too much on thc cross-beats you may
lose time. 11 lt is necessary to feel the relationship of all the rhythmic patterns to the main beats because
the resulting composite is the correct structure and feel of that pattern. This docs not mean that you must
tap your foot constantly while playing; once you can tap the main beats comfortably with a pattern, you
are able to feel that pattern correctly and ít's no longer necessary to tap.

4
6:4 cross-rhythm moti f.
 Thc Clave Mat rix 25

The Six-Beat Cycle 6:4 in circular form .

The 3:2 cett occurs twicc within a cycle of four main beats. This is another exampte of the primary
cycte's binary nature. Two cetts of 3:2 create six cross-beats over four main beats: six-over-four (or six-
ugainst}our). This can be understood as the ratio 6:4.

ex . 2: 6 six-over-four

six beats

four beats
~~~~-
· ~_. ,. ~<-:.·_ _ _J_ j ~~. -j _J - ,-. . :.-~. J ~.~

f~ :~: : ~ ~: . . . ._ _ _ ._l - - -1+=1:

+-7 =121=:1.=1:=1+1=:14=i:=la1
Here is 6:4 representcd as six quarter-notes over four dotted quarter-notcs.*

ex.2: 7

~-
The tour beats are the primary heut cycle and the six cross-beats are the secondury beat cycle.

~ii''l:bis nolation clearly shows six beats ovcr four

sh~re ~qua!status. They do not sharc equaJ
pi'~nJemporal refercnt. . <;,~;·/'':
26 Chaptcr Two The Sccondary Beat Cycle

Acoustic bass .

The secondary beat cycle is the basis of many folkloric drum rhythms and 6/8 bass lines in Latin jazz.
The fol lowing bass excerpt is from the original recording of the jazz standard " Afro Blue," composed by
Mongo Santamaría and featuring Al McKibbon on bass. 12 It's written here as six quarter-notes within a
single measure of 12/8 in order to portray the secondary beat cycle in its entirety.

ex . 2: 8 Afro Blue bass line

(audio ex . 1: 10)

1~= Wll= f r r r r
As with playing any clave-based part, tapping your foot to the primary beats is the correct way to keep
time while playing this bass line. In doing so, the musician creates a 6:4 composite by playing six notes
while tapping four beats. Here is the same bass line written properly within the metric structure. The
slashed noteheads at the bottom of the staff are where you tap your foot.

ex.2:9

~)) _J ~)) _J
1~: ~11= ~ ~ :11
foot (· (· (· (·
11 1+ la 12 1+ la 13 1+ la 14 1+ la 1
 Thc C lave Matri x 27

Mongo Sa ntamaría (congas) with Al Mc Kibbon (bass), Cal Tjader group , circa late 1950s.
2S Chapter Two The Secondary Beat Cycle

Next, we see the composite drum melody of the two interlocking, supportive drum parts (cachimbo and
mula), for the Cuban-Congolese rhythm palo. 13

cx.2: IOpalo
(audio ex. 1: 11)

cachimbo
mula

cachimbo

mula h o h S h o h S
O= open tone l R l R 1 R 1 R
L = left hand 1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
R = right hand
h = heel (palm)
t = tip (fingers)
S= slap

3. Bombo and Ponche

Two of the most important pulses in clave music are bombo and ponche which are thc Cuban names for
certain offbeats of the secondary cycle that do not coincide with a main beat. 14

ex. 2: 11
(audio ex. 1: 12) p p
B B

se::~::~~ ::::: r'- - -" ~ L._;_· ~-J-,-_:r ~ ~- -~·· r.

W...____._l_¡_____,o
l: .'------
J

sccondary beats 1; 1+ 1: 12 1: 1a 1; 1+ 1: 14 1: 1a 1

B = bombo P = ponche
 Thc Clave Matrix 2lJ

Bombo is 1a and 3a: ponche is 2+ and 4+. There are two bombos and two ponches per primary cycle.
Here they are written properly to show where the primary beats occur.

ex. 2: 12 bombo ancl ponche

B p B p

Combining the bombo-ponche motif with the main beats creates the complete 6:4 cross-rhythm.

ex. 2: 13

Most ofthe rhythms shown in the Unlocking Clave series emphasize bombo ancl ponche. In the previous
palo example thc open tone of the mula clrum plays bombo, while the open tone of the cachimbo plays
ponche. In many rhythms, bombo ancl ponche are joined, functioning as a single motif.

Tension-Release Dynamic

A repeating 3:2 cell gencrates a tension-release clynamic. Bombo ancl ponche create tension by con-
tradicting the main beats. Resolution occurs on beats 1 and 3, where the primary and seconclary beats
coincide. 15

ex. 2: 14
tension initiated tension initiatecl
(release) release
1 1 1

~-
seconclary beats • 1
J
primary beats
r· •·
1
10 Chaptcr Two Thc Sccondary Beat Cyclc

.;r·tl1
';-:;¡. !1:~~'.

"h
:~~: l~1

~.\~w~:nts of clav~ Il)usid:1~'~j

~;.,1\~~ ge~ne1ran' ve (or t~eor~~i iJ:
· m::;: u;u;ust~ may obscurely impJ~n
...,v....~"'c:<J·'' ..6 the music to its pafa- .~
- ·s·
~,~~

foqr primary b~ats, while tjle! t .; ~' ·~

thmt:sts<not as obvious in all "ela~e

.tra4;;tl)rjth:rough dispJacement and t,J1e'p "

The following example shows the composite melody of the two supportive djembe drums for the presto
section of the Mandinka (Guinea) rhythm soli. 17

ex. 2: 15 soli

dje mbe 1
djembe 2

1~
djembe 1

djembe 2

Both drums play the main beats with slaps (triangle noteheads). Djembe 1 plays bombo with open tones
and djembe 2 plays ponche with open tones. The bombo-ponche motif is cmbellished by the second
djembe's "doubled" ponche, i.e., the very next subdivision is also sounded (2+ with 2a ami 4+ with 4a) .
The "doubled" ponche is an example of embellishing the 6:4 cross-rhythm by adding oftbeats.
 Thc Clave Matrix 31

18
Djcmbc drum .
32 Chaptcr Two Thc Sccondary Beat Cycle

Here is the fundamental melody (open tones).

ex. 2: 16

djembe-1
djembe-2
1 Wll:, j
F j
J J
j j
F j
J J
djembe-1

djembe-2

Congo lcsc cloth pattern . 19

The following example shows the two supportive drums (tumba and conga) in a type of Cuban rumba
called columbia .20

ex. 2: 17 columbia
(audiocx . l : 13)

~
conga
II•J 1
...... 1 •

IJ 1
1 •
.., . ....• •
1
.. .. •
t-

tumba i
1

i i 1

conga h t o o S h t o o S
1 1 R L R 1 1 R L R
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

tumba h t S h o o h t S h o o
L L R L R R L L R L R R
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Other than the inaudible timekeeping "ghost-notes," there are no strokes on beats 1 and 3 . Therefore, the
point of resolution within the 6:4 cross-rhythm is eliminated and tension is sustained. 2 1
 Thc Clave Matrix :n

In this rhythm thc slaps are on the a offbeats. In other words, the slaps play the four-beat cycle in a
displaced position, rather than its primary position.

ex. 2: 18 columbia slap melody

(audio ex. 1: 14)

1i-tl:. :t==~u.,_g~ j t j j ••J j -~

S = tumba slap
11 1+ 1~ 12 1+ 1: 13 1+ 1~ 14 1+ 1: 1
s = conga slap

Both the bombo and ponche parts are embellished by "doubled" tones. The conga plays the embcllished
bombo ( 1a with 2 and 3a with 4) and the tumba plays the embelhshed ponche (2+ with 2a and 4+ with
4a). Each drum plays two sets of "doubled" tones per primary cycle. The combined eight tones create a
melody that is twice as dense as that of palo. Here is the fundamental melody (open tones) written sepa-
rately.

ex. 2: 19 columbia tone melody

(audiocx.l: 15)

J jJ,,rJfJ~

11 1+ 1: 1~ 1~ 1~ 13 1+ 1: 1~ 1~ 1~ 1
O = tumba open tones
o = conga open tones

Columbia demonstratcs all three techniques of rhythmic abstraction: displacement, adding bcats and
removing beats. The slaps are a displaced four-beat cycle. Beats 1 and 3 are removed from the 6:4 cross-
rhythm and offbeats (2a and 4a) are added

Congolesc carvcd pattcrn .22

34 Chaptcr Two Thc Secondary Beat Cyclc

Next, we have a modern arrangement of columbia that's an even more abstract exprcssion of the 6:4
cross-rhythm. Here the conga and tumba play their "doubled" tones only once per cyclc. 21

ex. 2: 20 columbia
(audio ex 1: 16)

conga h t h S h t o o S
1 1 1 R 1 1 R L R
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

!· i i _.1 i _.1
conga ..... , 1
• .-. 1 •
--" 1 •
' ... ... ..• • _M
... 11
'11
'1 1

r r
1 1
tumba
~· i 1 1

tumba h t S h o o h t S h
1 1 R 1 R R 1 1 R 1
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

The following example is "Nhema Mussasa," a cross-rhythmic melody created by two Shona (Zimba-
bwe) lamellaphones called mbiras .24 The first mbira part called kushaura (to lead) is shown below. The
left hand plays the six-beat cycle in its prime position (low and mid-register) , whilc the right hand plays
thc six-beat cycle in a displaced position (high register).

ex.2: 21
(audiocx.1 : 17)

mbira 1 (kushaura)

L
 Thc Clave Matrix 35

This is the sccond mbira part called kutsinhira (to follow). The left hand plays a bass line that sounds
the main beats (low register) along with a pick-up on the a pulse before main beats 1 and 3 (mid-register).
Notice that the rhythm of the left hand is the same as the standard jazz ride cymbal pattern, but spans two
main beats instcad of one.

ex.2: 22 moira 2 (kulsinhira)

(audiocx. 1: 1~)

1: 18

6:4 Cross-Rhythm

Here is thc composite melody created by both mbira left hand parts. This composite bass linc is the
generative form of six-ovcr-four. The primary beats are played in the lower register of mbira 2 and the
secondary beats are played in the mid and low registers of mbira l. The secondary beats are writtcn as
quarter-notes for visual emphasis.

ex.2: 23 m 1ra
(audio c x. 1: 19) . .. ~- ~ ~ F ~ fL
1 -__.L.---~- . . -·

moira 2
.. . . •• . . . •• . .
' --'d"- ---

1
1

-t ~
1
~ fL fL -

1
1 1

. ••
1"
--· · .. L'
1
1 1
36 Chaptcr Two The Secondary Beat Cycle

,'
Mbira inside a deze (resonator gourd).

Finally, we see the composite melody created by both mbira right hand parts. Mbira 2 plays the six-beat
cycle. Mbira 1 plays a displaced six-beat cycle directly opposite mbira 2.

ex.2: 24 mbira 1
(audio ex .1: 20,
fl ,¡,¡ +1
1: 21)
..
1 :::J
u ...,¡,_ ~ ~ L J

mbira 2

1
fl ,¡,¡ +1
JI H .. .
u
V
~ ~ 1 J -

Students may not initially understand the embellishments or permutations ofthe cross-rhythm, but in time
the various patterns and pattern combinations that connote the generative structure will be perceived.
 Thc C lave Matrix 37

PRIMARY

The primary/secondary dynamic in clave music is analogous to the foregroundlbackground dynamic

found in the visual arts. The ears and eyes naturally separate sensory input into primary and secondary
categories. It's how we make order of the world. The structure of clave music is such that primary and
secondary elements can flip in one's mind like the Vase-Face Illusion shown below.25

Clave music, by its very nature, plays tricks with time and so it is not uncommon for students to be-
come confused by mistaking a secondary element for a primary one. Despite the secondary beat cycle's
auditory dominance in the music, you must feel the primary beats as the ground.
38 Chaptcr Two Thc Sccondary Bcat Cyclc

11 Tresillo

l. Triplets

Tresillo is a Spanish word meaning 'triplet' -three equal notes within the same time span normally ocu-
pied by two notes. Tresillo also has a different, but related meaning inCuban popular music. In its formal
usage, tresillo refers toa subdivision of the beat that does not normally occur within the given structure,
and therefore it is indicated by the number 3 (in brackets) as shown below.

ex. 2:25 eighth-note triplets

1!11: r r r r r r r r r r r r :11
L___3 L___3 L___3 L___3 ___ _j

The secondary beat cycle can be represented as six quarter-note triplets in 4/4.

ex. 2:26 quarter-note triplets

3 3

rm e e e e ~ -=11
2. Duple Pulse Correlative of the Secondary Beat Cycle

The triple-pulse rhythms of Sub-Saharan music are the fundamental model of clave-based music. To under-
stand duple-pulse (4/4) clave music, you must first comprehend the archetypal triple-pulse ( 12/8) structures.
Duple-pulse clave music simulates triple-pulse cross-rhythm. As will be demonstrated, every triple-pulse
pattern has a duple-pulse correlative.
The familiar pattern known as "tresillo" is the duple-pulse correlative ofthe secondary beat cycle. 26 That
pattern is what the word tresillo refers to in Cuban popular music and how the term is used in Unlocking
Clave as well.

2:27 "tresillo"
(audio ex. 1: 22)

J•
j
r :[J
 Thc C lave Matrix ltJ

. ... ·····························-···------ ··- · ··· .. .. · ······· ····· --·----

Comparing the Triple-Pulse and Duple-Pulse Cells

Tresillo is nota true heat cyc/e because its strokes are not evenly spaced. 27 Thi s fact is brought to
light in thc following geometric shapes. The points of the equilateral triangle within the six-sidcd
polygon (lcft) represent the triple- pul se cell. The duple-pulse cell is represented by the points of the
isoscclcs triangle (two sides of cquallength) within the eight-sided polygon (right).

triple-pulse ccll (3:2) duple-pulse cell (tresillo)

a e
a +

+ +

+ a
e a

2 2

(audio ex. 1: 23)

40 Chaptcr Two The Secondary Beat Cycle

Tresillo is the foundation of rnany folkloric drum rhythms and bass lines in son, sal-
sa and Latin jazz. The following tumbao (bass line) excerpt is from "Alza los pies Con-
go" (1925) by the legendary son group Septeto Habanero (formerly Sexteto Habanero). 28

ex. 2: 26 Cuban bass tumbao

(audio ex. 1: 24)

8
3. Duple Pulse Correlative of 3:2

Tresillo Combined with the Main Beats

The following example shows a Yoruba (Nigeria) iyaalu bata part for the rhythm Ogun Agere. 29

ex. 2: 27 Nigerian bata drum

~ 1ill: r: f r f :11
R = right hand
L = left hand
T = together

~~ le 1+ ~~ ~~ le ~~ la 1

Bata are double-headed drums, with one head

smaller than the other. In the transcription above,
the large drum head aju ajo plays the main beats,
while the smaller drum head sasa (triangle note-
heads) plays "tresillo." This is one of the most
common rhythmic motifs found in African music
and the music of the African Diaspora.

Bata ensemble from Oyo, Nigcria. From lcft: iyaalu, omele

abo, omele ako? 0
 The Clave Matrix 41

The compositc pattern rcsulting from joining tresillo with the main beats is sometimes referred to in
Latín music as the habanera or tango rhythm because it is the generative structure in those genrcs. 11
The habanera rhythm is the duple-pulse conelative of three-over-two (3:2) in tp and therefore, is thc
basic rhythmic ccll in dp clave music. The following comparison of the habanera rhythm with 3:2 is
shown in thc form of thrcc notes over two notes for visual clarity.* The habanera rhythm is reprcscnted
as a composite of tresillo and the main beats.

ex. 2: 28
(audio ex. 1: 25)

habanera

~111 ~'=- ~~-~· ~

1
r ======J===\@fl
~:
~~ 1 1 lx 12 1 lx 1 1
three-over-two

~-
-.-- _ J_ r·_ J - - - ;tl:l
~~ 1 lx 12 lx 1

The habanera rhythm was a common left-hand piano figure in the Cuban contradanza. In the nincteenth
century it intlucnced tango and European art music, as well as pre-jazz genres such as the cakewalk, rag-
time and early jazz itself. 32

, ' *The notation of tresillo as two dotted eüthUlS -a1

J_ diti~e rhythm. This rendering is u_.,._._. ....,,..,.
¿-) .O ··.,· '< '( ::: ·>YJi~~Pi.
'n~'v~rtwobeats in duple~pulse. 33
"1;6
42 Chapter Two Thc Sccondary Beat Cycle

From the perspective of North American music, the habanera rhythm can be conceived as tresillo com-
bined with the backbeat.

ex. 2: 29 tresillo+ backbeat =habanera

(audio ex. 1: 26)

Axatse.

The following example is of a Ghanaian axatse (gourd with beaded net) part. The upward movement strikes
the palm of the hand , while the downward movement strikes the thigh . The lower strokes are tresillo and the
upper stroke is on beat 2 (the "backbeat"). The part begins on bombo.

ex. 2: 30 axatse
(audi o cx. l : 27)

~· J.
~ r ~ r
li j IJ: j =gj

D = downward stroke U = upward stroke

-
Thc Clave Matrix 41

~---·-· sccondary-bcat cyclc in circular form tresillo in circular form

• •

1 • • • •

• •

4. Duple-Pulse Correlative of the Six-Beat Cycle

The three strokes of tresillo span two main beats. Since the primary cycle is four beats, two cclls of
tresillo span onc primary cyclc, for a total of six strokes. These six strokes are the dp correlative of thc
six-beat cycle.

ex. 2: 31 tresillo

ltll= r· 1 j r r· 1 j r =11

~~le 1+ 1: 12le ~~la ~~le 1+ 1: 14le ~~la 1

six-bcat cyclc

r wwr ~-~=-+= ~ ~ ~ ~
~ j ~ ~ j
~-~~ - . - .. - --------- - -- - -- ¡;; ¡;; ¡;; 11
1~ 1+ 1: 12 1~ l. 1~ 1+ 1: 14 1: l. 1
The two ce lis of tresillo consist of those duple pulses that are closest to the six-beat cycle in triple-pulse.
Although they are diffcrcnt subdivisions, the pulse names of the six strokes are identical in tp and dp:
1 la 2+ 3 3a 4+.

14
Congo! ese scwn -mat cross pattcrn :
44 Chaptcr Two Thc Sccondary Beat Cyclc

Two ce lis of the habanera rhythm are the dp correlative of 6:4.

ex.2: 32

habanera rhythm
J
:11

six-over-four w~ll=-{ _9 _J_~--_J_9_f_l_ 7l~_i}41

1r----R"

~~ 1 lx lz lx 1 1: 1 lx 14 lx 1 1

Likc a repeating 3:2 cell, a repeating habanera cell resolves on beats 1 and 3, whcre it coincides with
main beats.

cx.2: 33
tension initiated tension initiated
(release) 1 release
1

tresillo
main beats [Hf:~· j
~
J

6:4 cross-rhythm motif.15

-
Thc Clave Matrix 45

5. Bombo and Ponche

Bombo (B) and ponche (P) are those tresillo strokes which are offbeats. In other words, they do not co-
incide with a main bcat.

ex.2: 34
(audio ex. 1: 2X)

B p B p

J• i
r j'
J• i •
1 :tJ

Bombo is 1a and 3a. Ponche is 2+ and 4+. Combining the bombo-ponche motif with the main beats ere-
ates the habanera rhythm.

ex.2: 35

bombom~i~o~:~~ 1m;_--·==--=-_J_.-r~~J~-~-·~~_J_.-r- ::¡___]

1; 1 1 lB lzl lp 1 1; 1 1 lB 141 lp 1 1

Many folkloric drum ensembles and salsa bass lines emphasize bombo and ponche, joined as a single
motif.3 6 As shown in the following example, the typical salsa bass part (tumbao) is a bombo-ponche mo-
tif.

ex. 2: 36 bass tumbao

(audio ex . 1: 29)
46 Chaptcr Two The Secondary Bcat Cycle

Tapping your foot (slashed noteheads below) while playing the tumbao part will generatc the habanera
rhythm.

ex . 2: 37 bass tumbao

The habanera is created similarly in the tumba part for guaguancó. The left hand keeps time by playing
the main beats , while the right hand plays a melody of open tones on ponche and mutes on bombo. The
me lody created by the right hand is the bombo-ponche motif.

e x. 2: 38 guaguancó tumba
(audio ex. 1: 30)

~ti~H-
1 . ~J ~J-J~j~
_ ~J-J~-f-~
h M h o h M h o
1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

O= ope n tone
M= mute
h =hect

Besides be ing the basis of many drum melodies, tresillo is al so used as a stick pattern in some rhythms .37
Bccause tresillo is heard in folk and popular music throughout the world , it 's one of the fe w fundamental
ele ments already familiar to new students of African-based rhythm. 3 ~

!
i)::

__J
....

Thc Clave Matrix 47

Chapter Summary

l. All clave-based music is generated through cross-rhythm.

2. Three-over-two (3:2) is the most basic rhythmic cell in clave music.
3. Two ce lls of 3:2 create six-over}our (6:4). The four beats form the primary beat cycle and thc six
beats form the secondary heat cycfe .
4. The primary/secondary dynamic occurs on many different levels throughout clave-based music .
5. Bombo and ponche are two of the most important pulses in clave music; they do not coincide with a
main beat and in many rhythms bombo and ponche are joined, functioning as a single motif.
6. Very often the 6:4 cross-rhythm is expressed abstractly through displacement, by removing beats, or
by adding beats.
7. Duple-pulsc clave music simulates triple-pulse cross-rhythm: every triple-pulse pattern has a duple-
pulse correlative.
8. Tresillo is the duple-pulse correlative of the secondary beat cycle. Tresillo is not a true beat cycle
because its strokes are not evenly spaced .
9. The habanera rhythm is the duple-pulse correlative of 3:2.

Ghanaian ca.·vcd drum pattern; three-against-two motif. 39

The Clave Malrix covcr pattcrn; thrcc-against-two motif. 40

48 Chaptcr Two The Secondary Beat Cycle

Exercises for Chapter Two

Introduction

The exercises in the previous chapter presented the challenge of playing oftbeat cycles. A series of simi-
lar oftbeats with sufficient repetition, can be perceived as a displaced cycle; they are parallel to the main
beats. The most common mistake at first is to unknowingly shift the pattern so that you end up playing on
the beat. Cross-beats on the other hand, systematically contradict the main beats, by inferring a different
metric structure (e.g., 3/4) and emphasizing them may cause you to completely lose time . For that reason,
the exercises in this chapter are considerably more difficult than those in the previous chapter and require
a strong grounding of beat and pulse.

The following series of exercises generate cross-rhythm in one of two ways:

l.The hands play the pulse "grid"- you fill in the time between the beats with the smaller, regular
pulses. You maintain the subdivisions while your foot taps the main beats. Cross-beats are then ac-
cented within the "grid."
2.You play the composite pattem with both hands. You then replace your left-hand taps with foot
taps.
Both techniques are essential to master because you need to conceive and feel cross-rhythm in both
of these ways.

1 The Six-Beat Cycle

l. Generating the Six-Beat Cycle from the Triple-Pulse "Grid"

Tap the triple pulses alternating your hands right, left, right, left, etc, on a handy surface , while tapping
your foot to the main beats. Because you are tapping three pulses per beat, your hands alternate with the
main beats: R L R L.

ex. 2E: 1

>- >- >- >-

~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~. J ~ Jll
l
L
R
F 1111)_
R l r
l.
L r 1 R 1 r L r 1
hands
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
-
Thc Clave Matrix 49

Next, acccnt your right hand by tapping on a drum head, a piano or by simply tapping harder on atable-
top, your knccs or othcr handy surface. Now you are accenting the six-beat cycle.

ex. 2E: 2
~:~- :::::> :::>- :::>- :::>- :::>-

tlll } - -±~. ~ 1
~- ~ ~- ~
L
R
• 1 j j
F :11

hand R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

1 = unaccented left hand r = unaccented right hand

L = lcft hand R = right hand
F = foot T = both hands

Gradually de-emphasil'.c your left hand until you are no longer tapping with that hand and your right
hand is tapping alone. Your right hand is tapping the secondary (six) beats while your foot is tapping the
primary (four) bcats.

ex. 2E: 3

H
F
50 Chaptcr Two The Secondary Bcat Cycle

2. Generating the Six-Beat Cycle from the Composite Rhythm

You can also generate 6:4 by playing a beat cycle with each hand. In this exercise you play the composite
rhythm with both hands.

ex.2E:4

L
R 1Wll: f j
r~ t j
f j
r~ t iZJlJ

hands

The next step of development in this exercise adds your foot so that it coincides with your lcft hand.

ex. 2E: 5

L
R
F IWII} ~ ~ ¡. ~ l. ~ ~ ~ ¡. ~ ~ _ ¿g)

hands T R L R T R L R
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
-
Thc C lave Matrix 51

Finally, stop tapping: with your left hand , allowing your foot alone to mark the main beats .

ex. 2E: 6

~ lMm ( ~ J ~. J ~ ~. ~ J ~. ~ ~ =11

11
::~ ~ ~ ~
1 1+ 1 1 1: 1a 1: 1+ 1 ~ 1: 1: 1a 1

3. Bombo and Ponche

Remove your hand strokes that coincide with your foot. Now you are playing bombo and ponche with
your hand.

ex. 2E: 7

H
F ~WII= ~ ~ ;j ~ J ~ ~ ~ J ~ J ~
. . . . =11

11

; ~~ ~ ~ ~
0
1 1+ 1 1 1: 1a 1: 1+ 1 ~ ~ 1 1: 1a 1
52 Chaptcr Two Thc Sccondary Beat Cycle

11 Tresillo

J. Generating Tresillo from a Three-Pulse "Grid"

Duple-pulse clave music simulates triple-pulse cross-rhythm. The first step is to imitate the straight
triple-pulse "grid" using duple pulses. Triple-pulse structure consists of main beats along with the and
anda offbeats. Play the main beats and the and anda offbeats in duple-pulse. You are playing three ofthe
four duple pulses. In other words you are excluding the e pulses. Alternate your hands: right, left, right
left, etc. Because you are tapping three pulses per beat, your hands alternate with the main beats: R L R
L. Emphasize your hands where they coincide with your foot.

ex. 2E: 8

~ 1ill: ~ tJ ¡
hands R 1 r L r 1 R 1 r L r 1
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Next, cmphasize your right hand. Now you are accenting tresillo.

ex. 2E: 9
::>- ::>- ::>-

nJ n~
::>-

L
R
F
rmJi i i
hands R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

___..·~
 The Clave Matrix 53

Gradually de-emphasizc your left hand until you are no longer tapping with that hand and your right
hand is tapping alonc. Your right hand is tapping tresillo while your foot is tapping the primary beats.

ex. 2E: 10

1111: ~ y ~ ~ y y~ ~ y
r ~ r
H :11
F

hand R R R R R R
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

The compositc rhythm crcatcd by combining tresillo and the main beats is known in popular music as
the habanera. the duple-pulse correlative of 6:4.

2. Generating Tresillo from the Composite Rhythm

In this excrcise you play the composite rhythm (habanera) with both hands.

ex. 2E: 11

till: e: •
·F ~:
L
R
1
ti r• ;f r :11

1~ le 1~ le 1~ le 1+ 1: 1~ le
hands
1+ 1: 1: la 1: la 1
The next step of development in this exercise adds your foot so that it coincides with your left hand.

ex. 2E: 12

L
R 1md:i ~ J ~ ~: ~J ~ 1
F
i i i
hands T R L R T R L R
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
54 Chaptcr Two The Secondary Bcat Cycle

Finally, stop tapping with your left hand , allowing your foot alone to mark thc main beats.

ex. 2E: 13

H
F

hand R R R R R R
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

3. Bombo and Ponche

Remove the right hand strokes coinciding with your foot. Now you are playing bombo and ponche with
your hand.

ex. 2E: 14

H
F 1t11
1 ~r w r· ;¡r w :11

~~:; ~~ ~~ ~~le 1+ le 1: la ~~ le 1+ ~~ 1: le 1: la 1

_j
...
Thc Clave Matrix 55

Chapter Three

The Standard Bell Pattern

1
Standard pattcrn motif.

lntroduction

Key Patterns

The third fundamental element of clave music after the primary and secondary beat cycles, is the key
pattern, also known as a guide pattern.* 2 Played properly, a key pattern is always joined with the pri-
mary beat cycle, the main accent of the dancer's steps, whether or not those beats are actually sounded or
stepped. Key patterns are felt and perceived as a composite rhythm (key pattern + primary beats).'
Even when played alone, key patterns indicate not only the primary beats, but also the complete cross-
rhythm.4 Moreover, they cxpress the rhythm's organizing principie, defining rhythmic structure, as scales
or tonal modes define harmonic structure. All key patterns are interrelated and serve the same function,
which is to guidc all mcmbers of the ensemble by conveying the structural core of the rhythm in a con-
densed and concentrated form. 5 Put simply, key patterns epitomize the complete rhythmic matrix. For
the student, key patterns are the most important tool in unlocking the rhythmic code of the music. They
are the "compass" by which you set your proper bearings within the rhythmic matrix.
Key patterns are typically clapped or played on idiophones, for example a bell, a piecc of bamboo or
woodcn claves.h In sorne ensembles, such as iyesá and batá, a key pattcrn may be played on a high-pitched
drumhead. 7
The three most common key patterns used in Afro-Cuban music and African music south of the Sahara
are the standard pattern, son clave and rumba clave .8

known as phrasing referent,O( (#syif¡irJX!trical umewte.-

tnaster drummerand scholar, stat&;, ''ln
... it's justan embodiment ·
56 Chaptcr Three Thc Standard Pattern

Sub-Saharan Africa

African cross-rhythm originated with the people of the Niger-Congo linguistic group, residing south of
the Sahara Desert.'' Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which
is a complex level of African cross-rhythm.

Shaded area: Niger-Congo linguistic group.

Five principal African ethnic

groups brought to Cuba as slaves.

l. Fon (Arará)
2. Yoruba (Lucumí)
3. Ibo
4. Efik (Abakuá)
5. Bantu (Congo)
 Thc Clave Matrix 57

The numerous types or iron bells found within this vast belt exhibit an identical welding proccss in their
construction. 1! Thc samc tcchnology is also used in the making of certain bell s in Cuba. 11

Bantu iron bell. 14 Cuban iron bell _15

The Archetypal Kcy Pattern

Of all thc kcy patterns , the foremost archetype is a seven-stroke figure called the standard pattern by
ethnomusicologists, and the /2 hell or 6/8 hell by North American percussionists. 16

ex. 3: 1 standard pattcrn

r rr r r r
The standard bell pattern is found primarily within a geographic belt extending from northwest to south-
east Africa (darker shaded area on map). 17
Many of the slaves brought to the New World carne fro m that part of A frica where the standard pattern is
used . Consequently, thc standard pattern is found in those former New World colonies where African cul-
tural practices wcrc prcserved and adapted to the greatest extent: Cuba, Haití and Brazil. 1x The homelands
of five principal African ethnic groups brought to Cuba are indicated on the map.
58 Chapter Three The Standard Pattern

Ghanaian gankoqui bells.

Brazilian agogo bell.

Cuban-style cowbells.

Right: two Cuban idiophones that play key pat-

terns; the güiro (left) plays the baqueteo pattern
(an embel lishment of son clave) in the danzón
and the mid-pitched chekeré (right) plays a vari-
ant of the standard pattern in sorne arrangements
of agbe. 19
 The Clave Matrix 59

Although it's not as well known in North America, the standard pattern is also played in duple-pulse
form.

The pulses constituting the standard pattern are: 1, la, 2+, 2a, 3+, 4, 4a.

ex.3: 2 triple-pulse standard pattern

(audio ex. 1: 31)

wr r rr
1 11: j j j r j r j r :11

(audio ex. 1: 32) duple-pulse standard pattern

J
j
rr j
r J

As is typical of key pattern s, the standard pattern has a binary structure consisting of two rhythmically
opposed cells; the first, antecedent and the second, consequent.* The binary nature of the pattern is em-
phasized when represented in two measures of 6/8, as is often done in Latin jazz charts. Each cell is one
measure in length.

ex. 3: 3 two-celled structure

ffill:r j
r j
r r j
r j
r j
r
The first cell of the pattern has four strokes and two rests, while the second cell has three strokes and
three rests.

* Beeause tresillo-based bell pruts are only a single cell, Unlocking Clave does not consider them to be key patterns.
Sorne Afro-Cuban rhythms are truly a one-cell cycle, but most are two-celled. Those rhythms that use tresillo-based bell
patterns typically express the two-cell structure in the drum parts or other rhythmic elements.
60 Chaptcr Thrcc Thc Standard Pattern

As used in the context of this bell pattern, standard means basis, or model.* Givcn its prototypical
structure and its extensive use throughout Africa and the African Diaspora, the standard pattern must be
included in any survey of clave. In fact, sorne musicians call this pattern clave. 20

* For more nn f'h .. !U';¡:,

andTheory.

1 The 12/8 Standard Bell Pattern

The 12/8 standard pattern can be understood as a balanced combination of the six -bcat cycle and its
diametric opposite, the o.ffbeat-six cycle.

l. The Six-Beat (Onbeat-Six) Cycle

Let's review the six-beat cycle. When triple pul ses are grouped in pairs , a six-beat cycle is gcnerated.

cx.3:4 six-beat cycle

•
tfll:e !j_
~
!j_
e !j_
F=
!j_
~
!j_
- ~7==41

11 12 13 14 ls 16

2. The Offbeat-Six Cycle

In clave music basic patterns are expressed in their prime position and in displaced positions. The sec-
ondary beat cycle is the prime, or onbeat position of six beats. The offbeat-six cyclc is the displaced posi-
tion of the six onbeats. In other words, the offbeat-six resides in the un sounded pulses, or latent beaf.'>' of
thc six-beat cycle: 1+, 2, 2a, 3+, 4, 4a.

ex. 3: 5 offbeat -six e yele

(audio ex . 1: 33 Oftbeat-six cyclc.)

1 w 11: !j_ e 7
e 7
r 7
e 7
e 7
F2JJl
11 1: l. 1~ 1+ 1~ 13 1: l. 1: 1+ 1: 1
(audio ex . 1: 34 Offbcat-six cyclc with standard pattcrn.)
 l
Thc Clave Matrix 61

The following example shows the two diametrically opposed beat cycles. All the triple pulses are cvcn-
ly divided between thesc two beat cycles. The first space shows the six-beat cycle and the fourth (top)
space shows the offbcat six.

ex. 3: 6 onbeat-six and offbcat-six

J
oftbeat-six
six-beat ] [ r-f-Gn

The offbeat-six cycle can be thought of as a displaced six-beat cycle, beginning on main beat 2. Each
three-over-two cell is bcamed together for visual emphasis in the example below.

ex.3: 7
six-bcat cycle

J Jj J J
¡.
j j j

Eil"'¡· ~· f.
lt 12 13 14

displaced six-beat cycle

~· ~· ~J
{ j
J J j j
J j

1 .
p. 1

1 .

11 lz 13 14 11 1
The six-beat cycle coincides with main beats 1 and 3 (frontbeats), while the displaced six-beat cycle
coincides with main bcats 2 and 4 (backbeats). The six-beat cycle cycle spans the entire main cycle. The
displaced six-bcat cycle extends from beat 2 to beat 1 ofthe next main cycle. In other words, the displaced
cell beginning on beat 4 straddles two four-beat cycles.
62 Chaptcr Three Thc Standard Pattern

Mohammad Kouyatc playing a balafon, Guinea, 2004.

The following excerpt is from a piece played on a Mandinka (Guinea) marimba called bala or balafon. 21
The left hand (lower) plays the six-beat cycle while the right hand (upper) plays the offbeat-six cycle. All
triple-pulses are evenly divided between the two hands .

ex. 3: 8 balafon

~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~~
r ~r~
R 7_ 7_ 7_ 7_ 7_
L

r: i
r i
( i
r: i

This is the same kinaesthetic technique used in the kushaura mbira part shown in Chapter Two
(see: p. 34, example 2: 21 ).
 Thc Clave Matrix 63

six-beat cyclc in circular form oftbeat-six cycle in circular form

• •

• • •

• •

The technique is also used to generate the two opposing six-beat cycles on the itótele drum part for the
rhythm Chan¡¿á. ~ 2 The right hand plays the six-beat cycle on the large drumhead called enú (open tones
and mutes) and the left hand plays the offbeat-six on the small head called chachá (triangle noteheads). All
triple-pulses are evenly divided between the two hands.

ex. 3: 9 itótele batá

~ ~r +=-~- -"t----~f------- - - :-H

cha~~~ 17 1: k~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ 1: ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ 1
O= open tone
M = muted tone
64 Chapter Threc The Standard Pattcrn

- -- -- - -- - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- - -- - ---- -··--·-- - - · -
Onbeat 1Offbeat

As used in this book, onbeats and offbeats do not have a fixed place in time.* A pulse can be
an offbeat in one beat cycle and an onbeat in another. For example, the bombo pulse 1a is an
offbeat in relation to the main beat cycle, but it is an onbeat in relation to the six-beat cycle . ,...,,
ex. 3: 1O bombo as offbeat
(audio ex. 1: 35)
'

bombo as onbeat
(audio ex. 1: 36)

assumed to mean a pulse

 Thc C lave Matrix 65

3. A Balanced Combination of the Two Diametrically Opposed Six-Beat Cycles

The standard pattern can be understood as an onbeat six antecedent, followed by an offbeat six conse-
quent. This can be easily grasped if we remove one stroke from the pattem, thus simplifying it to three
onbeats answered by three offbeats. Each set of three is bracketed in the following example.

ex. 3: 11

r:Ht !~::rs r '1 'llh r '1 r '1 r1 :11

~~ 1+ 1: 12 ~~ la 13 1: la 1: 1+ 1: 1
The two rhythmically opposed cells of this generative form are emphasized when written in two mea-
sures of 6/8; each cell is one measure in length.

ex. 3: 12

1~1 1: r 7
~ 7
E 7 7
E 7
E 7 il
F :11
lx lx lx 1 1 1 lx lx lx

Balafon .23
66 Chaptcr Threc Thc Standard Pattcrn

Reflective Symmetry

When the two cells are viewed geometrically, their diametrically opposed symmetry
stantly apparent. The apexes of six-sided paragons represent the six pulses of each 6/8
The apexes of the triangles represent the pattern of beats.

1 3

a
+ a

+ a +

2 4

When viewed in a circular configuration, a refiective symmetry is revealed; the opposing cells
appear to be arranged along a mirror line, with the right side (antecedent) rctlected by the left
side (consequent).

Congolcsc trianglc cloth pattern .24

 Thc Clave Matrix 67

Asymmetric Timeline

When the standard pattcrn is reduced to its theoretic or generative form, we have two opposing cells
consisting of three bcats each, configured in a reflective symmetry. However, the actual pattern contains
an additional strokc on 2a (shown below in parenthesis).

ex. 3: 13

~'61 1: ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~
~ ~ ~
7_ 7_ 7_ 7_ 7_
:11

The strokc on 2a makcs the overall pattern of strokes asymmetrical, a typical feature of bell patterns. In
fact, asymmetric timeline is a common name used by musicologists for bell patterns.25 Most key patterns
do not have the same number of strokes in each cell. Very often a cell will have one stroke more than
its companion cell. Thc
symmetry of the two cqual
cells is contradictcd by standard pattem in circular form

the asymmetric pattern of •

the bell strokcs that spans
them.

• •

1
•
L--·--,--~~~~~~~~~iiil·· ·
The standard pattern has two sets of "double" strokes (shown below in parentheses).

ex. 3: 14

1 w< D11: r) r 7_ 7_ er r) r 7_ 7_ r 7_ r :11

EE 1~ 1+ 1~ 12 1~ 1~ 13 1~ 1. 1: 1+ 1~ 1
68 Chaptcr Thrcc Thc Standard Pattern

In the following example the standard pattern is shown as a combination of on and off six beats. The
standard pattern is represented with regular noteheads .

ex. 3: 15
on-six
off-six

1~
on-SIX

off-six

The on six-beats are in the staff abo ve the off six-beats. Notice how the flrst three strokes are part of the
six-beat (or onheat-six) cycle: 1, 1a, 2+. Then on the next pulse (2a), the pattern shifts to thc oftbeat-six
cycle. The two sets of"double" strokes enable the pattern to alternately shift from one opposing beat cycle
to the other. The first set is where the bell pattern shifts from onbeat six to offbeat-six (2+, 2a) and the
second set is where it shifts from offbeat-six, back to onbeat six (4a, 1).

4. Three-Part Rhythmic Counterpoint

Whe n the primary and secondary beats are combined with the standard pattcrn, a thrcc-part rhythmic
counterpoint is generated.

standard pattern
ex. 3: 16
(audio ex. 1: 37)
., ., e;¡· ---- -
II•J
.......
'-.: .
.X e_¡ .X .X .X
==r=_-_ j -
-- - - - --
~

six-over-four

...... .. .__
-t•>
1 e¡ 1

•
e¡
•
1
e¡
•
1
___1___-=~ j ____ J j
··--

¡·
lo..
~
••
1
••
1
•·
1
·- ..·-····

standard pattern X X X X X X X
secondary beats X X X X X X
primary beats 1 a 2 a 3 a 4 a
+ + + +

All three rhythmic elements aligo or coincide only on main beat l. The first half of the standard pattem
aligns with the secondary beat cycle. In the second half, the pattern diametrically opposes thc secondary
beats and connects with the fourth main beat.
 The Clave Matrix 69

The Essential Structure

Music governed by key patterns expresses (explicitly or implicitly), the three-part contrapuntal founda-
tion (ex. 3: 16). Moving out ofthe geographic area of Africa where key patterns are used, we flnd simpler
single-celled (3:2 or tresillo) structures and, even more rudimentary, rhythms based upon oftbeat/onbeat
motifs Y'

11 The 4/4 Standard Bell Pattern

Like its 12/H corrclative, thc pulses constituting the 4/4 standard pattern are:
l, la,2+,2a,3+,4,4a.

ex. 3: 17
(audio ex. 1: ~2)

[}]]: r· J r r r J
X

Triple-Pulse/Duplc-Pulse Correlation

The 4/4 standard pattcrn simulates the cross-rhythmic qualities ofthe pattern's 12/8 form. To understand
the correlation betwcen the 12/8 and 4/4 versions of the standard pattern, we must begin with the basic
correlation between triple and duple-pulses. Triple-pulse structure has three pulses per beat: beat anda.
The duple-pulse and anda pulses correlate with the triple-pulse and anda pulses.

ex. 3: 18

1WIJ: F ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ F ~ F ~ :JI
ilf ilf

Ir 1+ la 12 1+ la 13 1+ la 14 1+ la

r r r r r r ·;=r=··F7tl
1+ 1a 1

Every triple-pulse pattern has its duple-pulse correlative. The 4/4 standard pattern is the correlative
of the 12/8 version. Accordingly, the 4/4 version only sounds and, a pulses and beats. No e pulses are
sounded.
70 Chaptcr Thrcc Thc Standard Pattern

l. Tresillo- Prime Position

The 4/4 standard pattern can be understood as a balanced combination of tresillo anda displaced tresillo
that's diametrically opposed. Recall that tresillo is the duple-pulse correlative of the six-beat cycle: 1, 1a,
2+,3,3a,4+.

ex. 3: 19
tresillo

t r· r 7 r r· t
1 11: r ~24J j

~~ 1 1+ 1: 121 ~~la ~~ 1 1+ 1: 141 ~~la 1

six-beat cycle

1 w11: r j r j r j r j r-=~I~=q: 7=--~

1~ 1+ 1: 12 1~ l. 1~ 1+ 1: 14 1~ l. 1
2. Displaced Tresillo

The tresillo pattern is found in various displaced positions in clave music. This particular displaced
tresillo is the most significant because it is diametrically opposite of tresillo in its prime position. The dis-
placed tresillo can be thought of as tresillo beginning on main beats 2 and 4. Tresillo coincides with main
beats 1 and 3 (frontbeats), while the displaced tresillo coincides with main beats 2 and 4 (backbcats). The
displaced cell beginning on beat 4 straddles two four-beat cycles. Each tresillo cell is bcamcd together
below.
tresillo
ex.3: 20

li ~-
~ ~ ~- ~
~ ~
1

·=::::::__j
1 1 1 1

1 12 3 14

displaced tresillo

ijj_
~1
:- j-
1 1
~ ~-
1
-
1
J

11 12 13 4 lit
 Thc Clave Matrix 71

The displaced tresillo is the series of rests, or latent strokes (excluding the e pulses) within the pattern
in its prime position. Thc following example shows both diametrically opposed tresillo patterns. Al! the
beats, and anda pulses are evenly divided between these two tresillo patterns. The first spacc shows thc
prime tresillo and the fourth space shows the displaced tresillo.

ex. 3: 21 (auuio ex. 1: :\X , 1: :\l))

displaced tresillo litt:

tresillo ·· · ·

displaced tresillo
tresillo

The displaced tresillo is thc duple-pulse correlative of the offbeat-six cycle: 1+, 2, 2a, 3+, 4, 4a.

ex.3: 22

displaced tresillo

J•
j
r J
• j
r
displaced six-beat cycle

r j r j r j
r j r 1 j r j

Standard pattcrn motiL 27

72 Chaptcr Threc Thc Standard Pattern

ltótcle batá drum.

The two diametrically opposed tresillo patterns correlate to the two opposed six-beat cycles. The two
opposing tresillo patterns are evident in the following itótele drum part for the rhythm ehangó. 28 This
section occurs after the triple-pulse section shown in example 3: 9. The right hand plays tresillo on the
enú and the left hand plays displaced tresillo on the chachá (triangular noteheads). All the duple-pulses
(excl uding e) are evenly divided between the two hands .

ex. 3: 23 ehangó itótele batá

.1
__r f. J• _ . . .r
O= open enú tone o e M e o e M e o e M e
M = muted enú tone R L R L R L R L R L R L
e= chachá 1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

3. A Combination of the Diametric Tresillo Patterns

In the following example the 4/4 standard pattern is shown as a combination of the two diametrically
opposed tresillos. The standard pattern is represented by regular noteheads .

cx.3: 24 tresillo

J • ~· j 1 ~~
1ill=#· d F t· ±
ll
:11
displaced tresillo

Notice how the first three strokes ofthe standard pattern align with tresillo: 1, la, 2+. Then, the pattern
shifts on the next pulse (2a) to the displaced tresillo .
 Thc Clave Matrix 73

The 4/4 standard pattcrn has two sets of "double" strokes (shown below in parentheses).

ex.3:25

~-D- 11: r·) J

X
J
r x
d

~ 1~ 1 1+ 1: 121 1: 1~ 131 1: 1.1: 1 1+ 1~ 1

The two sets of "doublc" strokcs enable the pattern to alternately shift from one opposing tresillo to the
other. The first set is where the bell pattern shifts from prime position to displaced position (2+, 2a) and
the second set is where it shifts from displaced back to prime position (4a, 1).
4. Three-Part Rhythmic Counterpoint

When the main bcats and tresillo are combined with the 4/4 standard pattern , a three-part rhythmic-
counterpoint is generated. Tresillo functions in the role of secondary beat cycle, even though its strokes
are not actual heats (not evenly spaced).
ex . 3:26 (audio ex . 1: 40)

standard pattern .....r. . . .X

._ .X .. .X .X • .X
.
.....r.

tresillo 1 _1 ~ 1
j J• 1 1

.....r.r. . •• • • •• • ..
primary beats
.. • 1
•
1
•
1
•
1

standard pattern X X X X X X X
tresillo X X X X X X
primary beats 1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

All threc rhythmic elements align or coincide only on main beat l. The first half of the standard pattern
aligns with tresillo . In the second half, the pattem diametrically opposes tresillo and connects with thc
fourth main bcat.

The 4/4 Standard Pattern in Afro-Cuban Music

The 4/4 version of the standard pattern is notas prevalent in Afro-Cuban music as its 12/8 correlative. 2'1
However, it is also worthy of the name "standard" because its archetypal structure is the basis of the 4/4
clave patterns.*

connection between the 4/4standardpatte

. 112).
74 Chaptcr Thrcc Thc Standard Pattcm

Chapter Summary

l. Key patterns serve as the rhythmic guide, establishing the primary cycle. Key patterns express the
rhythm's organizing principie and epitomize the complete rhythmic matrix.
2. The standard pattern is a seven-stroke key pattern that can be played in either a triple or duple-pulse
structure.
3. Ojjbeats are pulses which do not coincide with a beat cycle. Every beat cyclc has a sct of offbeats. A
given pulse can be a beat in one cycle and an offbeat in another cycle .
4. The (~ffbeat-six cycle is a displaced six-beat cycle. It consists of the series of offbeats or latent beats
that lie within the onbeat-six cycle. The twelve pulses of 12/8 are evenly divided betwecn these two dia-
metrically opposed beat cycles: the onbeat-six and the offbeat-six.
5. The 12/8 standard pattern is a combination of the onbeat and offbeat-six cycles . The simplified or
generaive form of this pattern consists of three onbeats answered by three offbeats, cont1gured in a refiec-
tive symmetry.
6. The primary and secondary beats combined with the 12/8 standard pattern gcnerate a three-part rhyth-
mic counterpoint. All three elements coincide on beat 1 only. The first half aligns with the secondary beat
cyclc. In the second half, the pattern diametrically opposes the secondary beats and connects with the
fourth main beat.
7. The displaced tresillo occupies the empty rests, or latent strokes within tresillo (excluding the e puls-
es). The displaced tresillo is the 4/4 correlative ofthe offbeat-six cycle . The two diametric tresillo patterns
correlate with the two diametric six-beat cycles.
8. The 4/4 standard pattern is a combination of the two diametric tresillo patterns. The 4/4 standard pat-
tern first states tresillo in its prime position and then in a displaced position.
9. The primary beats and tresillo combined with the 4/4 standard pattern generate a three-part rhythmic
counterpoint. All three elements coincide on beat 1 only. The first half aligns with tresillo. In the second
half, the pattern diametrically opposes tresillo and connects with the fourth main beat.
 Thc Cl<~ vc Matrix 75

Exercises for Chapter Three

1 12/8 Standard Pattern

l. Generating thc 12/8 Standard Pattern from the Triple-Pulse "Grid"

Diametrically Opposed Six-Beat Cycles

Tap the triple pulses altcrnating your hands right, left , right, left, etc., on a handy surface, while tappin g
your foot to the main bcats. Becausc you are tapping three pulses per beat, yo ur hands altern ate with the
main beats: R , L, R , L.

ex. 3E: 1

L
R
F
twll= l. ~ ¡. ~ ¡. ~ ¡. ~
j j j j
:11

hands R L R L R L R L R L R L
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Your right is pl aying thc s ix-beat cycle and your left hand is playing the offbeat-six cycle.

Six-Beat Cycle

Emphasize your right hand . Now you are accenting the six-beat cycle .

ex. 3E: 2

"-> ::>- ::>- ::>- ::>- ::>-

L
I -R:~r· -J ~ ] J ~ j
~ ll
1

~ J~
1

R
F
r· r· r· "ª'
hands R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
76 Chaptcr Three The Standard Pattem

Off-Beat Six Cycle

Next, emphasize your left hand. Now you are accenting the off-beat six cycle.

ex. 3E: 3

>- >- >- >- >- >-

L
R ~11= l.
j
~ ;. ~ j
l.
j
~ J ~~l='Ol-- ~
¡·
1 ·-·--· - · ······ -

hands r L r L r L r L r L r L
foot F F F F
l + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

12/8 Standard Pattern

Continue to tap the triple pulses altemating your hands. Accent the appropriatc pulses shown below so
that you emphasize the 12/8 standard pattern.

ex. 3E: 4

>- >- >- >- >- >- --

j ~ ~
L
R
F
1Wll= 1. • ¡. ~ l. j
~ ¡. ~- ~
hands R 1 R l R L r L r L r L
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 77

2. Generating the 12/8 Standard Pattern from the Composite Rhythm

You can also play the standard pattern with the main beats as a composite rhythm using both hands.

ex. 3E: 5

lill: r ~ frr fr f~jr

L
R '1 '1

The next step of devclopment in this exercise adds your foot so that it coincides with your left hand.

ex. 3E: 6

hands T R L R R L R T R
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Finally, stop tapping with your left hand, allowing your foot alone to mark the main beats.

ex . 3E: 7

HF 1Wll} '1 J JJ 1 '1 ~ '1 J

r- r- · =-

R = right hand L = left hand

F = foot T = boths hands together
78 Chaptcr Thrcc The Standard Pattern

3. The Primary Tension-Release Dynamic

Tap the standard pattem with your right hand while tapping your foot.

ex. 3E: 8

hand
foot . . . r·

Now tap main beats 4 and 1 with your left hand.

~ ¡. JEJ
j_ j_
~ ~ ~
ex. 3E: 9

IWII: 1. r- r-
7
L
R
F hands T R R R R T R
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Tension is initiated on the second stroke of the bell (bombo) and is resolved on beat 4. The bell and
main beats coincide on main beats 4 and 1, generating a circular effect as the composite pattern continu-
ally repeats.

4. 12/8 Standard Pattern within the Three-Part Rhythmic-Counterpoint

Tap thc 12/8 standard pattem with your right hand and the six-beat (secondary) cycle with your left
hand.

ex. 3E: 10

L
R IWII:C
-- F
7 e
...._ _.F
7 e
F r
r- e~ ~ t~· :il.
E=t-3~ L.L...f +1
 Thc C lave Matrix 79

Now add your foot

ex . 3E: 11

~ ~ ~ ~ j
¡. j
~
~- ~-
j_

Lill= 1.
L
R :11
F

hand s T T T R L R L R L R
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

5. 12/8 Standard Pattern with Bombo and Ponche

Tap 12/8 standard pattcrn with your ri g ht hand and bo mbo and ponche with yo ur left hand

ex . 3E: 12

L
R 1ill=r 'r fr j j rfrfr
hands

Now add your foot.

ex. 3E: 13
L
R
F

hands R T T R R L R L R
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
80 Chaptcr Three Thc Standard Pattcrn

11 4/4 Standard Pattern

l. Generating the 4/4 Standard Pattern from a Three-Pulse "Grid"

Diametrically Opposed Tresillo Patterns

Tap the duple pulses: beat - and - a, altemating your hands, while tapping your foot to the main beats.
Bccause you are tapping three pulses per beat, your hands alternate with the main beats: R, L, R, L.

ex. 3E: 14

L
R
F
1111= ¡~r f ~ ~ p r :!1
hands r l r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Your right is playing tresillo and your left hand is playing the displaced tresillo .

Tresillo

Emphasize your right hand. Now you are accenting tresillo.

ex . 3E: 15

L
R
~
F
--H

hands R 1 R l R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1
foot F F F F
l e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix H1

Displaced Tresillo

Emphasize your left hand. Now you are accenting the displaced tresillo.

ex. 3E: 16

L
R
F

hands r L r L r L r L r L r L
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

4/4 Standard Pattcrn

Continue tapping the duplc pulses with alternate hands. Accent the appropriate pulses shown below so
that you emphasize the 4/4 standard pattern.

ex. 3E: 17

L
R
F

hands R 1 R 1 R L r L r L r L
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
82 Chaptcr Thrce Thc Standard Pattern

2. Generating the 4/4 Standard Pattern from the Composite Rhythm

You can also play the 4/4 standard pattern with the main beats as a composite rhythm using both hands.

ex. 3E: 18

L
R

hands

The ncxt step of development in this exercise adds your foot so that it coincides with your left hand.

ex. 3E: 19

1íll:~:
L
R
F

hands T R L R R L R T R
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Finally, stop tapping with your left hand, allowing your foot alone to mark thc main beats.

cx.3E:20

1111: ~- ~ ~ ~ ~ :ji
t
--j
R ~
F

hand R R
r R R
r R R R
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix X3

3. The Primary Tension-Release Dynamic

Tap thc 4/4 standard pattcrn with your right hand while tapping your foot.

ex.3E: 21

H
[íll= ~. ~ ~ ~ ~
~- ~ :!1
F
r r
hand R R R R R R R
foot
F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Now tap main bcats 4 and 1 with your left hand.

ex. 3E: 22

L
R
F
1íll= ¡: ~
r
~ ~
r
~ ¡: ~ :11

hands T R R R R T R
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Tension is initiated on thc sccond stroke of the bell (bombo) and is resolved on beat 4. The bell and main
beats coincide on main beats 4 and 1, generating a circular effect as the composite pattern continucs to
cycle.

4. 4/4 Standard Pattern within the Three-Part Rhythmic Counterpoint

Tap the 4/4 standard pattcrn with your right hand and tresillo wíth your left hand .

ex. 3E: 23

L
R
1 í llf f i D . . _.[ llliiiiiiiiiiiid E o
84 Chaptcr Thrcc The Standard Pattem

Now add your foot on the main beats.

ex. 3E: 24

L
R
F

hands T T T R L R L R L R
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

S. 4/4 Standard Pattern with Bombo and Ponche

Tap the 4/4 standard pattem with your right hand and bombo and ponche with your left hand .

ex. 3E: 25

L
R 1 íll: t' f 7_
~
7_
~ t ~~
hands

Now add your foot.

ex. 3E: 26

L
R
F T- ·-----
hands R T T R R L R L R
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix X5

Chapter Four

Clave Patterns

Keystone (centcr) locking the arch .

Introduction

Clave is a Spanish word meaning 'code ,' or 'key' - as in the key toa mystery or puzzle , or ' keystonc,'
the wedge-shapcd stone in the center of an arch that ties the other stones together. 1 Clave is also the namc
of the pattcrns played on claves, two hardwood sticks used inCuban music ? The two main clave pat-
terns are son clave and rumba clave? Both clave patterns can be played in either a triple or duple-pulse
structure.

ex. 4: 1
(audio ex. 1: 41 . 42)
son clave
X
J i 1
i
1
r
1WIJ: r i r i
r i i r i

(audio ex. l. 4l. 44)

rumba clave

d
X j•
r r :J I

i i
r i
r i
86 Chapter Four Clave Patterns

Pair of claves.

These are also common African bell parts, found within roughly the same geographic area as the stan-
dard pattern (see map on p. 56).4 Structurally, the only difference between son and rumba clave is in the
placement of the third stroke, which occurs one pulse later in rumba clave (2a) than it does in son clave
(2+).
Sorne music genres use a composite of the two clave pattems, sounding both 2+ and 2a. 5

ex. 4:2 composite pattem in duple and triple-pulse forms

(audio ex. 1: 45)

i r·
1 11: 1 r r j r r j :11

~~le 1+ 1: 12 le 1: ~~ 13le ~~la 1: le 1+ la 1

(audio ex. 1: 46)

w11: r
1 j r j r r j r j r· :11
 Thc Clave Matrix 87

1 Son Clave

Son clave is the quintessential clave pattern and one of the clearest models representing the rhythmic
matrix .6

ex. 4: 3 son clave

d
X
7
r 7
r r JI

Because of its use in popular Latin dance music, this iconic African bell pattern is known worldwide. 7
Son clave takes its name from the Cuban son groups that use this pattern. 8 Born in Cuba's eastern provine-
es in cities su eh as Santiago and Guantánamo during the 19th Century, the son e vol ved from the marriage
of the African drum brought by the si aves and the Spanish guitar brought by the colonists. Son in turn has
given birth to the various popular music genres collectively known today as salsa.

Matanzas
Ha vana

Santiago de Cuba Guantánamo

The son probably acquired this clave pattern from the folkloric rumba when the son migrated west
to Havana in the early twentieth century. In a historical sense then, both clave patterns could be
considered a rumba claveY However, this key pattern is rarely used in contemporary rumba and is
now almost exclusively associated with son-based music.
88 Chaptcr Four Clave Patterns

The names of the pulses constituting son clave are: J, 1a, 2+, 3+, 4.

ex. 4: 4 son clave in duple and triple-pulse forms

J
.X
j
r j
r r

1Wli:r j r j
r j j
r

The Cuban Contribution

The five-stroke clave pattem is the heart of Afro-Cuban music. Just as a keystone holds an arch
in place, the clave pattem holds the rhythm together in Afro-Cuban music. 10 During the nineteenth
century, African and European music sensibilities blended, creating original Cuban hybrids. Cuban
popular music became the conduit through which sub-Saharan rhythmic elements were first codified
within the context of European (Westem) music theory. 11 The first written music rhythmically based
on clave was the Cuban danz6n, which appeared in 1879. 12 The contemporary concept of clave with
its accompanying terminology reached its full development in Cuban popular music during the 1940s.
Its application has since spread to folkloric music as well.
In a sense, the Cubans standardized their myriad rhythms, both folkloric and popular, by relating
nearly all of them to the clave pattem. The veiled code of African rhythm was brought to light due to
clave's omnipresence. Consequently, the term clave has cometo mean both the five-stroke pattem and
the total matrix it exemplifies. In other words, the rhythmic matrix is the clave matrix.U
Clave is the key that unlocks the enigma; it decodes the rhythmic puzzle. It's understood that the
actual clave pattem does not need to be played in order for the music to be 'in clave.' 14
 Thc Clave Matrix X9

When viewed geometrically, son clave's asymmetrieal configuration is obvious. The apexes of the
five-sided polygons represent the five strokes of clave. 15

triple-pulse son clave duple-pulse son clave

4 2 4 2

3 3

The shapes of son clave in thc twelve-sided polygon (12/8) and the sixteen-sided polygon (4/4) are
very similar.

Herc are thc triple-pulse and duple-pulse versions in circular form.

triple-pulse son clave duple-pulse son clave

• •

• • •

• •
that the second and third strokes ofthe 12/8 version (left) are symmetrical with the fourth and
. In Cuban music the 12/8 son clave pattern fs less common than its 4/4 counterpart, but
structure makes ita vital too! for deciphering the rhythmic matrix .16
90 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattcms

l. A Binary Structure-The Two Opposing Halves of Clave

The Three-Side and the Two-Side

Clave patterns have two opposing cells, or halves: the first cell consists ofthree strokcs and is called the
three-side, the second cell has two strokes and is called the two-side.

cx.4: S

Wt r· J
.X
j
r
lx 1 lx 1 lx 1 lx 1 lx 1
three-side two-side

tii E j
~
j
~
j j
~ ~-r ~- -¡j.
lx lx lx lx 1
X

When written in 2/4 or 6/8, each cell is one measure in length and clave becomcs a two-mcasure pattern.
The tlrst measure is the three-side and the second measure is the two-side.

cx.4: 6
three-side two-side

- .. -t.-.
~u

m: ~ j
~
j
~
j j :+-- ~=t r: _=:- ~~
 The C lave Matrix 91

Salsa and Latín jazz charts typically write clave in two measures of cut-time (2/2), making whole-notes
the beats and eighth-notes the pulses.*

ex. 4: 7

three-side two-side

* Sometimes the cut-time (a "C" with a slash through it) time signature is used. Most often though, the 4/4 (comlnon
time) time signature is used. This is confusing because the choice of note values (half-notes =main beats) conveys 2/2
(cut-time). See pp. 218-219 of Chapter Seven, lssues of Notation, Terminology and Theory.

The two sides of clave oppose each other, in that the strokes of the three-side occur on empty pulses
of the two side and the strokes of the two-side occur on empty pulses of the three-side . The two sides
complement each other by fitting into latent pulses.

ex .4: 8
(audio ex. 1: 47)
three-side two-side

two-side three-side

three-side two-side

two-side three-side

A central tenet of the clave concept is its binary structure of two opposing cells. This is one of the great
Cuban contributions to music theory-a concept that transcends Cuban music and offers a superb model
with which we can understand African cross-rhythm in general.*

* See also p. 88 and p. 213.

92 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattcrns

With-Ciave and Counter-Ciave (contraclave)

The strokes of a pattem which align (coincide) with strokes of clave are said to be with-clave. Those
strokes not aligned with clave are said to be counter-clave (contraclave). To better understand the funda-
mental parts of an ensemble, it's helpful to considera pattern's strokes from the perspective of its align-
ment with clave.
In the following example, clave and the secondary beat cycle are played together. Notice that the three-
side of clave aligns with the first half of the secondary cycle. Conversely, the secondary cycle is counter-
clave on the two-side.

ex.4:9

son clave
j
secondary beats

son clave
secondary beats

Next we see the same two parts in duple-pulse. Clave and tresillo are played together. Notice that the
three-side of clave aligns with tresillo. Conversely, tresillo is counter-clave on the two-side .

ex. 4: 10

son clave X X X X X
tresillo
X X X X X X
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 93

2. Primary Bombo and Ponche and Secondary Bombo and Ponche

Bombo

Bombo is thc sccond cross-beat of 3:2 and the second stroke of tresillo. Bombo is indicated in thc fol-
lowing examplc by an astcrisk.
*
ex. 4: JI

1ill= ~-
j J
tresillo over main beats

*
~
OOF~. ~-
J J
j
thrcc-ovcr-two
~-----. -.~~AJ
Primary and Secondary Bombo

Within each cycle of clave there are two bombos (regular noteheads below): a primary bombo and
a secondary bombo.

ex.4: )2 (audiocx.I:4X.49)

clave
bombo

b~~·:: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r ~
1, 11 = : F ~ . 1,
¡; 1+ 1: 12 1: la ¡; 1+ 1: 14 1: la 1
The bombo aligning with the three-side of clave is the primary bombo (B), the pulse musicians refer to
when they speak of 'the bombo.' The secondary bombo (b) is counter-clave, occurring midway bctwcen
the last two strokes of the clave pattern.
94 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattcms

Primary bombo is the more important of the two bombos within a cycle of clave. This is shown in the
following examples of the iyá batá part for Oggué and the bombo (marching bass) drum part for the Car-
naval rhythm conga de comparsa. Primary bombo is marked with an asterisk above each clave.

ex. 4: 13 (audio ex. 1: 50)

conga de comparsa bombo drum

clave *

bombo drum

r r ¡:: J ~J * j
" ( :11

(audio ex. 1: 51)

Oggué iyá batá

clave *

itótele drum

r· r· II:J' O ::>-
*" r· r :11

The enú of the batá and the open tone of the bass drum (regular notehcads) play primary bombo. Both
parts begin on the two-side of clave.
 Thc Clave Matrix 95

Primary and Secondary Ponche

Ponche

Ponche is thc third cross-bcat of 3:2 and the third stroke of tresillo. Ponche is indicated by the "plus"
symbol (+).

ex. 4: 14 +

tresillo over main beats

~~=P==~j=--=-
-~~-·:=L
_- .·-··-- ~ .~
+

three-over-two ~1gl+-:--1:f-. _-¡_J_ f-._J_j---o-H:!I

There are two ponches per clave (regular noteheads below). The ponche aligning with the three-side of
son clave is thc primary ponche (P). The secondary ponche (p), is counter-clave; occurring between the
last stroke of clave (bcat 4) and the first stroke of the next clave pattern (beat 1).

ex. 4: 15 (audio ex. 1: 52. 5:1)

~d
j j J
1 ~-
clave

1!111 :11
ponche
i
?>
d i r
1~ le 1+ 1: 121 e 1: 1a 1; le 1+ 1: 14 le 1: la 1

~11:~r ~ ~
clave
j j j j J.
1
ponche
i i i f F r
i i i
:11

1~ 1+ 1: 12 1: 1a 1; 1+ 1: 14 1: la 1
The primary ponche is sometimes emphasized in vocal and instrumental melodies. In popular genres
such as salsa, primary ponche is " punched" in unison breaks that transition between sections of the song.
96 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattems

3. Single Ponche

The most basic supportive drum part in many ensembles emphasizes both ponches within a cycle of
clave. The following four examples show four ponche-based parts from the Congo, Ghana and Cuba. All
play open tones on ponche.
The palo cachimbo drum plays slaps (triangle noteheads) on the main beats and opcn tones on ponche.

ex.4: 16 palocachimbo (audioex.I : 54)

S S o S S o
L L o L L o
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

O= open tone =
B bass tone
S= slap h = muted heel

The ngoma is a typical Congolese conical hand drum andan ancestor of the Cuban conga drum (tumba-
This basic supportive part plays basses on the main beats and open tones on ponche.
dora).17

ex. 4: 17 Congolese ngoma

~ j ~
1 111:
r T

r r
l :11
h h o h h o
L L R L L R
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Kpatsa is a social dance and rhythm of the Ga-Adangme people (Ghana). This is thc tumba part.

ex. 4: 18 Ga kpatsa tumba

·~
lí r _,.¡r
¡· ... J ~ r ····-
··--
i - ···
• if1
B B o B B o
L L R L L R
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 97

The abakuá obi-opá plays the triple-pulse and offbeats, a1ternating between mutes (slashed noteheads)
and open tones . The obi-apá is played with one hand. The open tones occur on ponche.

ex. 4: 19 abakuá obi-apá (audio ex. 1: 55)

1: 55 r Wll= i ~ i i ..~ i i
~ i i ..~ i =11

11 1~ l. 12 1~ l. 13 1~ 1a 14 1~ 1a 1

Thc guaguancó tumba part plays bombo and ponche with the right hand and the main bcats on the left
hand. The open tones sound ponche.

ex.4: 20 guaguancó tumba (audio e x . 1: 56)

~ ~.
J j ~ ~ J
1 1

-j. -j
r r r
1111= , T

h B h o h M h o
1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

4. Doubled Ponche

The following ponche parts "double" ponche; that is, the very next subdivision is also sounded (2+ 2a
and 4+ 4a).

ex. 4: 21 bembé mula (audio ex. 1: 57)

i r i

h t S h o o h t S h o o
1 1 R 1 R R 1 1 R 1 R R
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
98 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattcms

ex . 4: 22 basic supportive djembe part

m
S S o o S S o o
L R L R L R L R L
a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Thc salidor part for conga de comparsa can be played in either triple or duple-pulse.

ex.4: 23
conga salidor in triple-pulse structure

11: i ee i JJ

m
S S o o S S o o
L R L R L R L R L
a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

conga salidor in duple-pulse structure

m
S S o o S S o o
L R L R L R L R L
' 1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 99

Marímbula. 1R

The Cuban marímhula is a large lamellaphone of Bantu (Congolese) origin that's sat upon while played.
The marímbula played the bass lines in changüí and son groups before the string bass assumed that role.
In this marímbul a part the right hand plucks the metal keys, while the left hand slaps ("x" noteheads) the
wooden resonator box on 1+ and 3+ . 19

Ex. 4: 24 marímbula

~ ~
j_ j_
1?= í 61 11: 7_
C!
7_
r F :11
~ ~
j_ j_
1?= 11:
7_
C! 7_
~ r :1 1
100 Chapter Four Clave Pattcrns

5. Single and Doubled Combination

Sorne ponche parts are a combination of a single

ponche and a doubled ponche. In Afro-Cuban mu-
sic primary ponche is the single stroke and the pair
of strokes are the two offbeats immediately preced-
ing beat l . The following fo ur ponche parts exhibit
this relation to clave.
The conga drum tumbao is the basic part used in
son montuno and its descendants such as salsa. No-
tice how the conga tumbao is based on the previous
marímbula part.

Tumbadora (conga drum) .

ex. 4: 25 conga tumbao (audio ex. 1: 58)

clave

1111: r· r r
X X.
J
j j
j il
conga drum tumbao

h t S t h t o t h t S t h t o o
1 1 R 1 1 l R 1 1 1 R 1 1 1 R R
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 The Clave Matrix 1O1

The iyesá mula drum is played with one hand. 20

ex. 4: 26 (audio ex. 1: 59)

clave
z
Fm~· ~ ~ ~ ~
7_ 7_

==
iyesá mula

7_ JJ

lyesá drummer, Matanzas, Cuba, 2005.

102 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattcrns

Sct of Cuban batá drums , from lcft: itótelc, okónkolo , iyá .

 Thc Clave Matrix 103

Toque arará is thc batá rhythm used to accompany songs and dances from the Arará system. 2 1

ex. 4: 27 (audio ex . 1: 60)

clave

RW 11: r i r i r i i r i r· :!1

itótele batá toque arará

11: f j j [ r j f j j J JJ :11

~ ~~ 1+ la ~~ ~~ ~~ la 1+ la ~~ ~~ ~~ 1

ex. 4: 2R (audio ex. 1: 61)

clave

okónkolo batá Obaloki variation

11: f rfr j j e j j J JJ :11

~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~
1+ la 1+ la ~~ ~~ ~~ 1
104 Chapter Four Clave Pattems

6. Three-Part Rhythmic Counterpoint

When the primary and secondary beats (or tresillo) are combined with son clave, a three-part rhythmic
counterpoint is generated.

cx.4:29
clave
(audio ex. 1: 62)
...... ..
~~~~ ,2<,. tí ,!<_ W-4 ,!<_ W-4 _W-4 ,!<_ W-4 X • ..
.,
lo.

six-over-four

i i i i i i
.,.., .. •
116~
1
•
1
•
1
•
1
•
1
•
1
..
"., •· •• •· •·
1 1 1 1

clave
secondary beats
primary beats

(audio ex. 1: 63)

clave

'"' .
""t
.1<- • ,!<_ .. ,!<_ W-4 .X
..
""
~

"" .. •·
~
1
,
tresillo over main beats

•
i
•
1
•·
1
,
•
i _.__1
-
..
""
""t
• • • • ··-

1 1 1 1

clave
tresillo
pri mary beats

All three rhythmic elements align , or coincide, only on main beat l. The first half of son clave aligns
with the secondary beat cycle in triple-pulse and tresillo in duple-pulse . The sccondary bcats or tresillo are
counter-clave on the two-side.
Rhythmic tension is generated in the first half of clave and resolved in the second half. Tcnsion is initi-
ated on primary bombo and resolves on beat 4 where the main beats and clave coincide. The two cells
of clave cycle in a call-and-response or antecedent-and-consequent sequence. Thc threc-sidc of clave is
commonly referred to as 'strong.' ('fuerte'), 'positive ,' and 'round', whilc the two-side is called 'weak'
('débil'), 'negative' and 'square .'
 The Clave Matrix 105

The Esscntial Structure

Musics governed by clave express either explicitly or implicitly, the three-part contrapunta! foundation
(shown on previous page). This essential structure is what Unlocking Clave calls clave music. To truly be
clave-based, the music 's supportive structure has to be an expression of the three-part counterpoint.

II Rumba Clave

Rumba, an Afro-Cuban hybrid of song, dance and percussion, was born in the western provinces of
Haana and Matanzas . There are three main types of rumba: columbia, yambú and guaguancó and their
key pattern is called rumba clave .22

ex.4: 30
(audio ex. 1: 64)

rumba clave in triple-pulse form

1 wr
IJ: j r j j r j r j r· :J I

The pulses constituting the rumba clave pattern are: 1, la, 2a, 3+, 4.

The pattern 's use in Cuba m ay ha ve begun with the music of the Abakuá, a secret society formen, found
principally in Ha vana and Matanzas. 23 The Abakuá are descended from the Efik Ekpe and Ejagham Ngbe
fraternal organizations located in the Cross River region (Old Calabar) of present-day southern Nigeria
and northern Cameroon (see no. 4 on map, p. 56).24 In the abakuá rhythm, an iron bell called ekón plays
the triple-pulse rumba clave pattern. 25
Columbia, a solo dance performed mostly by men, has strong musical and cultural ties to abakuá and
also uses triple-pulse rumba clave.26

Ekón bell. 27
106 Chapter Four Clave Pattems

Mcmbers of AfroCuba de Matanzas dancing guaguancó in Matanzas, Cuba, 2009 .

Yambú and guaguancó are male-female couple dances that combine influences from Spanish Ramenco
(upper body) and Congolese fertility rites (lower body). Yambú and guaguancó use duple-pulse rumba
clave, although sometimes the pattern is played with a combination of triple and duple-pulse strokes, or
with slightly displaced strokes.*

ex. 4: 31 (audio cxample 1: 65)

rumba clave in duple-pulse form

ltll: r· 1 ,. t ' r r -~

~~le 1+ 1: 12le 1+ 1: 13 le 1: 1. 1: le 1+ la 1
The popular music of post-Revolutionary Cuba, beginning with the mozambique and on through songo
and timba, often uses dp rumba clave. Rumba clave is gradually replacing son clave as the iconic 'Cuban
clave' (clave cubana) .Z8

*
For more on the different interpretations of rumba clave, see pp. 226-229, Chapter Seven, lssues of Notation, Terminol-
ogy and Theory.
 Thc Clave Matrix 107

Rumba without drums: spoons on a board, cajón (wooden box) and an upsidc down
buckct, Matanzas, Cuba, 2007.

Rumba uses claves, guagua (hollow piece of bamboo), a shaker and three congas. Sometimes rumbas
start spontaneously and household items like spoons, tabletops, boxes, walls, ora bucket are substituted
for these instruments.

1 . Shifting from Onbeat Six to Offbeat Six or Tresillo to Displaced Tresillo

In rumba clave the shift from prime position to displaced position occurs on the third stroke, (2a in bold
below) rather than the fourth stroke as in son clave.

ex.4: 32
rumba clave
1 Wli:r i
r i i
r i
r i

six-beat cycle
offbeat-six cycle

six-beat cycle
offbeat-six cycle
108 Chaptcr Four Clave Patterns

ex.4: 33

rumba clave
d
;x
j
r r
tresillo
displaced tresillo

tresillo X X • • • •
displaced tresillo • • X X X •
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

The shift occurs in the first cell, making ita more irregular pattem than son clave.

····--·------------------ ..·-----...- ....· - - - · - - - -- -- -......... , _ _________________ __ __ _

..,

One Pattern in Two Different Positions

lt's interesting to note that triple-pulse rumba clave can be considered a displaced tp son clave
pattern, or vice versa. Both patterns share the same sequence of strokes, but ha ve a ditferent re-
lationship to the main beats. Triple-pulse son clave begins with the three-stroke group (marked
below with an asterisk), whereas tp rumba clave begins with the two strokes groupcd togcther.
You can see this clearly when the two pattems are represented in a circle . By rotating thc circle
clockwise (below) you can go from one clave to the other. (audio ex. 1: 66)

tp son clave tp rumba clave

Without a reference to the main beats or other percussion parts, it's impossible to be know
which clave pattern is being played.
 The Clave Matrix 109

2. Three-Part Rhythmic Counterpoint

The relationship of rumba clave with the secondary beat-cycle is different than that of son clave, because
the third stroke of rumba clave is on 2a instead of with ponche.*

ex. 4: 34 (audio ex. 1: 67)

rumba clave

w~t:-==~ -+-r_j...l....._____/j---+-r_____J__j---+r._..._.........j
2f . ------- -
six-over-four

j
Jj J j
d::::-:
j
-----------------··-

--r. r· r· r·
tp rumba clave
secondary beats
primary beats

(audio ex. 1: 6X)

rumba clave

.... . ._ .
..
.X• ~

..."'

.......
'~
.. ••
1

•
,
tresillo over main beats
--¡
•
1

••
1
,
•
j
•
1

.
•
1
•
1
•
1
•
1

dp rumba clave
tresillo
pri mary beats

Ofthe two clave pattems, son clave

align with the secondary
11 O Chaptcr Four Clave Patterns

Ill The Eight-Beat and Offbeat-Eight Cycles

Thc eight-beat cycle consists of all the main beats and the and oftbeats in 4/4.

ex.4: 35 eight-beat cycle

1111: r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3tJ
1: le 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~
la le la le 1: la 1: le 1~ la 1

The (~ffbeat-eight cycle is a displaced position of eight beats beginning on the e pulse. lt is the series of
offbeats (unsounded pulses or latent beats) within the eight-beat cycle, consisting of all thc e and a off-
beats.

cx.4: 36 offbeat-eight cycle

The eight-beat (or onbeat-eight) cycle and the offbeat-eight cycle are diametrically opposed: each beat
corrcsponds to an empty pulse (latent beat) in the other cycle.

ex.4: 37 offbeat-eight cycle

eight-beat cycle

offbcat-eight cycle X X X X X X X X
cight-beat cycle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 g
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 The C lave Matri x 111

In 4/4 music, thc thrcc-side is re lated to the offbeat-eight and the two-side is related to the onbeat-ci ght.

ex. 4: 38 (audio t:x. 1: 69)

rumba clave
.X
J J
j
r r

o ftbeat-e ight • X • X • • • •
onbeat -e ight X • • • • X X •
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

(audio ex. 1: 70)

son clave

11: r· z
J
j
r j
r r :11

-j ~ -j - ~J - ~J d
oftbeat -eight
onbeat -eight 11: r (5

1
E
d
r r r
d
~ r
:11

ortbeat-eight • X • • • • • •
onbeat-e ight X • • X • X X •
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Primary bombo and the third stroke of rumba clave (2a) align with the offbeat e ight cycle . The two-side
ali gns with the onbeat e ight.
112 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattcrns

IV Clave and the Standard Pattem

Wc cnd this chapter by comparing the standard pattem, son clave and rumba clave in both their triple
and duple pulse forms. As the following example shows, the standard pattern contains both clave pat-
terns.10

ex.4: 39 (audiocx.l:71,72)

standard pattern IIQ

........
L.
~
.. .X ~ .X ~ .X .X ~ X
i j r
1

rumba clave II•J X'

1 i 1 i i X'
1 i X'
1
j__
1"'- .
".,
-------

son clave .X

1
i 1
i 1
i i ¡----·r
standard pattern X X X X X X X
rumba clave X X X X X
son clave X X X X X
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

(audiocx.J:n.74)

.. -----f-·
.X• .X ~ ~
standard pattem
...
~
IL -:r-·

rumba clave ..."" .. X •

1
,
X'
i :JI i 1

------
__X_
1

,x
son clave
E..J
.X •

1
~ .X

1 J i 1

X X X X X X X
standard pattern
rumba clave X X X X X
son clave X X X X X
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 113

Chapter Summary

l. There are two main clave patterns used in Cuba: son clave and rumba clave. Thc only differencc bc-
twecn the two patterns lies in their third stroke, which occurs one pulse later in rumba clave (2a), than in
son clave (2+).
2. A central tcnet of the clave concept is its binary structure of two opposing cells; the first has three
strokes and the second has two strokes. The two cells, or halves, are commonly known as the three-side
and the two-side.
3. Pulses that align with clave strokes are said to be with-clave. Pulses that do not align are counte-clave
(contraclave)
4. The bombo and ponche that are with-clave are called primary bombo and primary ponche. The bombo
and ponche that are counter-clave are called secondary bombo and secondary ponche. Primary bombo and
ponche are on the three-side and secondary bombo and ponche are on the two-side.
5. Combining the primary beats and secondary beats (or tresillo) with clave generates a three-part rhyth-
mic counterpoint. The rhythmic counterpoint generales a cycle of tension-and-release.
6. The main attributes associated with the two sides of clave originate in its tension-release dynamic. The
three-side of clave is commonly referred to as 'strong' ('fuerte'), 'positive,' and 'round,' while the two-
side is called 'weak' ('débil'), 'negative' and 'square.'
7. Thc (?tfheat-eight cycle corresponds to the three-side and the onbeat eight cycle corrcsponds to the
two-side.
8. The standard pattcrn contains both clave patterns.

Congo !ese cloth cross pattcrn . 11

114 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattcms

Exercises for Chapter Four

1 12/8 Son Clave

l. Generating the 12/8 Son Clave from the Triple-Pulse "Grid"

Tap the triple pulses with alternating hands R-L-R-L, while tapping your foot. Acccnt thc pulses shown
below so that you emphasize the 12/8 son clave pattern.

ex. 4E: 1

L
R
F

hands R 1 R 1 R 1 r L r L r 1
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

2. Generating the 12/8 Son Clave from the Composite Rhythm

You can al so play 12/8 son clave with the main beats as a composite rhythm using both hands .

ex. 4E: 2

~ 1W11= f '1 F f F ' [ r ' --f=c=e :~

hands 1~ 1+ 1: ~
1 1: 1a 1 ~ 1: 1a 1; 1+ 1a 1

The next step of development in this exercise adds your foot so that it coincides with your lcft hancl.

ex. 4E: 3

L
R
F
1Wll= ' ~- j ~- J ~ ~- J ' ~: -~
haf~~: ~ 1 1+ 1 ~ ~ 1 1: 1a ~
1 1: 1a 1: 1+ 1a 1
 Thc Clave Matrix 115

Finally, stop tapping with your left hand, allowing your foot alone to mark the beat.

ex. 4E: 4

R
F

hand
foot

3. 12/8 Son Clave and thc Standard Pattern

The strokes of son clave are contained within the standard pattern . Play 12/8 son clave with your right
hand whilc your lcft hand plays the standard pattern.

ex. 4E: 5

L
R
~ ~± fi f r i f i rCT~--tt ~
hands 1 ,~ 1+ 1~ 12 1: 1~ 13 1: 1a 1; 1+ 1~ 1

Now add your foot.

ex. 4E: 6

L
R
F

hands
foot
116 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattems

4. The Primary Tension-and-Release Dynamic

Tap the 12/8 son clave with your right hand while tapping your foot.

ex. 4E: 7

R
F

hand
foot

Next, tap main beats 4 and 1 with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 8

L
R
F

Tension is initiated on the second stroke of clave (bombo) and is resolved on beat 4. Clave and main
beats coincide on main beats 4 and 1, generating a circular effect as the composite pattern repeats its
cycle.
 Thc Clave Matrix 117

S. 12/8 Son Clave within the Three-Part Rhythmic-Counterpoint

Tap 12/8 son clave with your right hand and the six-beat (secondary) cycle with your left hand.

ex . 4E: 9

~ l3 ~
- • J - - 1- -E~j -:._f f ~j ~
L
R 1 _____.jrf---:___r
---+---

hands r~ 1+ 1 ~ 12 1: 1a 1 ~ 1: 1 ~ 1: 1~ 1a 1

Now add your foot.

ex.4E: 10

j j j
L
R
F

hands T T T L R L R L
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

6. 12/8 Son Clave with Bombo and Ponche

Tap 12/8 son clave with your right hand and bombo and ponche with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 11

L
R 1Wll= t i f f i i i r fr f i =11

hands 1~ 1+ ~
1 12 1: 1a 13 1: ~
1 1: 1 ~ 1a 1
118 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattcms

Now add your foot.

ex. 4E: 12

Wl!: ~-
j
L
R 1
F

hands R T T R L R L
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

11 4/4 Son Clave

l. Generating the 4/4 Son Clave from a Three-Pulse "Grid"

Tap the duple main beat and anda, alternating your hands, while tapping your foot to thc main beats.
Because you are tapping three pulses per beat, your hands alternate with the main beats: R, L, R, L. Accent
the pulses shown below so that you emphasize the 4/4 son clave pattern.

ex. 4E: 13
:::>- :::>-

L
R
F
a
wd·¡ iJ

hands R l R 1 R 1 r L r L r 1
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 119

2. Generating the 4/4 Son Clave from the Composite Rhythm

You can also play 4/4 son clave with the main beats as a composite rhythm using both hands.

ex. 4E: 14

The next step of development in this exercise adds your foot so that it coincides with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 15

L
R
F
tmiH-
-¡
hands
~
T R
¡ ¡
L
1

R L
~
R
~
T
41
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Finally, stop tapping with your left hand and allow your foot alone to mark the main beats.

ex. 4E: 16

R
F 1ill= ~· ~ r J r J r :11
120 Chaptcr Four Clave Pattcrns

3. 4/4 Son Clave and the Standard Pattern

The strokes of son clave are contained within the standard pattern . Play 4/4 son clave with your right
hand and the 4/4 standard pattern in your left hand.

ex. 4E: 17

Now add your foot.

ex.4E:I8

L
R
F
1111= ¡: ~
~ ~
~ ~ ¡: .·~
hands T T T L T T L
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

4. The Primary Tension-Release Dynamic

Tap 4/4 son clave with your right hand while tapping your foot.

ex. 4E: 19

R
F =~
111=1 ==a=r==J_tª ~ ··~
h:O~ ~ 1 1e 1+ 1 ~ ~
1 1e 1: 1a 1: 1e 1: 1a 1: 1e 1+ 1a 1
 Thc Cl ave Matrix 12 1

Now tap main bcats 4 and 1 with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 20

L
R
F

Tension is initiated on thc second stroke of clave (bombo) and is resolved on beat 4. The clave and
main beats coincide on main beats 4 and 1, generating a circular effect as the composite pattern repeats
its cycle.

5. 4/4 Son Clave within the Three-Part Rhythmic Counterpoint

Tap 4/4 son clave with your right hand and tresillo with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 21

L
R
i
_...,.1
e b
_____ ta¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡= r ~

Now add your foot.

ex. 4E: 22

L
R rmJ --------
~ ----~-
_j J ____F____j u b~~
F
r i ¡ ¡
hands T T T L R L R L
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
122 Chaptcr Four Clave Patterns

6. 4/4 Son Clave with Bombo and Ponche

Tap 4/4 son clave with your right hand and bombo and ponche with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 23

L
R
1tllf ! 1 f 1 ~=El -ce~

hands 1 ~ 1e 1+ 1 ~ 12 1e 1: 1a 13 1e 1: ~
1 1: 1e 1 ~ 1a 1
Now add your foot.

ex. 4E: 24

L
R
F

hands R T T R L R L
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Ill 12/8 Rumba Clave

l. Generating the 12/8 Rumba Clave from the Triple-Pulse "Grid"

Tap the triple pulses alternating your hands R-L-R-L , while tapping your foot. Accent the pulses shown
bclow so that you emphasize the 12/8 rumba clave pattern.

ex. 4E: 25
> > > > :-:>

¡. ~ l. ¡. .
~ J J ~ rL-~:
-~-=
L

1ill: • 1

- - =11
R
F

hands R 1 R l r L r L r L r 1
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
 Thc Cl<1vc M<1trix 123

2. Generating the 12/8 Rumba Clave from the Composite Rhythm

You can also play 12/8 rumba clave with the rnain beats as a composite rhythrn using both hands.

ex. 4E: 26

~ 1 w11: f '1 rf rf r '1 '1 ~: :11

hands 1 ~ 1+ 1: 1 ~ 1+ 1: 1 ~ 1: 1a 1; 1+ 1a 1

The next step of developrnent in this exercise adds your foot so that it coincides with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 27

~H~=jd ~· J ~· J ~:- -~
L
R
F j j

haf~ ;: ~ ~ ~
1 1+ 1 1 1+ 1~ 1: 1: 1a 1: 1+ 1a 1

Finally, stop tapping with your left hand and allow your foot alone to rnark the rnain beats .

ex. 4E: 28

R
F
124 Chaptcr Four Clave Patterns

3. 12/8 Rumba Clave and the Standard Pattern

The strokes of rumba clave are contained within the standard pattern. Play 12/8 rumba clave with your
right hand and the standard pattern in your left hand.

ex. 4E: 29

~ 1w11= r , r, r r, r , f , r =11

hands 1 ~ ~
1+ 1 ~ 1~
12 1 13 1: 1a 1: 1+ ~-
1 1

Now add your foot.

ex. 4E: 30

4. The Primary Tension-Release Dynamic

Tap the 12/8 rumba clave with your right hand whiJe tapping your foot.

cx.4E: 31

R
F
1w11} , J r, w r- w , F- , , =¡¡J

h~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
1 1+ 1 1 1+ 1 1 1: 1a 1: 1+ 1a 1
 Thc Clave Matrix 125

Next, tap main beats 4 and 1 with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 32

L
R
F

Tension is initiatcd on the second stroke of clave (bombo) and is resolved on beat 4. Clave and the main
beats coincide on beats 4 and 1, generating a circular effect as the composite pattern repeats its cycle.

5. 12/8 Rumba Clave within the Three-Part Rhythmic-Counterpoint

Tap 12/8 rumba clave with your right hand and the six-beat (secondary) cycle with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 33

L
R 1w11:r 7_
r
7_
f rf rfr f 7_ :!1

hands
1~ 1+ 1: 12 1~ 1: 1~ 1: 1~ 1: 1~ 1a 1
Now add your foot.

ex. 4E: 34

L
R J J JJ J ~
1

"1~.
F ¡· ¡·
hands T T L R L R L R L
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
126 Chaptcr Four Clave Patterns

6. 12/8 Rumba Clave with Bombo and Ponche

Tap 12/8 rumba clave with your right hand and bombo and ponche with your left hand. Next , add
your foot.

ex. 4E: 35

~ 1Wll= r_____ i f r
hands R T L R R L R L
foot F F F F
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

IV 4/4 Rumba Clave

l. Generating the 4/4 Rumba Clave from a Three-Pulse "Grid"

Tap the duple main beat and and a, alternating your hands while tapping your foot to the main beats.
Because you are tapping three pulses per beat, your hand alternates with the main beats: R, L, R, L. Accent
the pulses shown below so that you emphasize the 4/4 rumba clave pattern.

ex. 4E: 36

L
R
F

hands R 1 R 1 r L r L r L r 1
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

2. Generating the 4/4 Rumba Clave from the Composite Rhythm

You can also play 4/4 rumba clave with the main beats as a composite rhythm using both hands.

ex . 4E: 37
L
R

hands
 The Cl ave Matrix 127

The next stcp of developmcnt in this exercise adds your foot so that it coincides with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 3g

L
R
F
J ¡· J ¡J
hands T R L R L R T
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Finally, stop tapping with your left hand and allow your foot alone to mark the main beats.

ex. 4E: 39

R
F

hand R R R R R
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

3. 4/4 Rumba Clave and the Standard Pattern

The strokes of rumba clave are contained within the standard pattern. Play 4/4 rumba clave with your
right hand and the 4/4 standard pattern in your left hand.

ex. 4E: 40

L
R 1 ~~~+ r u i i f e
___
: __ r :11
128 Chaptcr Four Clave Patterns

Now add your foot.

ex. 4E: 41

L
R
F

hands T T L T T T L
foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

4. The Primary Tension-Release Dynamic

Tap 4/4 rumba clave with your right hand while tapping your foot.

ex. 4E: 42

R
F
:/J

hand R R R R R
foot F F F F
l e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Now tap main beats 4 and 1 with your left hand .

ex. 4E: 43

L
¡: ~ ~ ~ ~
R
F

hands
1tll:
T R
r R
f
R
i
T
--- ·-·· )

foot F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

Tension is initiated on the second stroke of clave (bombo) and is resolved on bcat 4. Clave and main
beats coincide on beats 4 and 1, generating a circular effect as the composite pattern repeats its cycle.
 Thc C lave Matrix 129

5. 4/4 Rumba Clave within the Three-Part Rhythmic Counterpoint

Tap 4/4 rumba clave with your right hand and tresillo with your left hand.

ex. 4E: 44

L
R
l tll:~, , D f d r. . .__.. f d
hand s ~ ~-
1 1e 1+ 1 12 1e 1 ~ 1: ~
1 1e 1: 1 ~ ~
1: 1e 1 1a 1

6. 4/4 Rumba Clave with Bombo and Ponche

Tap 4/4 rumba clave with yo ur right hand and bombo and ponche with your left hand. Nex t, add your
foot.

ex. 4E: 45

L
R tm-r~___-~ ____! _ i..,¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡0 _ i..,¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡
d r.....__...f · gj
hands R T L R R L R L
foot
F F F F
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
130
 Thc Clave Matrix 131

Chapter Five

Clave Sequence: The 3-2/2-3 Clave Concept

Introduction
"One" - The Beginning of the Rhythmic Progression

In clave-based folkloric music beat 1 is always the first stroke of the three-side. As we've seen , this is
the point in musical time where the matrix is initiated , the moment of rhythmic " ignition." At its most
fundamental, the rhythmic progression of clave is an antecedent-consequent sequence of two opposing
cells that span four beats. The first stroke of clave coincides with beat 1.

ex. 5: 1

2 3 4

Sorne instrumental and vocal parts enter on beat 1, but many enter on other pulses , especially those co-
inciding with thc other strokes of clave. For example, the iyesá song "Ala umba che mache" enters on the
second stroke of clavc-primary bombo (la). 1 *

ex.5: 2 cl ave
z
1~1 1: ~· ;t= 7.
~ 7.
~ ~ :11

EF
11·--•• F F E F
a la um ba che ma

F~~- . ~::r •· -=-~--

=·F-_
--~
--t=
+-_
- -
---------
-------_-_-_- - ;tl- ~-~rn
che
132 Chaptcr Fivc Clave Sequcnce

This iyesá bell part often enters on the third stroke of clave-primary ponche (2+). *~

ex.5: 3 iyesá bell

clave
z
1~11= ~. ;t= !J. ~ ~ ~
!J.
=11

iyesá offbeat bell

~ !J.
rr ~
rr ~
~ - S~~:= ~~j
*
11=
-:¡ J j ~
r r !J. rr ~
r• 1
=11

The latopa (Eiegguá) itótele part enters on the fourth stroke of clave (3+ ).'

ex. 5: 4 itótele batá

clave

latopa itótele

~~ ~ rJo ~ ··• ·•!]

.+.·1
 The Clave Matrix 1:n

The bembé chorus "Eco" begins on the fifth and final stroke of clave (beat 4). 4

ex. 5: 5 clave

~ ~11: ~ ~
~

~
7 7 7 7 7 ~·
1 ~ ~ :11

1~ e co e

From thc pcrspcctive of the individual performer, the entrance point of a part may feellike the beginning
of the cycle. 5 Regardless of where a part enters though, the first stroke of clave is always "one"- the bcgin-
ning of the cycle. All vocal and instrumental parts are understood and felt in relation to it.

1 3-2 Clave Sequence

In clave-based popular music, chord progressions that start on the three-side, are in a 3-2 clave scquence
(or clave "direction"). The guajeo-a typical Cuban ostinato melody or vamp, is often the prime indicator
of clave sequencc. Basically, any melodic instrument can play a guajeo. 6 The following simplified piano
guajeo is a 1-IV-V-IV progression in 3-2. 7 The three-side is sounded first (1-IV), followed by the two-side
(V-IV).

ex. 5: 6 (audio ex. 2: 1)

3-2 clave

3-2 guajeo
1 IV V IV
134 Chaptcr Fivc Clave Sequence

This guajeo is a binary phrase, that is, a phrase consisting of two cells or halves that rhythmically cor-
respond to the two sides of clave. Binary phrases either imply or state clave explicitly. The absence of an
attack-point on beat 1 shows the three-side's offbeat quality. Notice how all the notes on the three-side of
the pattern are offbeats. The rhythmic pattem of this guajeo is an abstract expression of clave.
Unlike percussion parts, most guajeos are not played staccato. Eighth-notes represent the correct tone
duration.*

ex.5: 7

3-2 clave

3-2 guajeo
I IV V IV

Sometí mes a 3-2 guajeo starts on 4a of the previous measure. Even though the pattern bcgins on 4a, it's
still a 3-2 guajeo because the first main beat of the chord progression is beat l .

*In otber words, the ;points

tive pulses).
 Thc Clave Matrix 135

The most obvious binary phrases coincide with the strokes of clave. For example, the 3-2 chorus "Agua
que cae del cielo" is son clave with two additional notes.X

ex. 5: 8 (audio ex. 2: 2)

3-2 clave

. VII Vl

~~~E~
- ----- =r: ~ r r r
~
7.
J t- 1
a gua ca e del c1e lo

V
~~~
~
7 7 7 7
1 z- z- z- z- :11

II 2-3 Clave Sequence

Because of clavc's binary nature, a chord progression is understood to begin in just one of two ways,
either within the three-side or within the two-side. The first main beat of the chord progression is "onc."
Chord progressions that start on the two-side, are in a 2-3 clave sequence.
The following piano guajeo is a I-IV-V-IV progression in 2-3. The two-side is first (1-IV), followed by
the threc-side (V-IV). When the clave pattern begins with the two-side it's called 2-3 clave.Y

ex. 5: 9 (audio ex. 2: 3)

2-3 clave

r r r
2-3 guajeo
1 IV V IV

ffl_ji
136 Chapter Five Clave Sequcnce

This is the same chord progression as shown in the previous 3-2 guajeo examplc. The notes are the
same, but the rhythmic pattern is reversed in order to fit with 2-3 clave. The guajeo's note on the downbeat
shows the two-side's onbeat quality.

"One"- The Beginning of the Harmonic Progression

The previous chord progression determines the first beat of the two-side as the "one'' in this guajeo.
In popular music "one" can be on either side of clave, because the harmonic progression, rather than
the rhythmic progression is the primary referent. Put simply-in popular music harmony trumps
rhythm. 10
In thc case of the previous 2-3 guajeo, the antecedent half of the harmonic progression begins on the
consequent half of the clave (two-side).

ex . 5: 10

rhythmic progression

tE r~·-+-
f-++---r----1 t ____L__ -t-r
j ----t----r---L-
j r-· t ='=-=FTU~-fu
1 -+-
-----t--r--t-+
1
1
1
1
1 1
. progress10n
harmomc . 1
I IV V IV 1

1 ~ ll:j Jj flJ ¡1] fl}ll

In 2-3 music the harmonic progression makes the three-side feellike the consequent half of clave, rather
than the first half. The two progressions (harmonic and rhythmic) are therefore opposed to each other and
produce a type of "contrary motion."
 The Clave Matrix 137

Saxophone.

The following binary phrase is the guajeo (originally saxophone, clarinet and violin) from the classic
son "El manicero" ('The Peanut Yendor'). This phrase is an explicit expression of 2-3 clave, sounding
four of the key pattern 's fi ve strokes . 11

ex. 5: 11 "El manicero" (audio ex . 2 : 4)

2-3 clave

r r X 7
r
2-3 "El Manicero" guajeo

r j J 7 íjj._J J J
138 Chaptcr Five Clave Scqucnce

lll Reversible Sequen ce- Playing in 3-2 or 2-3

From a strictly rhythmic point of view, the sequence of clave's two cells is always antecedent-conse-
quent; the three-side is sounded first, answered by the two-side. From the perspective of chord progres-
sions on the other hand, clave has a reversible sequence. It can be in either 3-2 or 2-3. Thc harmonic factor
means that there are two possibilities for the "one" in relation to clave. The "one" of a song or phrase is
either on the first beat of the three-side (3-2), or the first beat of the two-side (2-3).
In popular music, you must know which clave sequence ("direction") you are operating in and be able
to enter with any binary part in either 3-2 or 2-3. The following example shows the conga drum, cowbell
and clave in both 3-2 and 2-3 sequences.

ex.5: 12 3-2clave (audiocx.2:5)

3-2 clave

1111: r· 1J r J r r :11

3-2 cowbell (cascara)

11: r r r! r rr r ~ r

3-2 conga tumbao

r J r 1JJ2jt)
h t S t h t o t h t S t h t o o
1 1 R l 1 1 R l l 1 R 1 1 1 R R
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 139

ex. 5: 13 (audio ex. 2: 6)

2-3 clave

~~m ~~_;;;r . ;i r. f .y .... -r -----n-~il

11 le 1: la~~ le 1+ la~~ le 1+ 1: 14le 1: la 1

2-3 cowbell (cascara)

11: rr === ~ r ; r rr!r d•

~~le 1: la~~~~ 1+ 1: ~~le 1:1:141: 1+ 1: 1

2-3 conga tumbao

JJ j 1
j

h t S t h t o o h t S t h t o t
1 1 R l l l R R 1 1 R 1 1 1 R 1
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

IV The Two Halves of Clave Represented as Two Measures

Clave is usually rcprcscnted as two measures in salsa and Latin jazz. 12 The two-measure mcthod high-
lights the binary nature of clave; the difference between 3-2 clave and 2-3 clave is simply a matter of
sequencc."

ex. 5: 14 3-2 clave

.........
J
j
r j
r ···~

=- .
·····~ti

2-3 clave

~ ~ 1~. ~
:>?,
j j
11: t :11
140 Chaptcr Fivc Clave Scquence

The earliest definitions of clave state that it's a "two-measure pattern ." This notion has bcen a basic
tcnet of clave for decades. As a result, the term measure is often used as a synonym for cell, clave half,
or clave side .14
Salsa and Latín jazz charts are generally written in cut-time , a practice adopted (apparently) to make the
music conform visually to the 4/4 that most musicians of the popular and jazz genres were accustomed to
reading . When clave spans two measures , the main beats are represented by half-notcs, and the pulses by
cighth-notes (instead of sixteenth-notes).

ex. 5: 15 3-2 clave

b
~.,11: ~- ~ 1~ ~.=:_ 311
z J -~:__:1 ·-- -

:===-r
11 12 13 14

2-3 clave

h
~
~
~ 1~- ~
J z- J
11: ]

From the perspective ofthe primary cycle, the four-beat count spans two measures. Howcver, in practice
cach mcasure (cell) has a two-beat count.

ex. 5: 16

3-2 clave

2-3 clave

---xD~ - J
~
~
11:
J
~ 1 ~- --· · ·----

1
--·-
. ··· ·-·---- - ... -~: ~
 Thc Clave Matrix 141

Because counts are confincd toa single measure, the two-measure method of notating clave necessitates
that you qualify beat 1 as either the "one" ofthe three-side or the "one" ofthe two-side. Used in this way,
"one" only signifies the first beat of a measure (the downbeat) and not necessarily the beginning of thc
rhythmic or harmonic progression.
Many salsa and Latin jazz charts write clave in two measures of 4/4 with the understanding that it is to
be felt in cut-time.

ex. 5: 17

3-2 clave

2-3 clave

r
This practice gives each mcasure a four-beat count (quarter-notes), making all but the second stroke of
clave (bombo) a "main beat." When clave is written in this way, the truc main beats (half-notcs) are oftcn
referred to as the pulse.*

about the different ways of notlltinJI.!: ; ofNota-

and Theory.
 142 Chapter Five Clave Sequence

V One Chord

When there's only one chord being vamped and therefore, no chord progression in effect, the "one" can
be on either side of clave, depending on the emphasis of the other elements of the song. The following
simple guajeo is just one chord and can thus be understood and felt in either a 3-2 or 2-3 scquence. 15

ex. 5: 18
(audio ex. 2: 7) 3-2 clave
------- ~---

2: 7
- ---·· - · _ _ -----
- -- ·- -
__ :·

one-chord guajeo in 3-2

2-3 clave
ex. 5: 19
(audio ex. 2: !{)

one-chord guajeo in 2-3

Each cell has the same pattern of pitches (CE G A C), but a different pattern of attack-points. Here are
the same examples written in cut-time.

ex. 5: 20

one-chord guajeo in 3-2

one-chord guajeo in 2-3

 Thc Clave Matrix 143

VI Moving from One Side of Clave to the Other

American jazz. lt
In the early
created the

l. Maintaining thc Integrity of Clave

The following excerpts are from the Tito Puente composition "Philadelphia Mambo" which demon-
strates how a song can move from one side of clave to the other, while clave itself maintains its sequencc
without any manipulation.*' x The song is essentially built upon two different guajeos arranged in a simple
A-B-A form . The A guajeo is 3-2 and the B montuno section is in 2-3.

ex. 5: 21 "Philadelphia Mambo"

3-2 clave

A guajeo

• -J j
J b f -9
j•
:11
J
Also released with the title "Chinatown.'' 19
144 Chapter Five Clave Sequence

Members of Machito's Afro-Cubans, from left: José "Buyu" Mangua! (bongos), Mario Bauzá (trumpet) , Ubaldo
Nieto (timbales), Carlos Vida! (congas). New York City, 1947.
 The Clave Matrix 145

ex. 5: 21 continued "Philadelphia Mambo"

2-3 clave

1
1 J i
r
B guajeo

3-2 to 2-3 Transition

In transitioning from Ato B, the 2-3 guajeo enters in what would be the two-side (second half) of the 3-2
figure. In othcr words, a fragment of the 3-2 figure is played the last time; only the first half is soundcd.

ex. 5: 22 (audio ex. 2: 9)

A (3-2) truncated A figure (transition)

B (2-3)

rt
~
~
=:J

J •~ ~ -~ ~
1 j
.-~
• d ¡
1

i :11
1

The truncated figure (onc measure of 2/4) melodically leads into the B section and acts as a type of
rhythmic turnaround that moves the "one" to the opposite side of clave.
146 Chapter Five Clave Sequence

Tito Puente (vibraphone) 1954.

 The Clave Matrix 147

2-3 to 3-2 Transition

The 2-3 guajeo is two claves in length. In transitioning from B back into the A section, the 3-2 guajco
enters in what would be the last three-side of the 2-3 section.

ex. 5: 23

B (2-3)

¡r i

i
truncated B (transition)

~J
._ - ._ ._
._~ ~ J~
--j
._
1
~

~ ~j ~1 j
i li J -e ~ ~

t= 1

A (3-2)

1~ ill:[". . . . . . .d.. -ii J

The truncated B figure mclodically sets up the retum to the A section. The genius of this device is that it
serves a musical function in both complete and shortened forms.
The truncated versions function as a transition phrase, a necessary component for songs that move from
one side of clave to the other. Transition phrases typically span two or six main beats. In "Philadelphia
Mambo," the transition from Ato B is two beats, while the transition from B back toA is six beats
148 Chapter Fivc Clave Sequence

Here are the same transitions written in cut-time.

ex. S: 24

transition phrase B section (2-3)

transition phrase

1~ D1
A section (3-2)

When written in cut-time the new guajeos enter in the last measure of what would have been thc previ-
ous section. The truncated figures (transition phrases) consist of an odd number of mcasures.
 Thc Clave Matrix 14ll

Special Transition Phrase

Sorne songs don 't use truncated figures, but instead a special transition phrase or "turnaround," com-
posed for thc spccific purpose of "flipping" the song from one side of clave to the other. The following
excerpt is from "Muñeca" by Eddie Palmieri.20 This is the transition between the 3-2 verse section and
the 2-3 chorus (montuno) section.lt is six beats in length .

ex.5: 25

specia l transition phrase (begins on three-side)

*
>-

5 6

2-3 guajeo

l~ill=r CC'bf f~CBf f~kf -~~

2-3 clave

ID 11:
7_
r r· J
~
7_
r :11
main beats: 1 2 3 4

The transition phrasc concludes with an accent on primary bombo, marked above with an asterisk. The
2-3 guajeo bcgins in the next measure.
150 Chaptcr Five Clave Sequence

Eddie Palmieri (piano).

When written in cut-time, these types of transitions span an odd number of measures. In this case the
phrase is three measures in length.

ex. 5: 26 (audio ex. 2: 10)

special transition phrase (begins on three-side)

1 rr - D 1
 Thc Clave Matrix 151

Switching from One sirle of Clave to the Other Within the Same Section

lt's quite common for a song to be in 3-2 during the verses and change to 2-3 for the montuno section.
Sorne songs though, swing back and forth from one side of clave to the other within the same section. This
is a very advanccd expression of 3-2/2-3, requiring a strong sense of clave.
The following melodic excerpt is taken from the opening verses of "Que vengan los rumberos" by
Machito and his Afro-Cubans. 21 Notice how the melody goes from one side of clave to the other and then
back again.

ex.5: 27 (audiocx.2: 11, 12)

2-3 clave
V7

Vl7 11-
~~~

f~fCtff i e•e r t 1

3-2 clave
V7

f 1t C kE ~ =: 7 1
~~~(f'
,. =F~
~
1

* s*u· * *
1 , 1

2-3 clave
V7
152 Chaptcr Fivc Clave Scquencc

The first 4 1;2 claves of the verses are in 2-3. Following the measure of 2/4 (half clave) the song fl.ips
to the three-side. lt continues in 3-2 on the V7 chord for 4 112 claves. The second measure of 2/4 fl.ips the
song back to the two-side and the I chord.
In songs like "Que vengan los rumberos," the phrases continually alternate between a 3-2 framework
and a 2-3 framework. lt takes a certain amount of flexibility to repeatedly reordcr your orientation in this
way. The most challenging moments are the truncations and other transitional phrases where you "pivot"
in order to move your point of reference from one side of clave to the other.
Working in conjunction with the chord and clave changes, vocalist Frank "Machito" Grillo creates an
are of tension/release spanning more than a dozen measures. Initially Machito sings the melody straight
(first line), but soon expresses the lyrics in the freer and more syncopated inspiración of a folkloric rumba
(second line). By the time the song changes to 3-2 on the V7 chord, Machito has developed a considerable
amount of rhythmic tension by contradicting the underlying meter. That tension is then resolved when he
sings on three consecutive main beats (quarter-notes), followed by tresillo. In the measure immediately
following tresillo the song returns to 2-3 and the 1 chord (fifth line).
 The Clave Matrix 153

Members of Machito's Afro-Cubans, from top left row : Carlos Yidal (congas), René Hernández (piano), U baldo
Nieto (timbales), Bobby Rodríguez (bass), Machito (maracas), Graciela Grillo (claves), José Mangua! (bongos).
New York City, 1947.
154 Chaptcr Five Clave Sequencc

Here is the same excerpt written in cut-time. Each measure contains the same number of beats. Two
"sticks" (1 1) are placed below the two-side measures and three "sticks" (1 1 1) are below the three-side
measures.

ex. S: 28

2-3 clave
V7

VT7 11 -

3-2 clave
V7

!~- - 1- r
2-3 clave
1

V7 I

( 11) ( 111 ) ( 11 ) ( 111 )

 Thc Clave Matrix 155

As with the previous examples from "Philadelphia Mambo" and "Muñeca," the strokes of clave's thrcc-
side in the melody marks the transition to 2-3. It's very common for tresillo, or two of the three tresillo
strokes to be played in the last measure before a change to 2-3. The complete tresillo figure is played in
the first examplc below. This is done in "Philadelphia Mambo" and "Que vengan los rumberos." In thc
second example the fi rst two strokes of tresillo are played as is done in "Muñeca".

ex.5: 29

tresillo-based transition motifs 2-3 section

1~ (' -V=~--r lt: / 7

7
156 Chaptcr Fi ve Clave Scquencc

2. Breaking Clave

According to practice, the structural integrity of clave should be maintained when switching the "one"
from one side to the other. It has been done however using two three-sides, or two two-sides in a row, thus
''breaking" or "jumping" clave. When this happens the rhythmic progression is interrupted and the dynam-
ics of clave are momentarily defused. 22
In the following arrangement of "Philadelphia Mambo ," the integrity of clave is brokcn in the transition
from the Ato the B section. The last 3-2 guajeo is complete and nota fragment. Thcrefore, two two-sides
are playcd in a rowY

ex. 5:30 (audiocx.2: 13)

A (3-2)

•. ,_J
~
,. j
b f -9
J 1

B (2-3)

a
1

•• - • r
~
~-
J= ~
i
-~ t J=

1~ J
Thc last 2-3 guajeo (B) is played in its entirety before the song returns to thc 3-2 (A) section. Because
two three-sides are played in a row, this transition also breaks clave. 24

ex. S: 31 B (2-3)

A (3-2)

~
,. j bE :' :11
 Thc C lave Matrix 157

Here are the transitions written in cut-time.

ex.5: 32

A (3-2)

J
B (2-3)

B (2-3)

1~ ==¡ :0 - fi--t-----r_~D D-------,J_________,.D~

j----¡-,-;
· r --~:--1 -----+-
*

~=j•. J3_)l r D'4 D J j

A (3-2)

. , .•··~----...r--
.J --+J~1 *:____•~l~____,____(]-?~-+-
--t- f -~i:11
Some claim that breaking clave is occasionally necessary for musical purposes. 25 Others dispute this
assertion, scc ing itas simply inferior writing and/or arranging. 26
15X Chaptcr Fivc Clave Sequence

VII Folkloric and Popular Clave Differences

There is an important difference between folkloric and popular clave music regarding the concept of
"one," the beginning of the cycle, and that difference affects how we think about the rhythmic structure
and how we represent it on paper.

l. Folkloric

In a folkloric context, the "one" is always the first beat of the three-side, but it's not proper to say "Ev-
erything is 3-2 in folkloric music." The 3-2/2-3 concept is nota factor; neither African, nor Cuban folk-
lorists use the concept or terminologyY If a vocal or instrumental part begins on the two-side, it simply
has entcred halfway through the cycle. 28 Por example, the following Lucumí call-and-response song for
Ycmayá enters in the second half of clave. 29 The call and response are the same, although the caller (ak-
pón) often alters the lyrics and improvises rhythmic/melodic variations.

ex.5: 33 clave*
(audio ex. 2: 14)

Yemeyá

1
~ *" *"
j.
ki
j.
ki

1
~ IIJ
ki
*" 3J
Ye ma
~
j
ya
~

o
~ $A

~ J ~
1

1
~
*" J. _]L
lo do ki ki

1~ J. *" J J ~ Ji==~=~~--~
ki a se su o

1~ j ~
~ *"
j. ~-=~ :11

lo do ki ki

*
 Thc Clave Matrix 159

The following is a Lucumí song for Elegguá . The vocal call "laroye" is on the three-side and the chorus
"Chemba chemba" is on the two-side.

ex . 5: 34 "Chemba chemba"

clave

ta~trt--t--J__,_
j --t-r_j'----+r----t-r-- - - - 1;t1l:
call

-
la ro ye
chorus

l 1:_~1[ . -==-
=~~--·
·· J J ) -+-~
.. =--~
t~ ~- -lf= :::::- - .: ====::: · ·--------,·---~•.-----~------41·,__- :===FI
chem ba chem ba

Here is thc composite me lody created by the two parts. In its combined form , the me lody reveals a bi -
nary structure analogous to the two cells of clave.

ex.5: 35

clave

J
.X
i
r i
r r
composite melody

l ~ll:i] ~
-Q t -~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :ji
Rhythmically, the two halves of the melody oppose each other. The antecedent call (three-side) co-
incides with the oftbeat-cight cycle. The consequent chorus (two-side) coincides with the onbeat-eight
cycle. The onbeat/offbeat structure of the melody implies clave.
160 Chaptcr Fivc Clave Sequcnce

2. Popular

3-2 Arrangement

This is the same simple call-and-response melody now set in a popular music context, with piano and
bass playing a 1-IV- V-IV progression in 3-2.

ex. 5: 36 "Chemba chemba" in 3-2 (audio ex . 2: 15)

3-2 clave

J
.X
j
r j
r r :~

vibraphone

pmno 1 IV V IV

bass

Efl!~J)~1\:~r---·~jF=7~=Ef3F==EF·~
~ .~
-_;t~.r~
~= ~:11
When arranged in 3-2, the chorus (played here on vibraphone) is heard as the second half ofthe melody.*
That's because the chord progression places the chorus within the consequent ("response") half of the
progression (V-IV).

* On audio tra
 The Clave Matrix 161

2-3 Arrangcmcnt

Next, wc re verse thc orclcr of the chorcls in relation to the melocly. This puts the 1-IV-V-IV progression
in 2-3 clave.

ex. S: 37 "Chemba chemba " in 2-3 (audio ex. 2: 16)

2-3 clave
z z
1~ ~11: ~
r r Z·
1 J ~
1 :11

marimba

- :11

p1ano IV V IV

bass

The pattern of pitches playecl by the piano and bass is identical to the previous example, but the pattern
of the piano ancl bass attack-points is reversed. Now the chorus (playecl here on marimba) is hearcl as the
first half of the melocly.* In other worcls, when arranged in 2-3, the chorus falls within the antecedent half
ofthe progression (1-IV).

with the
162 Chaptcr Fivc Clave Sequcnce

Here is the composite melody written in 3-2 and 2-3 in cut-time.

cx.5: 38

l IV V IV
composite melody in 3-2 sequence

~~
u ~~,11~: J -----1""1;-D-~DJ~j1-+-
j -+--- J -~
-+---.~-=··-¡;-= -~·~
composite melody in 2-3 sequence

Depending upon the measure in which the chord progression begins, the melody can be in either a 3-2
or 2-3 clave sequence.
 Thc C lave Matrix 163

VIII Folkloric Melodies that Imply a Harmonic Progression

Many Afro-Cuban folklori c songs of the call-and-response type exhibit a European (Western) melodic
inftuence. This is especial! y true of rumba melodies. In the Western practice of functional harmony, melo-
dy is generated by an underlying harmonic structure whether stated or implied. Therefore, when folkloric
songs are used in a popular music context many arrangers naturally hear in those songs an implied chord
progression and by extension, an impli ed clave sequence.

l. Yambú Diana

Original Folkloric Melody

The following exa mple is an excerpt from the diana section of the yambú song "Ave María morena." 111

Di anas are 1m pro- clave

r r r
- - - - - · - · ···
vi sed vocal izations
~trftk-f~ :~~
:6
t i i ---------------
---------- -
at the beginning of a - - - - --
rumba that use indeter-
minate sy llables rather
than lyrics. Thi s diana
begins on the fourth
stroke of clave (3+).
Notice that the rhyth-
mi e pattern of the mel-
ody consists of clave
, _. - ·:_ i J ~ -_ ~
with the addition of a la la
secondary ponche .

u11: ~· ~-~
ex . 5: 39 1
~ la la
~
la
i ~
a
r r
la la

~- ~. ~~~ J- d
1

la la la

~- r7 r7 r7
7
1
z-

1
~-- i J ~
a la
~
la
:11
164 Chaptcr Fivc Clave Scquence

3-2 Arrangement

Thc melody of this diana implies a I chord on the first tresillo portion of the melody (measure 1) anda V
chord on the following tresillo (measure 3). Here is the melody arranged in 3-2 and written in cut-time.

ex.5:40 (audio ex. 2: 17)

3-2 clave

1~ ~~ 11: ~· ~ * ~ 1* ~ ~ *
:11

J r r
V

~ ~-·-~ =.:_
!'= -ü=--+--
- -J_.: ._
..=~~=
-=-w~D==w
~~ ~==
w=.
~~==t"==
¡.=
, . ,.-==-~
- - ) :. =-·==-
~:==---
__ -·- -->

7 7 7
7 7 7

Many Afro-Cuban folkloric songs suggest a I-V progression. Although the first notes of the melody are
on the two-side, they are interpreted as pick-ups to the chords sounded on the threc-side.
Note that the "El manicero" guajeo (example 5: 11) and this rumba diana begin on thc same stroke of
clave. Yet, because of their chord progressions, "El manicero" is in 2-3 and the diana is in 3-2 . This is a
clear example of how harmony trumps rhythm inCuban popular music.
 Thc Clave Matrix 165

2. Guaguancó Chorus

Original Folkloric Melody

31
The following chorus is from Mongo Santamaría's "Mi guaguancó." lt begins on beat 3.

ex . 5: 41 " Mi guaguancó''

clave
z
Rf:ill= ~· t
~
t ~
t t :11

J
o
J.
ya
LJ
ya

o ya ya o ya ya

~
-
7 7 7
7 7 7
166 Chaptcr Five Clave Sequcnce

2-3 Arrangement

Cal Tjader 's Latín jazz arrangement sets the chorus (played on vibes) in a 1-1-V-1 progrcssion in 2-3. 32

ex . 5: 42 (audio ex . 2: 18)

2-3 clave

r r J i
r

~
--1
1
11: ~ J. j~J. j j J
V

1
~ J J. LE i
*
~
·- - -

~ r 7
r 7
r 7
--
· - :r·
---

- --~- ~-~
~-- - -

__-- ...... ~~:-

----

_j
1

~ r7 r7 r7
·--- -·-···

~7 -~
1 ·- - - ----- --·
 Thc Clave Matrix 167

Cal Tjadcr (bongos) circa 1950s.

 168 Chapter Five Clave Sequence

Mallets on marimba.

Here is the melody written in cut-time.

ex.5:43 2-3 clave

1 o~' 11: r r 1 r· D r ?JI

*
1 I
* V
*
1~ 11:~ ~. ~---1~. Jl ~ ~
¡;:

1~ ~ ~. ~---1 ~
*
-
1~ r7 r
7
r7 -r :1 1
At what point does a folkloric song possess enough popular music elements to justify the use of the 3-
2/2-3 concept? If a tres , piano or other chordal instrument is added to an otherwise folkloric rumba, the
concept is probably appropriate. What about a bass, which outlines the individual notes of the chords?
And the melodies themselves, as we've seen, can be interpreted as arpeggiated chords. There are many
instances that could be considered gray areas. It really comes down to whether you choose to use clave or
the melodic/harmonic structure as your primary referent.
lt's worth your while to leam how to approach a folkloric melody from the perspective of both its rhyth-
mic and harmonic progressions . For example, practice hearing the guaguancó chorus in relation to clave;
it enters half way through the clave pattem (beat 3). Then practice the song in 2-3 where it begins on beat
l . Attaining this ftexibility will aid you greatly in navigating between the folkloric and popular genres.
 Thc Clave Matrix 169

IX Incorrect Clave Sequence- "Crossed" Clave (Cruzado)

When a pattern or phrasc is played exactly opposite from its correct position in clave, it is said to
be cruzado (or cruzao), a Cuban term meaning 'crossed' (not to be confused with cross-beats or cross-
rhythm). Playing cruzado in Cuban-based popular music means to play your part in 3-2 when the song is
2-3 , or vice versa. The chord progression and melodic structure of most songs is a sufficient indication of
"one." What m ay not be so obvious is the clave sequence; is the song or section in 3-2 or 2-3? Does the
pattern of attack-points lit better with 3-2 clave or 2-3 clave?
Playing in thc wrong clave sequence is one of the most serious mistakes you can make in clave music. n
Identifying the correct clave sequence can be tricky sometimes, but it's obvious which of the following
examples are correct and which are cruzado.
Sing this melody from "Agua que cae del cielo" while clapping 2-3 clave. lf you are unable to sing and
clap at the same time, clap clave along to audio track 2: 19.

ex. 5: 44 "Agua que cae del cielo" cruzado (audio ex . 2: 19)

2-3 clave

t ~a-tE=:- _
-_
:-y---'----~- --+--r -------+--r·- .X
J
-----+-'-----
J -·

r --· -
-~

cruzado chorus
VII VI
._
~b~ 11: r· ~ ~ ~ r
f* a

V
J
gua
J
ca e del Cle lo
f

~bb n? L
7
L
7
L
7 - -·---- -:u
- -··----
- -- ·----
-
170 Ch aptcr Five Clave Sequcnce

Now sing the same melody while clapping 3-2 clave (or clap along with the audio example).

ex. 5: 45 correct clave alignment

3-2 clave

1o1~11~
f-+1- : --+-r-
· -------+-f____Li_~r___~__
j -~=~ -

chorus in correct clave alignment

VII VI

a
•
J
gua
i r
ca
t
e
r r r 2d
del c1e lo

Without taking any theory into account, it's obvious from the feel alone that the correct clave sequence
is 3-2. lt just feels right , because the rhythms of both parts are nearly identical.

Next , clap 3-2 clave while singing the "El manicero" guajeo (or clap with the audio example).

ex. 5: 46 ''El man ice ro" cruzado (audio ex . 2: 20)

3-2 clave

j -----1rl-----'-j---+-r---~-r- _:__ : -~
oi+-++:11: -+--r· - J+--x-'--
1-++-1

cruzado guajeo
 Thc Clave Matrix 171

Now clap 2-3 clave.

ex. 5: 47 correct clave alignment

2-3 clave

r J
X
j
r
guajeo in correct alignment with clave

lt's obvious that the correct clave sequence is 2-3, because both parts are rhythmically similar. Also, it
just feels right since it's easier to sing and clap in the correct sequence and clapping cruzado is more dif-
ficult. However, dctcrmining the correct clave sequence of melodic phrases is not always as easy as it is
with these two examples. lt's a skill that takes sorne work to master.

X Counter-Clave or Cruzado?

How can you tell if a part is cruzado or legitimately counter-clave (contraclave)? There is no simple an-
swer to this question. lt depends largely upon the part itself and the musical genre in which that part is be-
ing played. There's been a trend inCuban popular music for the past couple of decades to use contrapunta!
combinations of patterns that up until now have been considered cruzado. In fact, contemporary timba
has utilized this tcchnique to such an extent that it's led toa schism within the Latin music community.*
Leaving aside this current controversy for the moment, the following examples demonstrate the difference
between general practice, cruzado and what's accepted as counter-clave.

230 of Chapter Seven, Issues of Not

172 Chapter Five Clave Sequence

l. The Repeating Single Cell

A repeating single-celled pattern cycling with a repeating two-celled pattcrn is an essential dynamic of
the music and is not considered cruzado.

The Repeating Cross-Beat or Offbeat Cell

The sccondary beat cycle (or its correlative tresillo) is counter-clave to the two-side. This is not only a
correct relationship, but it is part of the generative structure.

ex. 5: 48 tresillo

3-2 clave

two cells of tresillo

This is the most straightforward example of the single cell combined with the two-celled pattern. lt's as
if there 's a repeating three-side against the full clave.
Here is a more abstract expression of the same dynamic. It's a displaced tresillo , where the first stroke
begins on 2e and 4e, marked below with an asterisk. The single cell still suggcsts the thrce-side because
of its offbeats.

ex. 5: 49 displaced tresillo

clave

~ltll+--+1=r-·--+-1----'-7---+-r~J--------l---r--~--
. =r._
-~-_
·- -~~: __ JJIJ
two cells of displaced tresillo
* * *

1
~ ~· 11=
~· i=• ~ ~· ~· i=• -! ~· :~: _:_=4f
 The Clave Matrix 173

The Repeating Onbeat Cell

In some rhythms the rcpeating single cell is an onbeat figure, suggesting the two-side . You can see this in
the following examplc of the two agogo-type bells used in iyesá. 34 The onbeat bell repeats the same four
strokes heard on thc two-sidc of the cáscara pattern.

ex.5: 50
clave

mvr ·- -+--t_____L_j---t-r______,_j--------+-r--------+-r----;-H:11
oftbeat iyesá bell

11: :¡-~ ~ j
EF j
E r j
rr :11

onbeat iyesá bell

H: ~
• ~
-i -i
~· ~ ~· :11

Even though the onbeat bell plays a "two-side" figure on the three-side, it is not cruzado because the bell
plays the figure on both sides of clave and is thus fulfilling the role of the single-celled part. The oftbeat
bell, by contrast, is a two-cclled pattern.
Playing a repcating "three-side" ora repeating "two-side" is acceptable, but playing an onbeat figure on
the three-side with an oftbeat figure on the two-side is consídered cruzado in most cases. That is the type
of cross-clave relationship you want to avoíd in popular music.

ex.5: 51

clave

cruzado phrase

!F
174 Chapter Fivc Clave Sequencc

2. Rumba Quinto

Quinto, the lead drum of rumba, plays in a distinct counter-clave manner and sorne of its phrases could
be considered cruzado in other genres. The quinto's most characteristic phrases are based on a displaced
tresillo motif on the three-side of clave. This displaced tresillo is similar to the displaced tresillo of ex-
ample #49 , but where that one began on 4e and 2e, this one begins on 1e.

ex. 5: 52 displaced tresillo (audio ex . 2: 21)

clave

displaced tresillo

!'- - - - 1r--· ---t-r·-

11+.-'1: J+. -----·-~~~~:-_--~----~
-__ ·- -~ -- ~~ --
-~~
~
- -_
_ -~
The stroke played on the backbeat (beat 2) is ordinarily associated with the two-side of clave (beat 4).
Because the stroke is grouped within this particular pattern though , it's acceptable on the three-side. This
is a suitable counter-clave phrase for compositions and for improvisation by any instrument in the band,
but it's particularly common as a conga drum variation or solo phrase .

Counter-Clave on Both Sides

Because certain parts are abstracted in various ways within different types of music, it's possible for
sorne binary phrases to be aligned in either position with clave , depending upon the instrument and musi-
cal genre involved. For example, the following quinto phrase contradicts both sides of clave. 3-'

ex.5: 53
clave

1íll:r· J i
r i
r
counter-clave quinto phrase

~ 1 r • 1

•
1

•·
1
 The Clave Matrix 175

In most genrcs this would unquestionably be a cruzado phrase. Using the criteria shown previously in
Example 5: 51, its relationship to clave looks and feels wrong. As alead drum part though , quinto has a
counter-clave structure and a great propensity for rhythmic variation; this phrase does exhibit a "clave
logic" within the quinto's complex rhythmic lexicon.*

Here is virtually the samc phrase as played by the iyesá caja (lead drum) in an entrance call to bring in
the ensemblc. 36 In iyesá, the phrase is in the opposite relation to clave as the previous quinto example. The
caja's phrase is with-clavc, which is also how the phrase would most likely be used as a horn or vocalline
in popular music.

ex. 5: 54 iyesá caja

clave

with-clave caja phrase

f r f F ?l --

1
J.
Next we have a 2-3 bass line from the Arsenio Rodríguez composition "Anabacoa.":1 7 Rhythmically, this
bass part is a simplification of the previous caja example.**

ex. 5: 55 "Anabacoa" bass line (audio ex. 2: 22)

2-3 clave

m~-~---
r -~---
r ----tr-· J
.X j
-+_____L._--+---
.
r ~

bass

. ·}
•;
:96-198 of Chapter
the iyesá caja ªndJhe
, (fXllmple 4: 13).
176 Chaptcr Five Clave Sequence

"Anabacoa" is a band adaptation of guaguancó. Hypothetically speaking then, it's possible for the bass
line anda counter-clave quinto phrase to be played simultaneously in this song. Here are the quinto phrase
and the bass together.

ex. 5: 56 with-clave bass and counter-clave quinto

2-3 clave

IDtli:i r r
counter-clave quinto phrase

ID IJ. J
*
with-clave bass
* * *
J?= 11: F f E" ~
t- f IF f r ~
.t- f :!1

The bass begins on the two-side and ends on primary bombo , while the quinto phrase begins on the three-
side and ends on secondary bombo. In relation to clave, the two phrases are diametrically opposed to each
other. Determining which counter-clave phrases are acceptable and which are cruzado sometimes depends
upon which instruments play the phrases and the particular conventions of the genre.

Here are the quinto and bass parts in cut-time.

ex.5: 57

counter-clave quinto phrase

with-clave bass

r r
 Thc Clave Matrix 177

Chapter Summary

l. In folkloric music the rhythmic progression of clave is the primary referent and establishes the "one,"
the beginning of the cycle.
2. In popular music the harmonic progression is the primary referent and establishes the "one."
3. When the chord progression starts on the three-side , the music is in 3-2 clave; when the chord progres-
sion starts on thc two-side, it is in 2-3 clave .
4. You must be comfortable with entering your part in either a 3-2 or 2-3 sequence.
5. Writing clave in two measures highlights its binary nature and changing from 3-2 to 2-3 (or vice
versa) is simply a matter of reversing the order of the measures .
6. When there is only one chord being played, the "one" can be on either side of clave, depending upon
other elements of the song.
7. Sorne phrases or sections "fl ip" to the other side of clave. When written in cut-time, these phrases or
sections are an odd number of measures in length.
8. Sorne compositions "jump" or "break" the clave. There is disagreement asto whether or not this is an
acceptable practice.
9. Playing in the incorrect clave sequence is known as cruzado (or cruzao)-in a crossed relation to
clave.
10. Determining which counter-clave phrases are acceptable and which are cruzado depends upon the
instrument playing the part and the conventions of the particular genre involved.
178
 The Clave Matrix 179

Chapter Six

The Lead Instrument

Flutc on congas.

Introduction

The lead instrument is the fourth and final tier of the essential four-part rhythmic counterpoint of clave
music. Over the rhythmic foundation demonstrated in the previous chapters, the lead articulates varied
phrases, carrying on contrapunta! "conversations" with the repetitíve parts. Of course, the rhythmic dyna-
mism of the lead is drawn directly from clave.
In the most general sense, the lead can be alead drum or lead voice in folkloric music, or any vocal or
instrumental solo in popular genres such as salsa. Above all else, the folkloric lead drum is the archetypal
lead instrument of clave-based music; it's a practica) model for understandíng not only drum solos, but
also other instrumental improvisations. This chapter examines the most basic ways in which a lead part fits
into the essential counterpoint.

I Lock Mode

First we will examine lead drum phrases that maíntain a consistent interlock wíth the supportive drums.
Unlocking Clave calls this the Lock mode. Most lead locks are contained within a single cycle of clave.
Even though the lead may continually vary withín thís mode, a thematic continuity is clearly heard.
The three-side of clave is the focal point of most lead drum parts. In order to understand the rhythmic
vocabulary of a lead part, it is helpful to classífy its phrases in one of two ways. It either emphasizes the
three-side, in what's known as playing with-clave, or it plays predominantly counter-clave (contraclave)
on the three-side.
180 Chaptcr Six The Lead

Phrases played with-clave emphasize the six-beat cycle in 12/8 and tresillo in 4/4.

ex. 6: 1

six-beat cycle

tresillo

Counter-clave phrases emphasize the off-beat six cycle in 12/8 anda displaced tresillo in 4/4.

ex.6: 2

offbeat-six cycle

clave
j J
13 }l 11=§. r. J
• r J
•
displaced tresillo
 Thc Clave Matrix 181

l. With-Ciave Lead

Bembé Caja

Caja , the bembé lead drum, plays with-clave; the part emphasizes the six-beat cycle on the three-side
of clave.' The following example shows the rhythmic pattern of the lead drum's open tones within the
four-part counterpoint. *

ex.6: 3
clave
(audio ex. 2: 23)
II•J 1 X
1 ~
X
1 ~
X
1 ~ ~
X
1 ~ 1
)(C. 11
..... 1 • • 11
'
.,
1 •
1 • • • • • • • 11
11

6:4
~
i
r i ~
i r i

1 ~.
f *' *' *'
2
This caja sample (four
~
measures in length) is
representative of phras-
es used in a conga drum
adaptation of bembé.**
1

r
J
r J ( J
*' *'
3
Open tones typically
~
r f r *'
comprise the primary
1
melody of a lead drum
part. Measure 1 is the ba-
*' *'
sic lock motif-an open
tone on beat 1. The sec-
ond and third measures 4
each have three evenly
spaced open tones. The
three consecutive cross- f
beats in measure 2 coin-
cide with all the strokes
of the three-side. In
the next measure three
consecutive pulses are
sounded, beginning on *
Clave is shown here as a conceptual aid. The standard pattem is ordinarily used
in bembé. The supportive drums generate the primary and secondary beats.
beat 1 and ending on
bombo.
**
The conga adaptation of bernbé usually accompanies the chekeré ensemble
called agbe or güiro.
182 Chapter Six The Lcad

Here are the two supporting drum parts and the standard bell followed by the complete lcad (caja) part.

ex.6:4 bembé ensemble (audio ex. 2: 24)

standard pattem

1Wli: r 7_
~
7_
~ ~
7_
~
7_
~
7_
~ :11

cachimbo (high)

11: ~ ~ 7_
~ ~ 7_
~ ~ 7_
~ ~ 7_ :11

o S o S o S o S
R L R L R L R L
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

mula (mid)

11: 7_ 7_
~
7_ ~ ~ 7_ 7_
~
7_ ~ ~ :11

h t S h o o h t S h o o
l l R 1 R R l 1 R l R R
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

The mid-pitched mula drum plays a slap on bombo and tones on ponche and thc very next pulse (doubled
ponche). The cachimbo drum plays open tones on the main beats . The composite rhythm created by the
open tones of the cachimbo and mula is three-over-two. Played together, the parts generate the four-part
rhythmic counterpoint.

O= open tone
S= slap
B = bass
h = heel
t = tip
 Thc Clave Matrix 1X3

standard pattern

tf5U:t==Ji;;J 7_
r r 7_
r 7_ ~

1
7_
:t· :tl
caja (low)

1
--i
• J 7_ 7_
r 7_
'7 '7 J
7_ ¡A
1
7_

o h B h S h t B h S h
R 1 R 1 R 1 l R 1 R 1
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

o h o h o h t B h S h
R 1 R l R 1 l R 1 R 1
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

IJ J J 7_ 7_
J
7_
1
7_

o o o h S h t B h S h
R L R 1 R 1 1 R 1 R 1
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

...
Lf-·-· 7_
J 7_ ~
1
7_
'7 '7 J
7_
1
7_

o h B h S h t B h S h
R 1 R 1 R 1 1 R 1 R 1
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
184 Chaptcr Six Thc Lcad

Mambo Timbales Solo Excerpt

The following excerpt comes from a timbales

solo performed by Manny Oquendo in the des-
carga Uam) "Mambo." 2 This excerpt is in a style
known as típico (typical), an older, straight-ahead
approach to soloing.
Notice how three clave strokes are emphasized in
both meas u res - beat 1, bombo and beat 4. This is a
clear example of playing with-clave . The solo mo-
tif is one clave cycle in length, like a lock part for
a folkloric lead drum. The motif is stated sparsely
in measure l.
Drum solos in mambo, salsa and other popular
genres are structurally a great deal looser than the
traditional "vocabulary" of folkloric lead drums. A
soloist has much more creative freedom in a dance
band and can draw from a variety of approaches
and sources ranging from rumba quinto to snare
drum rudiments. Yet, all dynamic drum solos in
popular music exhibit compositional structures that
originate in the folkloric genres.

ex. 6: 5 (audio ex. 2: 25)

Timbales with mountcd cowbclls.

clave

timbale solo excerpt

1~
r- ~ ~7-
· --J~ · --J~
~~t---~r~ ~

H = high timbal
L = low timbal
 Thc Clave Matrix 1g)

Here is the same timbales solo sample with the accompanying bass and congas .3

ex.6: 6

clave

timbal solo excerpt

~~~~=~ e~:~ -~ • t :: j · t * r =n
~~le 1+ ~~ 12lc 1+ 1: 13 le 1+ la 1: le 1+ la 1

1 o J. J j· t r : J. 1

~~ le 1+ ~~ 12 le 1+ 1: ~~le 1+ la ~~ ~~ 1+ la 1
conga

h t S t h t o t h t S t h t o o
1 1 R 1 1 1 R 1 1 l R 1 1 1 R R
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a

bass

E2Jn~~. - =·- · ~-.·~-------~--

F ___¡____
j • --+
;------1·-r=-..
- - - -.r~:¡l
The bass tumbao plays ponche and bombo. The conga drurn part, also called tumbao (or marcha), em-
phasizes ponche. Played together the parts generate the four-part rhythmic counterpoint. Remember that
the primary beats don't necessarily need to be sounded.
186 Chapter Six Thc Lead

2. Counter-Clave Lead

Abakuá Bonkó

Bonkó, the lead drum of abakuá plays in a counter-clave mode; it emphasizes the off-beat six cycle
on the three-side.*
Notice how each stroke of bonkó in the top measure occurs immediately after a stroke of clave.
Besides the pattern of attack-points, these phrases have a particular melodic contour; the low-high
(open-slap) configuration is also important. Each measure begins with tones followed by a slap, so the
melodic contour goes from low to high.

ex. 6:7 (audio ex . 2: 26)

clave

bonkó

1 D 1'! r '! r '1 f '1 '1 ; *·

f----"j"1----fi'Lr~r...,-_r----=J-j___,__r_j.J____Lj_~~ - -=*t =~·: ·~~:~ - -J

11 1~ 1~ 1~ 1+ 1~ 13 1+ 1: 14 1+ la 1
 Thc Clave Matrix 187

Biankomcko (abakuá drums).

The first half of the bonkó phrase in measure 1 sounds like the two-side of the standard pattern played
on the three-side. When the two patterns are compared one above the other, it's obvious how the bonkó
phrase is literally counter-clave. The opposing beats are underlined within each pattern below.

ex.6: 8 bonkó

standard pattern

1Wll: r ~
~ ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
~ :1 1

bonkó

Po 1
~
( ~
f ~
( ~ ~
( *.
188 Chaptcr Six Thc Lead

In abakuá, triple-pulse rumba clave is p1ayed on a bell (ekón). The bonkó coincides with the third stroke
of rumba clave (often a s1ap). Here is the same bonkó sample with rumba clave and the three supportive
drums.*

ex. 6: 9 abakuá rhythm adapted to conga drums (audio ex. 2: 27)

rumba clave

IWII=r j r j j r j r j
=11

bonkó
- -- ---- -

-~ -- ~j
~
~---

~ ~
j j j
1 D 1
7 7 ~
-
- --- - ---

j
~ ~ ~
j
~
j j
[ *. ~

binkomé (high)

11= ~.
o h t o h t o h t o h t
R 1 1 R 1 1 R 1 1 R 1 1
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

The high-pitched binkomé plays the primary beats.

and is played ~~thbo~f~

. The above el(amplei,is.;,,
a conga inkollié., obLapá and kuchí yerelltá t· are
played Wll'll. • UVUl
 Thc Cl ave Matrix 189

o o
o o
Abakuá sign.

The low-pitchcd obi apá drum plays ponche . The mid-drum kuchí yeremá plays the secondary beat
cycle, alternat ing between slaps and open tones.

rumba clave

kuchí ye remá (mid )

r r___j_r i J
S h o h S h o h S h o h
R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R 1 R ]

1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

obi a pá (low)

~~·· ·t=- =I= i ~ i i t 7 7 ~ 7 ~

h S h o h S h o
1 R 1 R ] R 1 R
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a
190 Chapter Six Thc Lead

Rumba Quinto

More than any other rhythm, rumba embodies Afro-Cuban rhythmic sensibilities. Quinto, the lead
drum of rumba, plays counter-clave in both triple and duple-pulse.

Matanzas-Style Columbia

The following quinto example comes from the form of rumba called columbia, which has a tri-
ple-pulse foundation. Duple-pulse quinto phrases are also used. In sorne arrangements duple-pulse
supportive parts are played simultaneously with triple-pulse supportive parts. The following quinto
phrases are typical of Matanzas-style columbia.

ex. 6: 1O (audio ex. 2: 28)

quinto and clave

f F r ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ r · ~ ·~--~~ ~
L ~~ la ~~ 1+ l! 13 1+ ~~ 14 1+ la 1

~-~-,----------.,f----------- _ _ =~~ ~
- - .1 _ _·_~· ..

1 í;---
-----

Notice that the quinto's pattern of attack-points is identical to the first measure of thc previous bonkó
example. However, unlike bonkó , the quinto's melodic contour usually alternates with each clave. For
example, the first clave is low-high-low and the second clave is high-low-high. Each quinto stroke occurs
immediately after a stroke of clave.* This version of the quinto lock best reprcsents the part's generative
form.
 The Clave Matrix 191

Here is the same quinto sample with the two supportive drums and rumba clave. The quinto coincides
with the third stroke of rumba clave.

ex. 6: 11 Matanzas-style columbia (audio ex. 2: 29)

rumba clave

r j j
r r j
j

quinto

[J r j
r j ¡· j j
r :·
j j
r r j j j
r
conga

11:
j j
~ j ~ ~ j j ¡• j ~ ~ :11
h t S h o o h t S h o o
L L R L R R L L R L R R
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

tumba

!:7_i __ J :· j j J :· - ill

~~ 1+ 1: ~~ 1+ la ~~ 1+ 1: ~~ 1+ la 1
The mid-pitched conga drum plays a doubled ponche, while the low tumba plays bombo.
192 Chapter Six The Lead

Havana-Style Columbia

In Havana-style columbia the quinto lock often plays short fragments of the generative form (example
6: 10). The quinto typically "speaks" with brief staccato bursts confined to the three-side, giving this style
of lock a clipped quality.

ex. 6: 12 (audio ex. 2: 30)

rumba clave

quinto

1 i E i E i E *. *. ]
11 ~~ la ~~ 1+ ~~ 13 1+ la 14 1+ la 1

1 EE i *. *. *. =J
~~l ~~ la 12 1+ la 13 1+ la 14 1+ la 1

Three of the four measures sound the third stroke of rumba clave (2a).
 Thc Clave Matrix 193

(audio ex. 2: 31)

(audio ex . 2: 32 is a variation)

rumba clave

IU _
t j r j j r j r
conga

ffi+i-· ~
t
j
F
j j ~
t
j
F
.
-~~u

h t o o S h t o o S
1 1 R 1 R l 1 R 1 R
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

tumba

11: j 7_ .1 j
~ ~ j j .1 j
~ ~ - ~~
_,.....

h t S h o o h t S h o o
1 1 R 1 R R 1 1 R 1 R R
1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a

Quinto lock phrases used in Havana-style columbia are often centered on beat 1 and 1+. Those are
pulses left open (not sounded) in the composite melody created by the two supportive drums. By playing
1 and 1+, the quinto creates a descending melody with the accompanying drums that sounds every pulse
on the three-side.

ex. 6: 13
rumba clave

1
Wll: r i
r j j r
1
j X
1
i
r·
composite melody of quinto, conga and tumba

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -~
~E r
j j
194 Chapter Six The Lead

Guaguancó

Yambú and guaguancó ha ve a duple-pulse foundation, but triple-pulse quinto phrases are also used . The
following example shows 4/4 quinto phrases that typify yambú and guaguancó. Thi s is a direct 4/4 cor-
relative to the 12/8 quinto phrase in example 6: 10.

ex.6: 14 (audiocx . 2:33)

~
LJ:
~
quinto and clave

..
_M
:-¡
•• _..
,
.A.'
11-f·
.,
•
~
.....
r· J i
r i
r r
 Thc Clave Matrix 195

The latcst incarnation of Los Muñequitos playing guaguancó in Matanzas,

Cuba, 2009 .
196 Chapter Six The Lead

In the early twentieth century Havana, both yambú and guaguanó used what we now cal! son clave.4
The first measure in the following example shows the generative form of the duple-pulse quinto lock. 11
is a displaced son clave figure beginning on le. In other words, there is a quinto stroke immediately fol-
lowing each stroke of clave. The other measures are derived from the same figure , but with sorne stroke~
omitted.

ex . 6: 15 guaguanó quinto generative form (audio ex . 2: 34)

quinto and clave

1
 Thc C lave Matrix 197

By omitting certain strokes from the generative

form, the quinto sounds a variety of phrases, each
with its own rhythmic significance and musical im-
pact. For example, measure 2 consists of half-time
cross-beats; there are three consecutive slaps in
groups of six pulses each. Measure 3, by contrast,
consists of three cross-beats in regular time; there
are three consecutive open tones in two groups of
three pulses each (tone+ two empty pulses). Mea-
sure 4 consists of just three strokes sounding the
most important pulses ofthe quinto lock: le, 2a and
3a.

Quinto drum.

4
198 Chaptcr Six Thc Lead

Here is the same quinto sample with the two guaguancó supportive drums and rumba clave .

ex . 6: 16 guaguancó ensemble (audio ex. 2: 35)

rumba clave

The quinto coincides

with the third stroke
1
1
quinto

t¡· r· t=.. 7_'

,_
~ tJJ-·
of rumba clave (2a), a
thematic e lement con-
siste nt with all quinto
locks .
2
~ ~- 7_' ..
;i=
.- -- .- -Y=-t . ---- -~
-- - - -
. ---
-
-
..

---

-------------·· "
-
--- --- ----- --
- ------- --
- --

···--- -··-

*
1 . --- ·-·- -----·· --- --- --

,_
3
t¡· r· J
* *
1

4
1
~ r· 7_'
d
,_ 7_' ....
d
*
conga

The tumba plays an

J
open tone on ponche,
h h t t h h t t o t t h h t t
a bass on primary
1 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 R r 1 r 1 r 1
bombo and a mute on
sccondary bombo. The 1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
conga plays an open
tone on beat 3.

tumba

h t B h o h t M h o
1 l R 1 R 1 1 R 1 R
1 e + a 2 e + a 3 e + a 4 e + a
 Thc Clave Matrix 199

11 Longer Phrases

Even with constant variation, the repetition of a lock's motif creates an expectation in the listener's
mind. Surprise is achieved when the lead departs from the lock , playing phrases that extend over two or
more clave cycles. Alternatcly locked within the basic cycle, breaking free of its confines and then locked
to clave again, the lead expands and contracts the overall rhythm. The potency of the surprise is in direct
proportion to thc degree of expectation created prior to the change. Each lead drum part requires its own
particular balance of expectation and surprise. The goal is to achieve the proper balance when improvising
in clave music.

l. Guaguancó Quinto

The following quinto sample shows a one-clave phrase followed by a two-clave phrase. Son clave is
shown here as a conceptual aid.

ex. 6: 17 clave
(audio ex. 2: 36)

quinto
The single-clave
~-
lock mode is playcd 7_' ......
±
in measures 1 and
4. The two-clave *
phrase begins on
bombo in measure
d• F F F ~ F d• F
2
7_'
2. It resol ves with
two slaps (3e and
FF
3+) in measurc 3.

~ ___ _- -~

~ ~ t• ~ ~ ~
-
3 __ __
~ ~
- .. ,,,

* - --
···· · ·-
---
-
-

1 ~·
4
~- -Jl
:f- * *
S S S
2 o o o o o o o o o
3 o o o o o S S
4 o o o
200 Chaptcr Six Thc Lcad

2. Mambo Timbal Solo Excerpt

The following timbal solo excerpt consists of phrases made famous by Manny Oquendo. The example
shows a one-clave phrase followed by a two-clave phrase.

ex. 6: 18 clave

----r---- --~-.-
---------- ----. ---···--······ ------

___ . -··· ------- -----·-·

timbales

---~---- _ ---~---- ~-=--_---j_-­

:....J-- --- -·----~j

e el
2 ;¡;; ;¡;;

1e L 1

t ~
.....
3
1 e ~ e j= ~-it..t
4
IJ b e·
H = high timbal
L = low timbal
* *
r4.
5 1

1~
---¡&

=--
7_"
~ ~ ~ e· ~
H H L L H H
H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H L
L H H
H H L L H H

The two-clave phrase consists of a phrase spanning a complete clave cycle (measurc 2) joined with
the same phrase in a truncated form (measure 3). Combining the complete and truncated phrase creates
a single larger phrase that functions as a kind of call-and-response. The two-clave phrase resolves with
strokcs on 3e and 3+ in the third measure. This common point of resolution comes from the "vocabulary"
of the folkloric quinto (see example 6: 17).
 Thc C lave Matrix 20 1

3. Abakuá Bonkó

The following bonkó example shows a one-clave phrase followed by a two-clave phrase. The two-clave
phrase resol ves on beat 4 (the last stroke of clave) of the third measure.

ex . 6: 19 (audio ex. 2: 37)

rumba clave

r i i r i r

bonkó

ttOi ~ l i i r
1 1
i i ~ i i
1
r
2

t--=r=-
-- -··i r r r i
~ tf~~-~~
3
....
1
r r r i
F • 1
i rr ,

~
1
i
E ~ E
i
~ i i r
*.
o B S B o
o o o o o S S S o
o o o o o S S S
o o o S B
202 Chapter Six Thc Lead

4. Bembé Caja

The following bembé caja excerpt performed by Julito Collazo is from the Mongo Santamaría recording
"Eco ." 5 The excerpt is four claves in length. A two-clave phrase is initiated in the second line. This style
of caja playing uses a stick in one hand.

cx.6: 20 standard pattern

pattern of bembé caja open tones

1;~ 1J.
2

1 J J ___ . -~ J ._lL .Ed

3
j j

1 J. --- 1-· ·==]

standard pattern

X X X X X X X

bembé caja

o
o o o o o o
o o o
o
 Thc Clave Matrix 203

Alternately With-Clave and Counter-Ciave

Sometimes a lcad will employ certain phrases that reinforce clave with others that contradict clave. This
is especially truc with conga, bongo and timbal solos in popular music, but examples ofthis are also found
in folkloric music.
For instance, the caja example shows phrases with-clave as well as counter-clave. In measures 2 and 3
the strokes on bcat 1, beat 4 and bombo are with-clave, but rhythmic tension is created by the absence of
a stroke on beat 1 at the beginning of measure 3. The strokes on beat 3 and secondary bombo (3a) in mea-
sure 3 are counter-clave; ordinarily these strokes occur in the opposite position within clave-beat 1 and
primary bombo ( 1a). The displacement of these two strokes adds further rhythmic disruption. The strokc
on beat 1 of measure 4 rcsolves the passage, as the caja returns to its basic lead lock and equilibrium is
restored.
204 Chaptcr Six The Lcad

5. Tres Solo Excerpt

The following excerpt is from a tres solo played by Nelson González in the guaguancó descarga "LP
Theme." 6 First, we'lllook at the pattem of attack-points. The excerpt begin s on le-the quinto pulse, the
most important pulse of 4/4 rumba quinto. Rhythmically, this solo has borrowed cxtensively from the
quinto "vocabulary."

ex . 6: 21
rumba clave

rhythmic pattern of tres solo excerpt

1
¡*! (- u·
......._....,.¡¡¡¡¡¡¡: _j_·_....,.¡¡¡¡¡¡¡: !( 1
¡¡(
~

¡' u· f ~ j"
J
1
~

~f 1
¡¡(
~

2J
3
l*j• 1

.. ·--- · · · · - .·..·~·

! (- t =-f=C 1
- - - - -· ·--··. · ·.·- - -.. · ····.--··- · ..

•.. -- ----····- - - - - ------ ------········ - -- --- ----

6¡.!j.
~,____......J
1 j• j•
1

;¡- ~ r -r -,r~------1
¡ ¡ ¡,~ f_...,¡¡¡¡¡J
..... '-__.J
 Thc Clave Matrix 205

rumba clave
z 7. z
~11~- 6· t t 7
~ ~ ···~

X ~~ ---==-·-:
-=r__ -=(=~r--/ -~-r-/---=r-
1--r--J/
-=r-
j • ; ·_-=: --~~

9 ~F ¡ * J

rumba clave

1 xl 1 xl 1 xl 1 xl 1xl
rhythmic pattern of tres solo excerpt

1 X X X X X X
2 X X X X X X
3 X X X X X X
4 X X X X X X X X
5 X X X X X X
6 X X X X
7 X X X X
8 X X X X X
9 X X

The passage can be broken down into ti ve connected phrases:

l. Measure 1: The otlbeat-eight cycle (e anda pulses) is grouped in three's , but only the tirst two offbcats
of each group are sounded. This is a classic quinto cross-rhythmic phrase.
2. Measures 2 and 3 are locked with clave. This is a common guajeo pattern known as ponchando, which
consists of block chords, rather than the arpeggiated melody typical of guajeos. Note how the two-side is
emphasized by two eighth-notes (a part of the onbeat-eight cycle).
3. The two measures of lock are followed by consecutive offbeats (e anda pulses) from 4e of measure 3
to 3e of meas ure S.
4. Next, a displaced four-beat cycle on the a pulses occurs from 4a of measure 5 tola (bombo) of mea-
sure 7.
5. The excerpt ends by returning to playing two out of three offbeats as it began. The phrase begins on
3e of measure 7 and ends on la (bombo) of measure 9.
206 Chapter Six The Lcad

The solo contains several block chords, but harmonically it maintains a statc of suspcnsion; it does not
suggest a regular progression.

ex. 6: 22 tres solo excerpt (audio ex . 2: 38)

tres

2 j•

1*
I*Y. J J~
3

5
j 4· qiJ
id: '-"

7
 Thc Clave Matrix 207

By measure 4 the sounding of chords on offbeats begins to obscure the metric scheme. lf you lose your
;ense of time, thc thrcc consecutive a pulses-2a, 3a, 4a (measure 6) can be mistaken for main beats.
208 Chaptcr Six Thc Lead

lll Soloing in 3-2 and 2-3

l. 3-2 Clave

The lead phrases maintain their alignment with clave regardless of whether they are played in a 3-2 or
2-3 context. The previous timbales phrases are very comfortable to play in a 3-2 context.* Here they are
in 3-2 and written in cut-time.

ex: 6: 23 (audio ex . 2: 39)

3-2 clave

1~~1+-+-1= r-· --------¡,<--o ~* ---+-r--ti~*~r-+--r---··f--* --+11=11

timbales

==:3
.-·=3

- 1-

~
\¡¡;
¡• - -· ---
-~-~
-~
-
1

* 1

* ---- ----
··---
--
---
 The Clave Matrix 209

2. 2-3 Clave

If you solo in popular dance music, it's recommended that you practice initiating your solo phrases on
the three-side cven when you in 2-3. Here is the same solo excerpt, initiated on the three-side as bcfore,
but played in a 2-3 contcxt.*

ex. 6: 24 (audio ex. 2: 40)

2-3 clave
.
r I~ j
e .. __·_ ····-·.:tl

timbales

~-=-= -----_·-_-----+!·-·--+f_______,__j_·-J+--
.. -

r J. j•

IL: .~·· ==~~=j--+-J.--~-------~-

····j

j•
j J

- ± j•

IJ -
21 O Chaptcr Six The Lead

Here is the example written in cut-time .

ex.6: 25

2-3 clave

timbales

1 * * r * J. 1
líP· o 1

-
1- *. J~ J
1 * r r* l
 Thc Clave Matrix 211

Conclusion

In ordcr to be clavc-based, the musie must express the four-part rhythmic counterpoint either cxplicitly
or implicitly. Lcad drums and other instrumental solos contribute the necessary variation to this repeti-
tion-based music . lf thc primary beats, secondary beats and clave make a potent stew, then the lead is the
spoon that stirs it. Thc lead crea tes expansive passages of tension-release that transcend the confines of the
repetitive cycles. This is only the tip of the iceberg though. For a deeper investigation of lead drumming
and othcr instrumental solos, please see subsequent volumes of Unlocking Clave.

Chapter Summary

1. The clave matrix is generated by a four-part rhythmic counterpoint consisting of the primary and scc-
ondary beats, key pattcrn and the lead instrument.
2. In order to fulflll clave criteria, thc music must express the essential counterpoint either cxplicitly or
implicitly.
3. The lead drum plays within a lock mode-phrases built upon a motif usually confined to one cycle of
clave, which is interlocked with the supportive drums.
4. Lock parts typically play either with-clave, or counter-clave. However, sorne parts alternate between
the two approachcs.
5. Periodically the lead drum will play longer phrases that break free of the confines of the lock mode.
This creates larger rhythmic phrases that expand and contract over severa] clave cycles.
6. Lead phrases maintain their relationship to clave regardless of whether the music is in 3-2 or 2-3. lt's
recommended that you practice initiating your rhythmic phrases on the three-side when soloing in 2-3.
2 12
 Thc Clave Matrix 213

Chapter Seven

Issues of Notation, Terminology and Theory

Onbeat and offbeat six cycles in circular form. 1

1 The Clave Concept

l. Ethnomusicology and Clave Theory

Unlocking Clave draws from both ethnomusicology writings on African rhythm and the conventional
clave theorics uscd in the day-to-day "real world" of performing musicians. While the two disciplines
developed separately, both recognize the key pattern as a representation of the essential structure of this
mUSIC.
One of the most important contributions from the field of ethnomusicology is the revelation that the
complete structure is generated by cross-rhythm. 2 One of the most significant Cuban concepts of clave
is the essential structure of two rhythmically opposed cells, often represented in two measures. Any com-
prehensive explanation of sub-Saharan rhythm requires the inclusion of both of these two very important
concepts.

2. Clave: The Key

Clave translates as 'key' or 'code' in English. The clave pattern then is the key pattern or code pattern,
a concept analogous to guide pattern in ethnomusicology. The Cuban concept of clave as a simple pattern
conveying a larger and more complex structure was codified during the mid-twentieth century. This was
the period when Cuban popular music assimilated greater harmonic sophistication and there was a sig-
nificant increase in interactions between Cuban and non-Cuban performers, composers and arrangers (sce
p. 143). As a result, clave became as important a component of music theory inCuban popular music as
the rules of harmony. Because the concept was codified in popular music, many musicians consider clave
to convey not only a general rhythmic structure, but also conventions of composing and arranging that
are specific to popular music. When discussing clave in relation to Cuban folkloric music, or African and
other non-Cuban genres, we must guard against improperly projecting the 3-2/2-3 framework and other
popular music techniques and aesthetics. (see pp. 158-162). For that reason, the word clave appears inside
quotation marks ("clave") when used within the context of Brazilian, Ghanaian, or other non-Cuban mu-
 214 Chaptcr Sevcn Issues of Notation, Terminology and Theory

sics. The broad use ofthis Cuban term in Unlocking Clave is not meant to convey musical rules specific to
Cuban popular music, but rather, the structural comrnonality found in many diffcrent musics from many
different countries.

3. Defining Clave Music

As u sed in Unlocking Clave, the terrn clave music refers to rnusic that expresscs either explicitly, or im-
plicitly the four-part rhythrnic counterpoint described in Chapter Six. This essential contrapunta! structure
originated in Africa, where it's found today in myriad variations. Therefore, in its broadest sense, "clave
music" must include rnany types of non-Cuban rnusics from Africa, and thc African Diaspora-Brazil,
Haiti, Puerto Rico, etc.
In Africa the standard pattern is found within a large diagonal "belt" spanning the ccnter of the conti-
ncnt from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean (see p. 56). Much of the music played within the area is "clave
music" as defined here. As one moves out of this geographic belt, the music tends to be based on simpler
cross-rhythms of a single-celled structure (3:2 and tresillo), or even more rudimentary-offbeat motifs
with little cross-rhythm at all.'
In the New World "clave music" is confined to those forrner colonies wherc the grcatest dcgree of Afri-
can traditions were preserved and adapted into the hybrid culture.

"The most important fact about asyrnmetric tirne-line patterns is that their mathematical
structures are cultural invariables, i.e., their rnathematics cannot be changcd by cultural
determinants. They are imrnune to all social, cultural, or environmental inftuences. One
can change a time-line pattern's instrumentation, accentuation, specd , starting point , and
the mnemonic syllables used to teach it, but not its mathematical structure. Any attempt
to change that dissolves the pattern. For this reason time-line patterns are formidable di-
agnostic markers for detecting historical connections between ce11ain New World African
diaspora musical styles and those of distinctive language zones on the African continent"
(Gerhard Kubik 1999: 56).

What constitutes an irnplicit expression of the essential structure can sometimes be a subjective matter.
We can say with certainty though that popular songs based upon a clave motif, but with no other contra-
puntal elements are not clave music . For exarnple, Bo Diddley 's "Bo Diddley" and Johnny Otis 's "Willie
and the Hand Jive" use clave within a nearly uni-rhythrnic structure. 4 The clave-like motif is the dominant
figure and other than a strong on-beat emphasis, there are none of the requisite counter-patterns of clave-
muslc.
A lot of Diaspora music is based on a single-celled tresillo structure. This is not clave music either.
Tresillo has long been a staple of African-American music , frorn the foot stomping and clapping of ring
shout churches, to drum and fife ensembles, ragtirne, early jazz and continuing on through rhythm and
blues and rock 'n' roll. Tresillo is also the most comrnon rhythmic motif used in Caribbean music. Sorne
music like Jamaican reggae exhibit only the slightest remnants of African rhythmic scnsibilities. The
foundational offbeat part (called skank) played by the rhythrn guitar, is the most prominent African-based
elcment of its rhythmic structure.
Tresillo-based musics have proveo to be adaptable to the more complex two-celled structures . The tresi-
llo-based Cuban contradanza and habanera evolved into the clave-based danzón. After decades of using
tresillo in North American jazz, the birth of clave-based Latín jazz was an almost inevitable development.
In Africa, two-celled structures were introduced into arcas where they had not been prcviously by record-
ings of popular Congolese and West African bands.5
 Thc Clave Matrix 215

11 Confusion About Metric Structure

l. Notating African Rhythm

Hi storically spcaking, the most significant impediment to understanding the cross-rhythmic gencsis of
clave music has been thc misinterpretation of the most basic element of its metric structure- the main
beats. Thc main beats are incorrectly identified in much of the ethnomusicology and Cuban m u sic litera-
ture.
A. M. Jones was thc first in the field of ethnomusicology to identify many important elements of Afri-
can rhythm, including thc central role of the standard pattern. Unfortunately, he also mistook the music 's
strong accents as indicators of meter rather than the counter-metric phenomena they actual! y are. The is-
sue of how to write African-based rhythms has long been a point of contention among scholars of African
music. Jones 's ( 1954: 44) view is that African rhythm is essentially ungrounded in meter as we understand
meter in European music.

" ... any attcmpt to writc African music in the European manner, with bar lines running
right down thc scorc and applying to all the contributing instruments simultaneously, is
bound to lead to confusion ."

Sorne assert that African m u sic can 't really be captured on paper like European music; African rhythms
do not conveniently fit into measures and barlines. However, Kofi Agawu (2003: 52) points out that the
standard (staft) notation system is regularly used by African scholars for the purpose of writing African
ffiUSIC.

"lt is noteworthy that the debate about the appropriateness of staff notation for African
music is a subject of particular interest to outsiders, not insiders. African scholars from
Kyagambiddwa to Kongo have for the most part accepted the conventions-and limita-
tions - of staff notation and gone on to produce transcriptions in order to inform and to
make possible a higher leve! of discussion and debate."

2. Triple-Pulse Confusion

Polymeter

Following Jones, Anthony King also identified the prevailing rhythmic emphasis as metrical accents
(main beats), instead of contrametrical accents (cross-beats). Therefore, sorne of his charts are polymet-
ric; there are multiple and conflicting main beat cycles, requiring each part to have its own separate time
signature. 6
216 Chaptcr Se ven Issues of Notation , Terminology and Theory

In his 1961 book Yoruba Sacred Musíc King shows two dun-dun drum phrases in relation to the triple-
pulse "son clave" pattern played on the kagano drum .1 One dun-dun phrase is based on a grouping of
three pulses written in 3/8 and the other, a grouping of four pulses written in 4/8 .

ex. 7: 1
kagano drum (triple-pulse "son clave")

three-pulse grouping drum phrase

four-pulse grouping drum phrase

King uses three time signatures, signifying three different meters: 7/8+5/8, 3/8 and 4/8. The composite
time signature of 7/8+5/8 is the result of interpreting the pulse grouping of thc pattern as meter.x The
dun-dun measures are offset from the kagano measures.
Meter and grouping are in fact, distinct. 9 Sorne groupings are in tandem with the meter, but there are
other groupings that repeatedly and systemically counter the meter. Polymeter is one of severa) compet-
ing theories that over complicates African rhythm and inappropriately romanticizes the music as some-
thing exotic, non-European .10 Meter is the pattern in which a steady succession of rhythmic pulses is
organized .11 In clave-based music all pulses are organized within a single meter (four main beats).
Here is the correct way to represent the dun-dun phrases and "clave" pattern. All the measures align
with each other.

ex . 7: 2
kagano drum (triple-pulse "son clave")

IWI!:E i E i
r i i
r
four-beat cycle emphasis (three-pulse grouping drum phrase)
..
r~= )l 11: Ji J J
displaced three-beat cycle emphasis (four-pulse grouping drum phrase)

11: i i J J i i J J i
 Thc Clave Matrix 217

Thc first dun-dun phrasc cmphasizes the four main beats, while the second phrase emphasizes a dis-
placed thrcc-bcat cycle (beginning on main beat 3).

ex. 7: 3
four-beat cycle

tlll: ¡:- :~----·~-+--J.----+J-.---+--J.------+1:11

displaced three-beat cycle

On a practica) levcl, it's simplest to feel the accents of the part you are playing as the primary bcats.
For example, if you tap your foot six times per clave, you only have one offbeat between beats. Because
it's initially easier to keep time playing a lot of triple-pulse parts this way, sorne conga drum students
mistakenly practice tapping their foot to the six-beat cycle. 12

ex.7:4
clave with six beats as primary cycle

11: J J J J J J

clave with six-beat cycle within the correct metric scheme

j
r j
r j j
r j
1

j
J j
J j J j
J j
J j
218 Chaptcr Seven lssucs of Notation, Terminology and Theory

3. Duple-Pulse Confusion

The duple-pulse correlative to counting six in 12/8 is counting eight in 4/4 . lf you tap your foot eight
times per duple-pulse clave, you only have one offbeat between beats. 1'

ex. 7: 5

clave with eight beats as primary cycle

r r r

~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 11.~.-.J ----m
--- -· · -----

· -- -----------
- --- - - - -

Salsa and Latin Jazz Charts

The most common method of writing salsa and Latín jazz charts represents clave in two measurcs of 4/4,
which are really 2/2 (cut-time). When written this way, there are still a total of eight counts (two counts of
four) per clave and primary bombo is the only "offbeat" of clave (2+ ).

ex .7: 6
clave with eight beats as primary cycle

1 ¡· r 1 r

1 J ---+---J- Jt-------+-----11Jf-----------+-J----+--
.-t-:----1:Jt-----------1-- J -___- + J =:f1
 Thc Clave Matrix 219

Using this mcthod, ponche becomes main "beat 4" of each measure, rather than the oftbeat (2+ and 4+)
it really is. ~
1

ex.7:7

ponche counted as "beat 4"

..

f :i~: -~ ~-- ~
-*- --- ·--
·*=•- -=r
- ~-

* 12* 13*
-- -···-- -·--- 1

11 12 13 14 11 14

ponche counted correctly as 2+ and 4+

- m- - -1
~- :-
.• --- - - - --
~ =i= ~---- ~

11 1+ 12 1+ 13 * 1+ 14 1+

While clave is counted in this way, Latín musicians do not usually tap their foot eight times per clave;
they tap their foot four times, since that's the correct rhythmic foundation. The main beats are idcntiticd
as beats 1 and 3, or simply the pulse.' 5

ex.7: 8
"beats 1 and 3" as half-note "pulses"

lnitially it's easier to tap your foot to six in triple-pulse and eight in duple-pulse. However, it's impos-
sible to feel the music correctly that way, orto perceive its cross-rhythmic structure without the essential
foundation of four main beats.
While the method of writing clave in two measures highlights the two-celled structure, Unlocking Clave
writes clave in one measure because the metric structure is defined by clave and the underlying four main
beats. Clave is the musical period-the complete basic phrase made up of the two smaller contrasting
phrases, one anteccdent and the other consequent. 16

ex. 7: 9

the musical period: clave and the primary beat cycle

220 Chapter Scvcn Issucs of Notation, Terminology and Theory

III The Archetypal Structure of the Standard Pattern

l. The Phenomenon of Proportional Interaction

It is worth noting that the African standard pattern and the European major scale both exhibit the same
structural proportions. If one pulse is considered the equivalent of a half-step and two pulses a whole step,
the correspondence is evident. In the following graphic, the strokes of the standard pattern are represented
in white and the rests in black.

ex. 7: 10

Below is the C major scale (white keys) as it appears on a keyboard.

ex. 7: 11

e D E F G A B

The conespondence of these two patterns is not mere coincidence. Both the rhythmic principies of Af-
rica and the harmonic principies ofEurope are based on simple whole number ratios whose workings were
articulated by the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras. The two most important rhythmic
ratios in African-based rhythm are 3:2 and 3:4. In European-based music the perfect fifth (for cxample C-
G) is generated by the harmonic ratio of 3:2 and the perfect fourth (for example C-F) by 3:4. A. M. Jones's
secmingly simplistic statement that "rhythm is to the African what harmony is to Europeans" takes on
deeper meaning when one considers how both rhythm and harmony are generatcd by the phenomenon of
proportional interaction . 17
 Thc Clave Matrix 221

2. The Question of Evolution

The Seven and Five-Strokc Patterns-the Chicken or the-Egg?

Sorne specialists speculate that historically, the five-stroke clave pattern evolved from the seven-stroke
standard bell. Others take the opposite view that the five-stroke pattern is the basic and the seven-stroke
pattern is its variant. We've seen no actual evidence to support either hypothesis and consider ita "chick-
en-or-the-egg" type of debate. Clearly, both the five-stroke and the seven-stroke patterns exemplify the
same rhythmic principles. 1x
Considering thc rclativc lack of discourse between the two disciplines, it's notable that the early cthno-
musicology literature on African rhythm and the carly writings about Cuban music both identify what we
call "son clave" as the most important archetype ofkey patterns. 19 lt's probably no coincidence that inde-
pendently of each other, these two fields arrived at the same conclusion. Ethnomusicologist King says the
five-stroke figure is thc "standard pattern in its simplest and most basic form." 20 He considers the seven-
stroke pattcrn to be "one of its many possiblc variants." 2 1
Afro-Cuban music authorities tend to take the contrary view that the seven-stroke bell is the original
model, from which the five-stroke clave later evolved.22 From the vantage point of Cuban music, this con-
clusion is understandablc since the seven-stroke pattern is more prevalent in the musics transplanted from
Africa and the five-stroke pattern is more prevalent in the musical hybrids created on the island.
Of the two, it can be argued that the seven-stroke standard pattern is the principal archetypal structure.
The two opposing six-beat cycles are more apparent in the fuller pattern. Did one pattern beget the other
though? Both patterns are used within a wide geographic area on the African continent and from one end
of the island of Cuba to the other? 1
In fact, the triple-pulse forms ofthese patterns are interrelated in two profound ways. First, as has already
been pointed out, they are nearly identical; one has just two more strokes than the other. In sorne genres
both the seven and five-stroke key patterns are played on different instruments within the same piece of
music. 24 For example, both patterns are played in columbia. 25

ex. 7: 12

standard pattern

rumba clave
222 Chaptcr Se ven Issucs of Notation, Tcrminology and Theory

3. The Seven and Five-Stroke Key Patterns-Manifest and Latent Patterns

A profound relationship is revealed when we compare the seven and five-stroke patterns: the five rests
within the seven-stroke bell form a displaced clave. This latent pattem can be thought of as either a dis-
placed son clave or rumba clave, depending upon where yo u begin- either with the group of three strokes
(son clave) or the group of two strokes (rumba clave). The first stroke (displaced "one") of the latent
claves is marked below the manifest standard pattem with an asterisk.

ex. 7: 13
manifest standard pattern

*
latent pattem: displaced son clave

manifest standard pattern

!j_
!j_ !j_ !j_ !j_ !j_ !j_ !j_ !j_ !j_
11= r r r r r r r Ir r r r r r r =11
*
latent pattern: displaced rumba clave

rumba clave 1 X 1 lx 1 1 lxl lx 1 lxl 1 1

standard
pattern
lx 1 lx 1 lxlxl lxl lxl lxllxl lx 1 lx lx 1 lx 1 lx 1 lxl
son clave lxl lx 1 lxl
1 lx 1 lxl 1 1
 Thc Clave Matrix 223

This manifest/latent interrelation of the two patterns is easily grasped when viewed in circular form. In
the circle on the left. the seven-stroke bell pattern is in black and the rests are white. When the black and
white pattern is rcvcrscd thc displaced clave is revealed (right). The first stroke (displaced "one") of the
latent rumba clave is marked with the letter A. The first stroke (displaced "one") of the latent son clave is
marked with the letter B. Notice that the latent strokes (rests) of the standard pattern are 2-3 son clave in
triple pulse.

latent patterns
standard pattern

The latent pattern of rests within clave is a displaced seven-stroke bell pattern. The first stroke (displaced
"one") of the latent bell patterns is marked below the manifest claves with an asterisk.

ex. 7: 14
manifest son clave

J r J J r J rJ J :11
*
latent pattern: displaced standard pattem

manifest rumba clave

J ~

1
J J
r r r
J J J J J J
r J :X
1
J ~ J J
1 ·¡ ·'1
*
latent pattem: displaced standard pattern
224 Chaptcr Se ven lssucs of Notation, Terminology and Theory

Here are the manifest/latent patterns in circular form. The clave is in black and the rests are white (left).
When the black and white pattern is reversed the displaced bell pattern is revealed (right). The first stroke
(displaced "one") is marked with an asterisk.

triple-pulse son clave latent pattern

*
triple-pulse rumba clave latent pattcrn

*
 Thc Clave Matrix 225

Gerhard Kubik ( 1999: 53, 54) compared the manifest/latent interrelation of the seven and f1ve-strokc
patterns to the patrix and matrix in mold casting:

"Each ... timelinc pattern has a manifest anda latent appearance. The auditively percep-
tible part is supplemented by a silent inaudible pattern. Like patrix and matrix, the two parts
togcther form the total motional structure.
"One of the two phcnotypes is usually dominant within a culture, while the other is im-
plied or may sometimcs be silently tapped with a finger, as I observed ... [inJ Togo. In
[Zambial thc two complementary shapes are actually struck together, the seven-stroke vcr-
sion with thc right hand stick and the five-stroke version with the left hand stick, for ex-
amplc, on the body of a drum."

example 7: 15 manifest and latent patterns

manifest seven-stroke pattern

RH J
LH 1Wll= f
C r C ~ r J
A B
latcnt five-stroke patterns

The upper notes are the seven-stroke pattern and the lower notes are the rests or latent strokes. Thc
beginning of the latent rumba clave pattern is marked above with the letter A, while the beginning of thc
latent son clave is marked with a B. Notice that the latent pattern (lower notes) is also 2-3 son clave in
12/8.
Theoretically speaking, the two opposing elements (strokes and rests) are reversible. lnverting the pat-
tern so that the strokes become rests and the rests beco me strokes is a typc of figure-ground re versal analo-
gous to the vase-face illusion (see p. 37).
However, this is a differcnt expression of the dynamic than that presented in Chapter Two (The Second-
ary Beat Cycle, p. 37). In this instance the entire twelve-pulse "grid" is divided between positivc (mani-
fest) and negativc (latent) elcments.
Only when the pattern is joined with the main beats does it manifestly become a true clave or bell pat-
tern. If the strokes are vicwed as thc manifest pattcrn and thc rests as the corresponding latent pattern, it is
impossible to have one pattern without the other. They are two parts comprising the whole.
226 Chaptcr Seven lssues of Notation, Terminology and Theory

IV The Mystery of Triple/Duple Rumba Clave

l. Is it 12/8 or 4/4?

Triple-pulse rumba clave is played in abakuá and other Afro-Cuban folkloric musics. Duple-pulse rumba
clave is played in timba and other contemporary styles of Cuban popular music. However, as played in
rumba, especially guaguancó, the clave pattem often uses or implies simultaneous triple and duple pulses,
an intrinsic characteristic of that rhythmic genre. Previous attempts to address this subject ha ve tended to
hint at, rather than precisely spell out the dynamic at play.26
All rumba contains simultaneous triple and duple-pulse structures. One structure is primary and the
othcr is secondary. The primary pulse structure determines which time signature you use. In columbia the
primary structure is triple-pulse (12/8). The proper "feel" is that of a triple-pulse foundation, with duple-
pulses superimposed.

ex. 7: 16

secondary pulse structure

1 l

primary pulse structure

In yambú and guaguancó the primary structure is duple-pulse (4/4). The proper "Ice]" is that of a duple-
pulse foundation, with triple-pulses superimposed.

ex. 7: 17
secondary pulse structure
¡---3~ ¡---3~

primary pulse structure

When there are simultaneous triple and duple-pulses the main beats are bcing subdivided by three and
four pulses. Therefore, there is an implied three-over-four (3:4) cross-rhythm per main bcat.
 Thc Clave Matrix 227

In his drumsct instruction book Conversations in Clave, Horacio "El Negro" Hernández (2000) depicts
various triple/duple hybrids of rumba clave. Below are two samples. In the top clave the three-s ide is in
duple-pulsc and the two-side is in triple-pulse. In the bottom clave the three-side is in triple-pulse and the
two-side is in duplc-pulse. Hernández writes clave in two measures of 2/2 (cut-time), but they are writtcn
here in a single measure of 4/4 _27

ex. 7: 18
duple/triplc rumba clave

wrr· d
;g j• ;g
d
j
r j
r j j
:!1
L__3 ___j L__ 3___j

triplc/duple rumba clave

r j j r j
r r
L_3 _ j L__3__j

This is what the samc triple/duple clave patterns look like written in 12/8.

ex. 7: 19

duple/triple rumba clave

triple/duple rumba clave

j
r j j
r j"
:!1
These two triple/duple versions are useful in pursuing the elusive "feel" of rumba clave.
228 Chaptcr Scven lssues of Notation , Terminology and Thcory

2. "Feel"- Describing the Indescribable

"Feel" is one of the most vague of musical terms. Basically it means playing a part with the correct
timing and accentuation. However, it can also mean demonstrating the more intangible aspects of music
interpretation; a skill synonymous with afinque, sabor, groove and in-the-pocket, as in: "she or he played
their part with great feel." Most beginning students of clave music have been told at least once that they
weren 't playing their part with the "right feel." There 's a general consensus that yo u can 't teach "feel,"
certainly not from books , but it's possible to learn it through listening to those who have it.
Typically, those aspects of rhythm that musicians don't careto, orare unable to analyzc are referred to
as "tecl." We reserve the term "feel" to identify the most subjective aspects of interpretive petformance,
with particulars so minute and nuanced that they often aren't practica! for notation.

3. Swing

Swing is a term that can be as nebulous as "feel," but it's also used specifically to refer to simultaneous
triple and duple-pulses, or the substituting of triple-pulses for duple and vice versa.
According to The New Harvard Dictionary of Music (1986: 818), swing is:

"An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing defies analysis; claims to its
presence may inspire arguments. But it is meaningful as a general concept: in swing and
be-bop, 'swinging' triplet subdivisions of quarter notes (or of eighth notes at slow tempos,
halves at fast tempos) contrast with duple subdivisions ... "

Despite swing's "intangible'' qualities, that last sentence referring to the contrasting of triple and duple
subdivisions is a precise definition. Swing is a common feature of clave-based music that applies to the
triple/duple-pulse rumba clave. Put simply, triple/duple rumba clave swings.
 Thc Clave Matrix 229

4. In Between the Triple and Duple-Pulse "Grids"

Sorne patterns are played in such a way that the strokes fall in-between the triple and duple-pulsc
"grids."2 x This is an cvcn more subtle aspect of swing that may be expressed in the triple/duple rumba
clave . The following cxample shows a recording of rumba clave in waveform length superimposed o ver
a sixteen-pulse grid (top) anda twelve-pulse grid (bottom). This example is taken from Conjunto Clave y
Guaguancó 's recordíng of "Capricho de abuela." 2 '~ The version of rumba clave shown here is just one of
the many possibilities of slight stroke displacement ? 1 The upper triangles mark the strokes of duplc-pul sc
rumba clave and the lower triangles mark triple-pulse clave.

duple-pulse rumba clave (audio ex. 2: 41)

L
r , ,
triple-pulse rumba clave

Notice that the tirst and last strokes (main beats 1 and 4) are dead-on. In contrast, none of the offbeat
"interior" strokes are within either the triple or duple-pulse grids. The second stroke is almost exactly half-
way between the triple and duple bombo. The fourth stroke occurs one half of a duple-pulse (32nd-note)
early. Overall, the "fcel" revealed in the waveform graphic is closer to the triple-pulse grid. Here is an
approximation of the pattern written in standard notation.

ex.7: 20

1Wll: r J r J

i F
1
i r j]
L _ _ 3 ___j L___ 3 _ _ j

As the above chart shows, even when the displacement is approximated, written music provides little
help in playing rumba clave with this "feel." The best approach is to play with people who interpret clave
this way. Eventually you will begin to hear and play the pattern in the same manner.
230 Chaptcr Sevcn Issucs of Notation , Terminology and Theory

V The Timba Clave Schism

As mentioned earlier, timba takes great liberties with the prescribed order of clave. Sorne say that the
new music is cruzado and the great art of arranging music in-clave is being lost. 11 Others say that the
young Cuban musicians are merely taking "clave license" and employing among other things, quinto-in-
spired concepts.:n
Issac Delgado's hit song "La sandunguita" (written by Alain Pérez), is an cxample of an arrangement
that is intentionally cruzado ? 3 The bass and chorus are in 3-2, but the bell patterns are in 2-3. Here 's the
chorus and bass tumbao, which are in a crossed relationship to the 2-3 bell patterns. 3-2 clave and 2-3
clave are shown for reference below.

ex. 7: 21
2-3 clave

2-3 bongo bell

ID 11:
,_

o Ur ~ C C ~d
1 ,_

C Ur ~ l: gj
2-3 timbale bell

1 o 11:

3-2 clave

1 o 11: t. t
;>:<':
7 7
~ 1
~· t
;>:<':
7 7
~ ~
3-2 chorus

7· a-;
----~~! - 4
¡ v~ v vtitfL
r-r · ··
- t;;~~ :
= =;a
--~-==-==r~

3-2 bass

? Ju r 7.
 Thc Clave Matrix 2:11

The bass plays 3, 3+ and 4 in the second half of the first measure. This is a straightforward cxpression of
the two-side. The chorus is a series of consecutive offbeats from 4a to 2a. This is a straightforward cxpres-
sion of the three-side. Though the rhythmic configuration of these three parts would ordinarily identify
them as 3-2, thc bells are playing in 2-3.
When asked about his counter-clave (cruzado?) tumbao in "La Sandunguita," Pérez (2000: timba.com)
said that his inspiration carne from rumba, mentioning quinto in particular:

" IThe "Sandunguita"J tumbao was a subconscious thing which ...carne from rumba. In
order to get this spontancous and natural feel, you should know la rumba ... all the percus-
sion, quinto improvising ... "

"The Possibilities are lnfinitc."

While l don ' t qucstion the validity of Pérez 's inspiration, it's difficult to reconcile his arrangement with
rumba, even taking into account the more extreme examples of counter-clave quinto phrases. But Pérez
doesn't attempt to rationalize his arrangement in terms of clave theory. That's not where he 's coming from.

"1 just don 't treat the clave as a study ora profound analysis conceived around wherc it
overlaps and where it comes in . 1 didn't learn it in that way ... When I conceive a tumbao,
1 don ' t stop and think or write to see where the clave fits and where it doesn 't ... in tum-
baos devcloped in Cuba, you hear quinto hits. [Fjor many years now in Cuba the bands
have been cmploying different rhythmic patterns. It is amazing how the bass and piano
ha ve cvolved in Cuba, and that is not something that stops ... the possibilities are infinite"
(Pére:~, 2000: timba.com).

The high art of composing popular music in-clave began in Cuba and spread throughout Latin America
and eventually, across the planet. Ironically, it is now the young Cuban musicians who are ovettly defying
the popular music conventions of composing and arranging in-clave.

Getting Sorne Perspcctive

By now, you may be scratching your head and wondering-is there really such a thing as cruzado after
all, or is "everything cverything"? We need to put the conflict concerning playing in-clave into a historical
perspective.
Timba is a highly evolved, rhythmically complex form of dance music. Non-Cubans often have difti-
culty dancing to it and playing it. Timba sits on the shoulders of all those popular dance forms that carne
befare it; you shouldn 't begin a study of Cuban popular music by playing timba. A far more practica! ap-
proach would be to first learn to play older genres of Cuban popular music, such as son, guaracha, mambo,
cha-cha-cha, "old school" salsa, etc. It's just like learning jazz; it would be much more profitable to begin
improvising o ver 11- V-1 and other standard chord changes befare attempting to play over complex chord
substitutions.
lf you want to lcarn how clave works in Cuban popular music, 1 recommend studying the works of the
great masters like Arsenio Rodríguez and Machito. Salsa from New York and Puerto Rico anda great deal
of the Cuban dance music from the 1920s through the mid-80s exhibits the conventions of composing and
arranging in clave. Please see the Discography for an extensive list of these recordings.
232
 l
Thc Clave Matrix 233

Chapter Eight

How Pulse Notation Corresponds to Standard Notation

Many students of Afro-Cuban percussion have difficulty reading standard notation and find thc more
straightforward pu lsc (box or TU BS) notation m ueh easier to work with. If yo u cannot read standard nota-
tion, 1 encourage you to lcarn how because the best books and articles on African and Afro-Cuban music
use that system . What follows is a brief explanation of how rhythm is represented in Unlocking Clave
using standard and pulse notation .

I 4/4 Beats and Pulses

In 4/4 time the primary beats are represented most often as quarter-notes or quarter-rests.

i i
ex. 8: 1 notes
:11
rests

13 14
Quarter-notes and quarter-rests span four pulses.

ex.8:02
J 1

1 j :11

13 14 1

Notes indicate the sounded units of musical time and rests indicate the unsounded units. However, when
representing generative structures like the primary beats, or key patterns such as clave, notes are used
whether those rhythmic llgures are played or not.
When representing rhythm, a quarter-note indicates the initial attack of the beat: it does not indicate thc
duration (how long the note would be held by an instrument capable of sustaining it) produced by the
stroke, only the intcrval of time between each stroke.
The eight-beat cycle is represented by eighth-notes or eighth-rests.

ex.8:03

¡~ · • J j J • j ---2[1
1 1 1

-
--
- - - -- - -
- ----¡-
"
i i i i i i i
lt 12 13 14 ls 16 17 ls
234 Chaptcr Eight How Pulse Notation Corresponds to Standard Notation

Pulses are represented by sixteenth-notes or sixteenth-rests.

ex.8:4

1ill: J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J :11
1111111111111111
l1 le 1+ la lz le 1+ la 13 le 1+ la 14 le 1+ la 1

Here are the primary beats represented in quarter, eighth and sixteenth-notes.

ex.8: 5

1111: r 1 1 1 r 9 9 9 r 9 9 9 r 9 9 9 JI

11: ~ ~ ~ ~ :!1
11 lz 13 14
In 4/4, the least amount of symbols should be used in rhythmic notation, so that the eyc can easily grasp
thc pattern at first glance. For example, it is better to represent the primary beats simply as four quarter-
notes, rather than four sixteenth-notes with twelve sixteenth-rests or four eighth-notcs with four eighth-
rests.

ll The Oftbeat-Eight Cycle

Thc oftbeat-eight cycle can be represented as a series of alternating rcsts and notes, whcre every pulse
is shown.

ex. S: 6

......
 Thc Clave Matrix 235

It's more efticicnt to use eighth-notes for the e pulses and sixteenth-notes of the a pulses becausc this re-
duces the numbcr of symbols. In the example below only the sounded offbeats and the unsounded primary
beats are shown.

riJF! r ; ! r ; ! r ; !r
ex. 8: 7 oftbcats
J•

Eighth and sixtccnth-notes/rests within each primary beat are always beamed (connected by a horizontal
line).

III Dotted Notes and Rests

A small dot on the right of a note ora rest increases the value ofthat note or rest by one-half. For examplc,
dotted eighth-notes and dotted eighth-rests ha ve the value of three pulses (three sixteenth-notes).

ex . S: 8

Instead of rcprcsenting consecutive e offbeats using all the pulses, it's more efficient to use a sixteenth-
rest with a dotted eighth-note.

ex. 8: 9 e oftbeats
ríl!:! r· ! r· ! r· ! r· :11

11 1: 1+ l. 121: 1+ l. 131: 1+ l. 141: 1+ l. 1

In the same way, it's more efficient to represent consecutive a offbeats using a dotted eighth-rest with a
sixteenth-note.

ex. 8: 1O a oftbeats
t:lft' O ! i O ! i O ! i O • q o , ,. ._ _ ,=t~JJ

11 le 1+ 1: 12le 1+ 1: 13le 1+ 1: 14lc 1+ 1: 1

236 Chapter Eight How Pulse Notation Corresponds to Standard Notation

IV 12/8 Beats and Pulses

In 12/8 time the primary beats are represented most often as dotted quarter-notes or dotted quarter-rests.

ex. 8: 11 primary beats

t r t
1

IWII:t :11

,, 12 13 14

Each dotted quarter-note or dotted quarter-rest has the value of three pulses.

ex. 8: 12

The pulses are represented by eighth-notes or eighth-rests.

ex. 8: 13 pulses

JJ J JJ J JJ 1
J J J--~
IWII: i i i i i i i i
ll

i i i i
11 1+ la 12 1+ la 13 1+ la 14 1+ la
 Thc Clave Matrix 237

In 12/8 all thc pulses (eighth-notes) are often shown. Triple-pulse oftbeats are the easiest toread when
they are shown within the context of the primary beats. Beaming every pulse in groups of three provides
that context.

ex. 8: 14 triple-pulse offbeats

and pulses beamed within groups of three pulses

t.~:- ~ - - r~~ ~-~=i_ r j j r r ~~

j j

11 1: la 12 1: la 13 1: la 14 1: la 1
a pulses beamed within groups of three pulses
j
r j j
r j j
r j j
r

V 12/8 Secondary Beats

Normally in 12/8 the secondary beats are represented as eighth-notes, properly beamed within groups
of three pulses.

ex. 8: 15
~lt-F:: -~~+ r j r j r j r i_~

1~ 1+ 1: 12 1: l. 1: 1+ 1: 14 1: l. 1
However, on rare occasions the secondary beats are represented by quarter-notes.

ex. 8: 16
r=-wt--~ ~- ·-==-· ·-
-~ ~
-
- - •- --~-
r
- --~

r
- - - - + - - - - +- + - - - - -r r ---~--

14 ls 16
While this rendering contradicts the metric scheme, it can be a helpful way to highlight the secondary
beats.
238

photo: K~.!llic Jo llrown

 The Clave Matrix 239

Notes
Chapter One thu s increasing a sense of its security and success" (Ladze-
kpo 1995 : webpage).
The Primary Beat Cycle 6. "Much of African music is circular. This circular con-
cept of time ultimately defines a structural set. The set repre-
l.Yowa : the Kongo sign of cosmos and the continuity of life
sents a structural module from which thc entirc performance
(frorn Thompson 1983 : 109).
is derived" (Anku 2000: 1).
2. Thc origin of the terrn he a/ can be traccd back to the earli-
"Circles have an important philosophical signilicancc in
est Europcan rcfcrcnces mcntioning time in music. During the
the pe rception of the African reality of time . As bcautifully
medieval period. thc lcader ora mu sical group pounded a staff
put in ' Ancestrallogic and Carribcan blues,' a book of Af-
on the ~nround tomark time~literally 'beat ing time. ' . rican poetry, Kofi Anyidoho states: 'Do not forgct the back
3. '· In a complex interaction ol beat schcmcs of varymg
without which there is no front.' This statement suggests
rhythmic motions. thc human mind normally seeks a focal
that thc conccpt is not only circular but cssentially spiral
point. Among thc Anlo-Ewe. onc of the integral beat schemcs
(Anyidoho 1983). To theAfrican, futurc is expressed by ref-
is dominant and thc rest are perceived in cross-rhythmic re-
erence to the past and in drumming we lind a microcosm of
lationship to it. This dominan! beat scheme is considered the
this philosophy of a life's joumey" (Anku 2000: 9).
main beat bccause of its strong accents in regular recurence
7 . Concerning cycle, Wehster \· Dictionary states: "Any
that pervade and rcgulatc the entire labric" (Ladzekpo 1995:
complete round or series of events that repeats in thc same
webpage) .
order and at the same intervals (from the Greek word kyklos
4. "The most rcliablc way to determine the meter . .. is to
meaning 'circle ,' 'wheel,' ' disk ' )."
be guided by thc lccling of the beat expressed in the dancer's
8. It is worth noting that , like many cultures, the Yoruba
lcet" (Agawu 2006: 23).
of Wcst Africa consider the world to be dividcd into four
Observing thc dancer's steps will almost always reveal the
quarters . Time is al so divided into four equal units.
main beats of thc music. Sometirnes the steps subdivide the
" ... certain numbers are hcld sacrcd, and thc numbcr
main beats. as in the case ol son and salsa, where the feet also
four occupies the principal position among them. Thus, wc
mark the "and" oflbeats. In other instances sorne main beats
find that a four-day week is traditional among the peoplc
are removed, as in the case lor an Obatalá dance where the
of southern Nigeria. Among the Yoruba, each day is dedi-
steps altcrnately mark beats 3, 4, 1 and beats 4 and l .
cated to one of four major deities or its local counterpart''
"For cultural insiders , identifying the ... 'dance feet ' oc-
(Zaslavsky 1973: 213).
curs instinetively and spontaneously. Those not familiar with
9 . " ... in practice, the beat scheme of four units is the most
the choreographic supplement, howcver, sometimes have
commonly used. At any givcn tempo, thc rhythmic motion
trouble locating the main beats and expressing them in move-
of this beat scheme is the most moderare (not too slow or
ment. Hearing Alrican music on recordings alone without
fast) and the most convenient as a focal point" (Ladzekpo
prior grounding in its dance-based rhythms will not necessar-
1995: wcbpage)
ily convey the choreographic supplcment . Not surprisingly,
10. Backbeat is a tcrm from North American popular mu-
many misinterpretations ol African rhythm and meter stem
sic. It refers to main beats 2 and 4 , the typical emphasis of
from a failure to observe the dance'' (Agawu 2003: 73).
the snare drum in rock 'n' roii and other popular gcnres.
5 . " In the cultural understanding, the techniquc of main bcat
Frontheat is a term of my own creation that 1 use to identify
is an artistic animation of a strong purpose or goal in lifc. It
beats 1 and 3~the typical emphasis of the kick bass drum
embodies a vital Anlo-Ewe concept that life mu st have a dy-
that precedes the snare.
namic purpose or goal strong enough to regulate the dynamics
1 find .frontbeat and backheat to be uscfu l tcrms when de-
of contrasting obstacles.
scribing the phcnomenon of pattern displaccment because
"In the artistic animation, this strong purpose or main beat
very often the frontbeat is a basic pattcrn 's prime starting
is conceived as a living, physical phenomenon reminiscent
position and the backbeat is its displaced starting position.
of a moving body in downward motion directing the energy
For example, the six-beat cycle begins on a frontbeat, while
or wcight with thc pull of gravity. When the body achieves a
the oftbeat-six cycle begins on a backbcat.
good center of gravity, an accentcd pulsation occurs.
11. (from Exercises for Chapter One) "Life 's mcaning is
"In an Anlo-Ewc culture, ancestral divinities and the ances-
reincarnation, the wheeling back, from departed clders. of
tors are the most importan! positivc clcments. These elements
God-given talents and inspirations, traced again and again ,
are commonly represented or buricd on earth. The concept
in Kongo writing (bidimbu) as the sign of thc four moments
of directing the cncrgy or weight towards these positive cle-
of the sun , the Kongo cosmogram . The four moments are
ments in the artistic animation of a strong purpose is an inge-
birth , efflorescence, the fading , the return in the dawn of a
nious artistic exprcssion of thc lesson that the dynamic pur-
coming day" (Thompson 1991: 1, 2).
pose should be a positive one. In a broader sense, it is a way
of bringing thc purposc closer to the protectivc divinities and
240 Notes

Chapter Two stacle). Each bcat schcme has a signilicance and function in
making up the distinet cross-rhythmic texturc.
The Secondary Beat Cycle "In Anlo-Ewe cultural undcrstanding , thc tcchnique of
cross- rhythm is a highly dcveloped systcmatic interplay of
1. " . .. thc 3:2 relationship (and [its] permutations) is thc varying rhythmic motions simulating the dynamics of con-
foundation of most typical polyrhythmic textures found in trasting momcnts or emotional stress phenomcna likcly to oc-
Wcst African musics" (Novotney 1998: 201 ). cur in actual human existence" (Ladzckpo 1995: webpagc) .
"IT]hc rcsultant [3 :2 ] rhythm holds the key to understand- 7. " . .. we don 't ha ve a na me for music ... it 's just an em-
ing ... thcrc is no indcpendcnce here, because 2 and 3 belong bodiment of the peoplc" (Ladzekpo 1999: pers. comm.).
toa single Gestalt" (Agawu 2005: 92). "Thcre is no single word for rhythm in the Ewc language .
2. Thanks to Eugene Novotney for this melody excerpt and .. Indced , if you look at other vocabularies for talking about
thc use of his gyil. music in West Africa, you will be struck by a similar absence.
3. "The 3:2 relationship exists as a natural phenomenon that According to Charles Kcil , thc word rhythm 'really has no
is not exclusive to any race , culture, or geographic region. Al- single equivalcnt in Tiv' 1Nigeria and Camcroon 1 (nor, inci-
though many people look to ancient Greece as the birthplace dental! y, is therc an equiv<:~lcnt for the word music). Lestcr
of proportional theory, thc phcnomcnon of proportional intcr- Monts finds 'no equivalen! of thc word rhythm ' in thc Vai
action was not invented in ancient Greece, merely observed. language spokcn in western Liberia . David Ames and An-
The first to have described this phcnomenon was Pythagoras , thony King include no cntry for rhythm in their work on the
but the phenomenon itself has been well documented as an Hausa [Nigeria, Ghana , Nigcr, Camcroon, lvory Coast , Sudan
occurrence of nature ..." (Novotncy 1998: 191 ). and Chad ], the most widely spoken sub-Saharan African lan-
Addrcssing thc basis of Wcstern harmony in Pythagorean guagc. And Eric Charry, writing about the Mande [Gambia,
theory,Jacob Bronowski (1973: DVD) states: Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sencgal, Mali, Sierra Leone, Liberia,
"Thesc symmetries are imposed on them by the nature of Burkina Faso, lvory Coast, Ghana] says that he has 'not come
the spacc wc livc in; the three dimensions, the Hatness within across an extcnsivc Mande vocabulary related to rhythm'"
which wc livc and no asscmbly of atoms can break that cru- (Agawu 2003: 62) .
cial law of naturc." "Music and dance are so dosel y bound together in thc think-
The samc could be said about thc symmetries of African- ing of many West Africans that it is difficult to separatc song
bascd cross-rhythm: from movcment or playing the drum frorn speech. Thcse vari-
" What do African bell rhythms, spallation neutron sourcc ous media blcnd one into another as when a drummcr might
accelerators in nuclear physics .. . string theory (stringology) say of a dancer, 'The dance she spoke.' 1t is in fact, difficult
in computer scicnce . .. [and] the Euclidean Algorithm . .. to find a word in any of thc Wcst African languages that is
havc in common? The short answcr is: pattcms distributcd as equivalen! to the Wcstcrn idea of 'music"' (Stone 2005: 15).
cvcnly as possiblc" (Toussaint 2005: 47). "Traditional rhythms are a living art andan integral part of
4. 6:4 motif dcsigned by the author. our existcnce ... Traditional rhythm represcnts life itsclf. lt
5. Thc idea of cross-rhythm as the basis of sub-Saharan expresses what ones docs , wants to do , or has done" (Keita
rhythm was cxprcssed most strongly in lccturcs by C. K. (1999: 29).
Ladzekpo and the writings of David Locke.
8. "This [3:21 structurc, which has dcpth cssence, derives
"Cross-rhythm pervades southem Ewe dance drumming"
from African philosophy of intcrdcpendence in human re-
(Lockc 1982: 231 ).
lationships. Personal!group idcntity ami strength dcvclop
"At the centcr of a core of rhythmic traditions within which
through structures of physical and emotional tension and ca-
the composcr convcys his ideas is thc technique of cross
tharsis" (Nzcwi 1997: 39. cited by Agawu: 2003: 92).
rhythm . Thc tcchniquc of cross rhythm is a simultancous use
" ... Nzewi convcys the interna) dynamism of thc interact-
of contrasting rhythmic patterns within the same scheme of
ing parts whilc Ladzekpo insists on a hierarchic explanation"
acccnts or meter ...
(Agawu 2003: 93) .
"By thc vcry naturc ofthe dcsired resultant rhythm, the main
9. The primary and sccondary beat cycles are ortcn played
bcat schcmc cannot be separated from thc secondary beat
separately on diffcrcnt instruments, separatcd betwcen the
scheme. It is the interplay of the two clemcnts that produces
music and dance and/or separatcd bctwecn thc lower and up-
the cross rhythmic texture" (Ladzckpo 1995: webpage).
per parts of the bod y in dance.
"1 Amongl the ways of organizing rhythmic material in
"(The Two-Part Body System) .. . Thc most dramatie and
Central Africa . .. the most striking property . .. is a very
outstanding feature ... of much Negro African dance south
strong tendency towards contrametrieity, which gives rise toa
of thc S ah ara , is the two-unit systcm. The torso is divided
permancntly conflicted relationship between the metric struc-
into units and sharp twists at the waist sct up an opposition
ture of thc period and the rhythmic evcnts which take place
between the pelvis and the thorax or betwecn thc uppcr and
within it" (Arom 1985: 250).
lower parts of thc body" (Bartcnieff 1968: 256, cited by
6. "A cross rhythm consists of a main beat scheme (a pur-
Thompson 1974: 117-118).
posc in life) and a sccondary bcat schemc (a perccived ob-
 The C lave Matrix 241

10. The Afro-Cuhan Lucumí dance commonly known as shasa, adapted from Williams ( 1971 : 44).
güiro reverses this characteristic order with the torso moving 20. Columbia (Danza Nacional de Cuba , Conjunto de Per-
in two over the fect stepping three. Within the context of the cusión 1987: phonorecord).
primary cycle. the torso rnoves lúur times over six steps. 21. " Motive as well as emotive suspense is gcneratcd whcn
11. " .. . if one addresses too much attention to the eonfliet , two moving entities whieh are at the point of colliding with
s/he will lose touch with their importan! purpose or goals in each other unexpectedly veer off. A bounce-off eiTect is gen-
life. To work through th is potentially stressful situation, one erated. The entities in missed collision retain their individual-
must integrate conllict and purpose into a resolved state of ity as well as motive or emotive relationship , are not resolved
coexistence. Musicall y. one mus! he certain of the foundation or neutralized by actual contact, there is energy tension, a sus-
of the primary heats. One can only master cross-rhythm whcn pension" (Nzewi 1997: 39, cited by Agawu: 2003: 92).
integrating it into thc structures of the primary beats creating 22 . Carved pattern on base of Kuba wooden cup, Congo-
a composite rhythrn .. (Novotney 1998: 232-233). Kinshasa, adapted from Williams ( 1971: 34).
12. Afro Blue (Santarnaría 1959: CD) is composed, per- 23 . Columbia arrangement by Regino Jiménez (Greenberg
forrned and recorded by Ramó n "Mongo'' Santamaría ( 1922- 2001: 36).
2003) and features Al McKihhon ( 1919-2005) on bass. 24. Thanks to Eugene Novotney for the mbira photo on p.
13 . Palo (Oba llu 2007: CD) . 36, his transeription of "N hema Mussasa ," and his insi ghtful
14. Bombo is the narne of the large hass drum (marching analysis.
style) played in the Cuban Carnaval music known as conga de 25. Danish psyehologist Edgar Rubin made the vase/f'ace
comparsas . The main accents of the drum part are on la and illusion famous in 1915. The visual illu sion generated by
3a (bombo), or just la (primary bombo). Over time , bombo this image is called figure-ground reversa!. lt's an example
also came to mean those particular offbeats as they relate to of spontancous alternations in the perception of primary and
thc basic structurc of clave music. secondary elements.
The main emphasis of the conga drum pattern played in 26 . The popular usage of tresillo probably began with the
dance bands (called tumhao or marcha) is 2+ and 4+. Ponche Cuban contradanza and danzón, where thi s duple-pulse fi gure
is the name given to unison breaks and other accenting of is a staple.
those oiTbeats in band music . Such unison accents momcn- 27. A triple-pulse cell contains 6 pulses and a duplc-pulse
tarily bring the rhythmic background to the foreground. Over cell contains 8 pul ses. Dividing a cell of triple pulses by 2
time, the term ponche has come to also mean 2+ and 4+ as generales the secondary beat cycle. In other words, 6 pulses
they relate to thc music 's basic structure. divided by 2 equals 3 cross-beats. 6 7 2 = 3.
15. ''D iscovering the character of a cross rhythm simply Dividing a cell of duple pulses by 3 generales tresillo. How-
implies absorbing the distinct texture produced by the ínter- ever, tresillo is a eross-rhythmic fragmcnt, rather than 3 full
play of the beat schemes, noting the distinct rate of speed with cross-beats because 8 pulses divided by 3 equals 2 complete
which they coincide or disagrec. When the beat schemes coin- cross-beats (3 pulses each), with a remainde r of 2 pulses. 8 7
cide, a static effcct (standing still) is produced and when they 3 = 2, r2.
are in alternate motions an cllcct of vitality (fast-moving) is 1 have adopted Toussaint's (2005 : 5) depiction of tresillo
produced. These features occur in varying manners and mo- as an isosceles triangle within an eight-sided polygon: "The
ments and reveal the distinct character or texture of a cross Euclidean rhythm E (3, 8) is the Cuban tresillo ..."
rhythm . 1 have also applied the triangle-within-a-polygon forrn lo
''In aestheti<: expression , a moment of resolution or peace the pattern 's triple-pulse correlative, 3:2.
occurs when the beat schemes coincide anda moment of con- 28. Alza los pies Congo (Septeto Habanero 1925: CD) .
flict occurs when the beat schemes are in alternate motion. 29 . Bata example from Yillepastour (2006: 226).
These moments are customarily conceived and expressed as 30. This bata ensemble was made by Lamidi Ayankunle
physieal phenornena familiar toa human being. A moment of (owned by Hamish Orr).
resolution is expressed as a human being standing firm or ex- 31 . Ritmo de tango (Mauleón 1999: 4). Also known as
erting force by rcason of weight alone without motion while congo (Manuel 2009: 69), tango-congo (Acosta 2003: 5) and
a moment of conllict is cxprcsscd as a human being traveling the Spanish tinge (Morton 1938: CD).
forward alternating the lcgs" Ladzekpo 1995: webpage). 32. Night in the Tropics 1860 (Louis Moreau Gottschalk
16. " ... cross-rhythms do not necessarily appear in their 1999: CD).
theoretic form , that is , simply as ... evenly spaced strokes . Carmen 1874 (Georges Bi zet 1972: CD) .
. . but rather ...and this is by far more common ... they are Solace 1909 (Scott Joplin CD) .
'brought out' by rhythrnic patterns ... " Locke 1982: 233). St. Louis Bines 1914 (W.C. Handy CD) .
17. Solí (Keita 1999: 47/CD). The Crave 1926 (Jelly Rol! Morton 1938: CD).
18. This djembc drum was madc by Muhammad Konte "Now in one of my earliest tunes , "New Orleans Blues,"
(owned by Joe Bishop). you can notice the Spanish tinge 1tresillo and the habanera 1.
19. Bushongo cmbroidercd cloth design from Congo-Kin- ln fact, if yo u can 't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your
242 Notes

tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, J call by Afro-Cuban [musicl scholar John Santos (1986: 32), 'the
it, for jazz lauthor's emphasisl" (Morton 1938: CD). word clave literally means 'key,' ' keystone,' or 'code .' As the
"lt is probably safe to say that by and large the simpler clave is literally the key to understanding Afro-Cuban musics,
African rhythmic pattems survived in jazz, even in trans- so also is the African key pattern the kcy to understanding
formcd cross-accents, bccause they could be adapted more African rhythmic structures" (Novotney 1998: 165).
readily to Europcan rhythmic conceptions ... It may also 1 havc adopted Novotney's term key pallern to identify all
account for the fact that a pattcm such as [tresillo], so com- binary (two-celled) timelines found in African music and the
mon as a ground pattern in African music, has remained one music of the African Diaspora that generally function in the
of the most useful and common syncopated patterns in jazz" same way as clave does. As used in UnlockinM Clave. most
(Schuller 1968: 19). bell parts are considered key patterns.
:n. " Although the difference between thc two ways of no- Afro-Cuban folkloric musics that use key patterns include:
tating this rhythm may seem small, they stem from funda- abakuá , agbe (toque de güiro) , many araní and batá rhythms,
mentally diffcrent conceptions. Thosc who wish to convey bembé, bricamo, conga, dundún, gagá, gangá, iyesá, kinfui-
a sense of the rhythm's background [main beatsj, and who ti, kuelé, makuta, nagó , palo, radá, rumba, tahona. yuba and
understand the surface morphology in relation to a regu- y u ka.
lar subsurface articulation, will prefer the divisive forrnat. 3. "The recurring bcll pattern cstablishes the basic musical
Those who imagine the addition of three, then three, then period or time span and thc beats divide that span into equal
two sixteenth notes will treat the well-forrnedness of 3+3+2 divisions .. . four heats to each cyde of the bell pattern . ..
as fortuitous, a product of grouping rather than of metrical [author's emphasis]'' (Lockc 1982: 220-221 ).
structure. They will be tempted to deny that African music "No one hears a [kcy pattern 1 without al so hcaring- actual-
has a bona lide metrical structure because of its frequent de- ity or imaginatively-the movemcnt of feet. And the move-
partures from normative grouping structure" (Agawu 2003: ment of fect in turn registers directly or indircctly the metrí-
87). cal structure of the dance. Conceptually, then. the music and
34. Pattern on Bushongo sewn mat, Congo-Kinshasa, dance of a given [ key pattern 1 ex ist at the same leve!; the mu-
adapted from Williams ( 1971: 34). sic is not prior to the dance, nor is the dance to the music"
35.6:4 cross-rhythm motif designed by the author. (Agawu 2003: 73).
36. Fernando Ortiz (eited by Mauleón 1993: 54) identifies 4. " ... cross-rhythms do not necessarily appear in their the-
the bombo-ponche motif as conga. Mauleón (1993: 54) also oretical form .. . they are 'brought out' by rhythmic patterns.
refers to it as the conga cell. .." (Locke 1982: 233).
37. Coburg (2004) identifies nine Afro-Cuban rhythms lt is the key pattern, more than any other ensemble part
that use tresillo as a stick pattern: makuta (right hand), yuka that ' brings out' the thcoretical (or generative) form of cross-
(right hand), garabato, gagá-baksin, gagá-pingé, masú, con- rhythm.
gó ("Haitiano") and ibo. 5. "Al the broadest leve! , the African asymmetrical time-
38. Although beyond the purview of this book, it is worth line patterns are all interrclated .. .'' (Kubik 1999: 54).
mentioning that "tresillo" is also a rhythmic motif found in "A regular and recurrent rhythm pattcrn playcd on the bell
traditional music across a wide geographic belt stretching provides thc time referent by which members of the perform-
from Morocco to Indonesia. Sub-Saharan African music ing group reckon the alignment of their rhythm patterns, song
uses "tresillo" within a framework of divisive rhythm: 873, melodies, and dance movemcnts. Not only is thc basic musí-
whcreas in the Middlc East and Asia, the figure is expressed cal period established by the bell pattern but its distinctive
as additive rhythm: 3+3+2. "Tresillo" may have migrated rhythmic shapc inftuenccs all aspects of the rnusic and dance"
east from North Africa through the spread of Islam. (Lockc 1982: 217-218).
39. Adapted from a thrce-against-two pattem carved on an "Whethcr performed individually or shared as a collective
Ewe kidi drum by David Amoo (owned by Eugene Novot- experience, the music is nonethcless rig:idly controlled by a
ney). recurrent rhythm often associated with thc role of the bell pat-
40. Three-against-two motif designed by the author. tern typical of West and Central African drumrning" (Anku
2000: 1).
"rGerhardl Kubik . .. daims that a timc-linc pattern 'rep-
Chapter Three
resents' the structural core of a musical piece. something like
The Standard Pattern a condensed and extremcly concentrated cxprcssion of the
motíonal possibilítics opcn to the participants (musicians and
1. Standard pattcrn motif designed by the author. dancers)" (Agawu 2006: 1).
2. "1 proposc that the term key pattern replace the term 6. "This pattern is sometimcs rnade by hand-dapping, sorne-
standard pattern ... 1 feel that this terminology better re- times it occurs as a bell-rhythm , and it is cven played on the
flects the structural signilicance of the pattcrn, and it also drums" (Jones 1959: 210).
rcflects u pon the parallel tcrm, clave, that has been in use for Sorne of the idiophones used to play key pattcrns in Afro-
gcnerations as a description of Cuban timelines. As noted Cuban folkloric music are: claves, agogo, ckón and og<ín (iron
 Thc Clave Matrix 243

bclls), guataca (iron hoe blade), sartenes (frying pans), catá C. K. Ladzekpo (1995: webpage) affírms the "profound ho-
or guagua (bamboo). acheré (singlc metal maraca), erikundi mogeneity" of sub-Saharan African rhythmic principies:
(basket shakcrs) , cencerro (cowbdl). In popular music the "During my professional career as a master drummcr and
güiro (scrapcd gourd). paila (timbale drum shell), and drumsct scholar of African dance drumming with the Ghana National
cymbal are al so uscd. Dance Ensemble and the University of Ghana's lnstitute of
7. Examplcs or a kcy pattcrn played on Cuban iyesá and African Studies, 1 have had thc privilegc of participating in
batá drums: severa! elaborare rcsearch and study residencies in many cul-
lyesá (Afrocuha 1996: CD). tures across the sub-Sahara. In these residencies of intensc
Agayu (Coburg and Davalos. 2006: CD). participation in dance drumming very much diiTcrent from
Arará (Ros CD). my own ethnic origin , I have had the rarc opportunity or com-
King ( 1961: 14) identilics the Yoruba kanango drum part for paring my Anlo-Ewe expericnces as remarkably similar with
Sango as thc live-stroke standard pattern ( 12/8 "son clave"). the shared concepts of these other sub-Saharan cultures. Thc
Example of thc scven-strokc standard pattern played on an surface structures or sound-products among all thcse ethnic
African bata drum: groups were indeed very diverse but the undercurrent prin-
Ogogo ( Yorulw Dmmsfrom Henin. West A/rica 1996: CD). cipies demonstrated profound homogencity ."
8. Jones ( 1959: 211 -212) cites these threc key patterns as the 12. "Throughout Africa, wherever thcsc gongs have oc-
most widcly uscd in sub-Saharan Africa. He says all threc are curred thcy have been manufactured by the sarne process of
"basieally one and the same pattern." Othcr writcrs also note welding thc two ha!ves together along a widc llangc. This in-
the prevalence of thc patterns in A frica. dicatcs a common origin" (Walton 1955: 22).
9. "As is wcll known. many West and Central Afriean dances 13. "In her study of the musical instrumcnts of thc Afro-
feature a prominently articulated, reeurring rhythmic pattern Cubans , Gcrda Tornberg refers to iron gongs identical with
that serves as an identifying feature or signature of the partic- those from the Congo: 'Among thc Arará and Abakuá both
ular dance/drumming . These pattcrns are known by different single and double be lis without clappers are used. The single
na mes: time /in e, hell¡wlfern, phrasinK referent and so on .. . bell, fitted with a riveted-on iron handlc, consists of two met -
a short, distinct, and ol'tcn memorable rhythmic figure of mod- al pieces put together with rivets, altcrnately forgcd or sol -
est duration (about a metric length ora single cycle), usually dered togcther. The single inverted bcll is used in thc ordinary
played by the bcll or high-pitched instrument in the ensemble, Abakuá orchestra and with Arará instrumcnts as accompani-
and serves as a point of temporal refcrence [author's empha- ment to cult dances and social dances. In Arará funeral rites
sisl" (Agawu 2003: 73). in Matanzas a double bell with a U-shapcd handlc is used '"
1O. C. K . Ladzekpo ( 1999: pers . eomm.) . (Tornberg 1954: 107, cited by Walton 1955: 23 ) .
1 learned the seven-stroke standard pattern from C. K.'s 14. Tron bell found at Great Zimbabwe ruins , adapted from
brother K waku, who called it hasic Ewe. Walton (1955: 21).
11. "Polyrhythrn music and dance ... is often thought of as 15. Cuban iron bell, adapted frorn CJDMUC ( 1997: 104).
quintessentially African. In fact it appears to be a feature of 16 . Jones ftrst introduccd the term standard pallern in a se-
culture particularly associated with Niger-Congo peoples ... ries of lectures during the 1950's. King ( 1960: 51) codilied
Outside of thc Niger-Congo speaking regions of Afriea other the term in his published works, applying it to both the sevcn
styles, frequcntly based on stringed instruments, tend to pre- and five-stroke patterns . 1 ha ve adapted Locke's ( 1982: 225)
vail, along with diiTerent styles of dance" (Epstein 1973: 63, practice of only calling the archctypal sevcn-stroke figure the
cited by Kubik 1999: 58). standard pattern. The standard pattern is a pristinc rhythmic
A . M. }(mes ( 1959: 222) observes that thc cornmon rhyth- modcl wo11hy of distinction within thc lcxicon of music ter-
mic principies or suh-Saharan Africa music constitute ' one minology.
main system: · Rendón (200 1: 56) shows an examplc of what he calls thc
" . .. [T [he music of A frica south of the S ah ara is one m a in "most commonly uscd 6/8 hell ." Malabe ( 1990: 9) rclcrs to it
systcm.'· as thc 618 cowbell pattern .
"[M[usically, a large part of Wcst Africa forms an indivis- Examples of the standard pattcrn in African drumming:
ible whole with Bantu A frica" (Jones 1959: 200). Obatala (pattern played on drum) (NiKerian Beat 1989:
''The music of the Wcstern Sudanie-speaking Ewe people is CD).
one and the same as that of the Bantu-speaking Lala tri be. [It] 6/8 Rhythm (Benin - Rhythms and Son}{s .Jár the Vodun
is . .. evident but ... cvcn a modcrate ear could tell witho ut 1990: CD).
analysis that thc rnusics are similar" (Joncs 1959: 200). Ogogo (pattern played on drum) ( Yoruha Drums from Be-
" . .. as to thc relationship hctwccn the linguistic cleavage nin, West Africa 1996: CD).
and yet the musical unity of thc various language familics of Afá (Ewe Drumming ofGhana 2004: CD).
Afriea south of the Sahara. one fact is clear: the fundamental Coburg (2004) shows eleven Afro-Cuban rhythms that use
identity of thc musical system is as certain and as striking as the standard pattern ; Congolese (Bantu): palo , triallo , Lucumí
the disparity in languagcs. In our opinion, with Africans, mu- (Yoruba): iyesá ( 12/8 form), bembé, agbe, Arará (Fon): sa-
sic is more perrnanent than language" (Jones 1959: 202). balú, egbado, "Haitiano" (Bantu, Fon, Yoruba): vodú-radá.
244 Notes

yanvalú, nagó, and the rumba form columbia. lievc it to be more historically accuratc and far more helpful
Exa mples of the standard pattern in Afro-Cuban drum- to use names that distinguish bctween the pattern with seven
ming: strokes and thc one with !i ve.
Yambú (Music OfCuba 1978: CD). 21 . bal afon example from Charry (2000: 188) .
Toque y canto kututó (Música Arará - Antología de la 22. Changó (Jiméncz and llu Aña 2001: CD) .
música a/ro cubana 1981: CD). Changó (Shango , Sango) is a deified Yoruba king. He is
Bembé (Afrocuba 1996: CD). the deity of thunder and lightning and the owncr of the batá
lyesá (Afrocuba 1996: CD). dmms.
Palo (Afrocuba 1996: CD). 23. Thi s balafon was made by Mamoutou Kouyate (owned
Agbe (Grupo Exploración 2000: CD). by Joe Bishop).
Rumba Columbia (Grupo Exploración 2000: CD). 24. Bushongo embroidered doth pattern, Congo- Kinshasa,
Rccordcd example of the standard pattern in Haitian drum- adapted from Williams ( 1971: 39).
ming: 25. Kwabena Nkctia first coined the term time fine in 1963.
St.jacques (Vodou 1997: CD). Gerhard Kubik uses the more specific asvmmetricallime-line
Example of the standard pattern in Brazilian drumming : pattern.
Age; Jinka d'yemanja (Candomblé 2005 : CD) . 26. Howevcr, within the musical repertoirc of thosc ethnic
17. M y map is taken from Kubik 's maps (1999: 61 , 1O1) groups that use key pattc rns , sorne singlc-celled rhythms are
and his description of the region where thc standard pattern found.
is used: 27. Standard pattern motif dcsi gned by thc author.
"Sorne of the more complex time-lines, such as the twelvc- 28. Changó at 0:22 (Jiménez and llu Aña 2001: CD).
pulse standard pattern, are confined to well demarcated Afri- 29. Matthaus Winnitzki (2008: !icld recording) documents
can regions: the Guinea Coast with its speakers of Akan , Fo, use of the 4/4 standard pattern in Mali .
Yoruba, and so on; west-central Africa from eastern Nigeria to Example of the 4/4 standard pattcrn is played on a small
Gabon , Congo, Angola; southern Congo-Zaire, into Zambia; bata drum in Benin:
and to southeast Africa in a broad belt, covering Zambezi and Ogogo (Yoruba Drumsfrom Betún, West A/rica CD) .
Ruvuma cultures . .. IAsymmctrica l] time- linc patterns are Canto y toque a Oyá at 6:57 the 4/4 standard pattem is
unknown in most of East Africa , in South Africa, and else- played on an achere (metal shaker) (Angarica CD).
where. The few cxceptions to this rule can be all be accounted The 4/4 standard pattcrn is used in sorne arrangements of
for historically" (Kubik 1999: 60) . conga. Examples :
18. "Thc most importan! fact about the . .. time-line pat- A Paso de conga, Que baile La Habana. Pa'lante na'ma
terns is that their mathematical structures are cultural invari- (Hermanos Bravo 2000: CD).
ables , i.c. , their mathematics cannot be changed by cultural
dcterminants. They are immune to al! social, cultural, oren-
Chapter Four
vironmcntal influcnces. One can change a time-line pattern 's
instrumentat ion, accentuation , speed, starting point, and the Clave Pattems
mnemonic syllables used to teach it, but not its mathemati-
cal structure. Any attempt to change that devolves the pattern. l. "Thc word Clave lite rally means key, keystone , or code
For this reason, time- line patterns are formidable diagnostic (in Spanish). In Cuban music, it is all of these things and
markers for detecting historical connections between certain more, being both the most basic fundamental and a very com-
New World African Diaspora musical styles and those of dis- plex concept at the samc time'' (Santos 1986: ~2) .
tinctivc language zones on the African continent ..." (Kubik 2. The Havana-based Center for lnvestigation and Develop-
1979,cites himselfin 1999: 56). mcnt of Cuban Music (CIDMUC) refers to patterns played on
19 . This chekeré was made by Hohanna Rose. the claves as clave. CIDMUC ( 1997: 62-70) devotes severa!
20 . In King's (1960: 52) writings and sorne other ethnomu- pages to the differcnt patterns played on the claves in the rum-
sicological works , standard pattern refers to both the seven ba , son, and punta genres . Mauleún ( 1999: 2J ,6.8) idcnti!ics
and five-stroke figures . In sorne Cuban/Latin music instruc- five different Cuban patterns a.~ clave. Amira and Cornelius
tion books clave refers to both the scven and five-stroke pat- (1993: 23) call two seven-stroke and two fi ve-stroke pattems
tcrns. Mauleó n ( 1999: 49) refers to the seven-stroke bell pat- clave. Sorne musicians use the tenn to mean ~uide pallern , or
tern as 6/8 clave. Amira and Corne lius (1992: 23) show the simply the main rhythrnic motif of a picn~. Quintana ( 1996:
seven-stroke standard pattern and the five-stroke rumba clave video) calls the common salsa contra-compana (timbales bell
pattern in both their tp and dp forms. They refer to al! of these pattem) clave.
patterns as clave. Sorne North American musicians cal! a !ive-strokc bossa
lt may seem that the terms standard pattern and clave are nova pattern clave. Santos (1986: 32) and Mauleón (1993:
interchangeablc, but most works use standard pattern when 57) call it the "Brazilian clave'· and others cal! it the "bossa
refcrring to the seven-stroke figure and clave as the name of nova clave ."
the !ivc-stroke pattern. 1 have chosen this usage because 1 be-
 The Clave Matrix 245

ex. notes 4: 1 bossa nova pattcrn Examples of "son clave" used in Brazilian Candornblé and
Macumba rhythms:
wrc.._¡ :...._] :...._] ··rr-~~ Afro-Brasileiros (Perrone 1972: CD).
Avaninha 1 Vassi d'ogun (Musique du monde : Bdsil Les-

~~l e 1+ 1:1 ~ le 1: la l, le 1: la 141: 1+ la 1

eaux d'Oxala 1982: CD).
Opanije (The Yoruba 1 Dahomean Collection 1998: CD).
Popolougumde (Pontos de Macumba 1999: CD).
Sanabria (2005: Latinjaa. forum) states that Brazilian com- Examplc of "son clave" used in Brazilian maculele:
poser António Carlos Jobim who devcloped this snare rim Maculele (Pereira 2003: CD).
pattern. did not consider ita clave: 7 . Phonorecords by Sexteto Habanero ( 1925: CD) and othcr
" According to conversations !'ve h<~d with Brazilian drum- Cuban groups sprcad son clave across thc globc.
mer and colleague Duduka da Fonseca, ... it was something 8. " ... Son Montuno Clave lisl the rhythm most used in
António Carlos .lobim devcloped as a basic rhythmic motif. Afro-Cuban dance music, which is bctter known as 'Salsa' .
He also told me that .lobim later regretted it because Latino .. Most Latín musicians call it Son Clave for short lauthor's
musicians confused it with the Cuban concept of clave, which emphasis]" (Sanabria 1986: 76).
was not his intention and is not utilized in Brazilian music." 9. CIDMUC (1997: 63) rcfcrs to son clave as la clave de
3. A variety of names are used today in Cuba: clave de La Habana ('Havana clave') and attributes the pattern to Ha-
Matan~as. clave de lB Habana , clave cubana, clave del gua-
vana-style rumba. In the flrst half of the twcntieth century,
guancá, etc. For thc sakc of simplicity. 1 agree with Berroa what we now call son clave was the clave pattcrn uscd in Ha-
( 1995: YHS): "Thcre are just two claves - son clave and rum- vana-style yarnbú and guaguancó . Yambú and guaguanciÍ are
ba clave ." Cuban partner dances that evolved frorn the older Congolese
4 . Jones ( 1959: 21 2) cites the triple-pulse forms of what erotic dances of yuka and makuta, both of which can use son
we call "son clave" and "rumba clave"-found widely in clave.
West, Central and East Africa, as the two simplified forms Exmplcs of son clave uscd in yuka and makuta:
of the standard pattern. Egblewogbe ( 1967, cited by Collins Tambor yuka (Antología de la música afrocubana 1978:
2004: 29) identilies the triple-pulse forms of both "claves" CD).
as handclap patterns used by Ewe children of Ghana. Use of
both "clave" patterns by the Yoruba of Nigeria is also docu-
Wanilerilo; makuta, Congos (Antología de la música ar
rocubana 1984: CD).
mented . Examples of son clave used in guaguancó:
5. Examplcs of the composite clave (son clave + rumba Ultima rumba (Festival in Havana , Embale 1955: CD).
clave) pattern used in Afro-Cuban music: Agua que va caer (Yaldés 1968: CD) .
Ven Francisco (2: 10) (Mendes 1958: CD). Sorne contcrnporary Havana folkloric groups still use the
Andule andule, makuta (Antologia de la música afrocu- son clave pattem for yambú. Recorded examples of son clave
bana 1984: CD). used in yambú:
Rumba tonando (Jiménez and Oba Jiu 1995: CD). Ave María (Conjunto Folklórico Nacion al de Cuba phono-
Stone (2005: 82) identilies what Unlocking Clave calls the reeord LP) .
composite clave as a bell pattern used by the Kpclle (Libe- Mama abuela (Conjunto Clave y Guaguancó 1990: CD).
ría). Maria Belén (YorubaAndabo 1993: CD).
6. Curtis ( 1920: 98) was the lirst to transcribe the triple-pulse Chevere (Conjunto Clave y Guaguancó 1996: CD).
"son clave" - a handdap pattern used to aceompany "Man- Las lomas de Belén (Eeué Tumba 2001: CD) .
thiki" - a Shona-Ndua (Bantu) "spirit song ." Shc lcarned thc Most likely the early son borrowed thc Havana clave pat-
song and accompanying dap pattern from Mozambican (East tern from rumba at thc turn of thc twentieth century. From that
Africa) informants visiting the United States. Jones (1954: time on , son clave ("Havana clave") has been thc most well
59, 22) documents thc use of the triple-pulse form in Zam- known key pattem of Cuban popular music.
bia (Central Mrica). Jones (1959: 2) and King (1960: 51-52) 10. "Go ing only slightly into the rhythmic structure of our
document the pattern's use in West Africa. Ladzekpo (2008: musie we find that al! its melodic design is constructed on a
per. comm.) cites severa) genres of music in Ghana (Wcst Af- rhythmic pattern of two measures, as though both wcre only
rica) alone that use both the triple and duple-pulse versions of one, the first is anteceden!, strong, and thc second is consc-
"son clave": the Ewe's fofui and allí and the Ashanti's sekwi quent , weak" (Grenet 1939: XV) .
and akom . The Ga 's k in ka, oge and kpanlogo use duple-pulse "Thc simple ... rhythmic figure played by thc claves is the
"son clave ." foundation of practieally all Latin rhythm . From thc stand-
Examples of "son clave" in m usic from Ghana and Benin: point of rhythm, all other instrurnents are generally guided by
Waka(oge)(Addy 1991:CD). . .. the claves" (Morales (1954: 7-8)
Kpanlogo (Koli 1997: 30/CD). "One of the most difficult applications of the Clave is in the
Fumefume (Kofi 1997: 42/CD). real m of composition and arrangemcnt of Cuban and Cuban-
Nago/Yoruba (Benin, Rhythms and Songs .for the Vodun based dance music. Regardlcss of the instrumcntation, the
1990: CD). music for all of the instruments of thc ensemble must be writ-
246 Notes

ten with a vcry keen and conscious rhythmic relationship to and contractive or the poles or a magnet. As the pattem is
thc Clave ... Any 'breaks' and/or 'stops' in the arrangements repeated, an alternation from one polarity to the other takes
must also be 'in Clave'. If thcse procedures are not propcr- place creating pulse and rhythmic drive . Were the pattem to
ly takcn into consideration, then the music is 'out of Clave ' be suddenly reversed, the rhythm would be destroyed as in a
which, if not done intentionally, is considered to be an error. reversing of one magnet within a series ... In batá drumming
Whcn the rhythm and music are 'in Clave', a great natural the pattems are held in place according to both the interna!
'swing' is produced, regardless of the tempo. AH musicians relationships between thc drums and their relationship with
who write and/or interpret Cuban-based music must be 'Clave clave ... Should the drums fall out or clave (and in contern-
conscious', not just the percussionists" (Santos 1986: 32). porary practice they sometimes do) the interna! rnomentum
"The clave is a point of reference for the melody of the of the rhythm will be dissipated and pcrhaps cven broken"
singer, the hom (i.e., brass and/or woodwinds) arrangement, (Amira and Cornelius 1992: 23, 24).
thc piano figures and the percussion parts. lt functions as a 15.1 ha ve adopted Toussaint's (2002: 3) depiction of duple-
point of relerence in two ways. On the one hand, the rhythms pulse son clave as a tive-sided polygon and also applied the
of the vocal or instrumental parts may simp1y be identical to polygon form to the pattern 's triple-pulse structure.
the clave with mini mal elaboration ... On the other hand, the 16. Triple-pulse son clave is used in tp variants of the Cu-
rhythmic phrase of an individual part may fall on, that is, em- ban-Congolese rhythms makuta and yuka (Antolof?Ía de la
phasize, only a few of the live strokes of the clave" (Gerard música afrocuhana 1984: CD), and in the Cuban-Haitian
and Shcllcr 1989: 13). rhythms vodú-radá , vodú-gada and nagó (Coburg 2004).CI-
11. Thc tcrms clave, tresillo, bombo and ponche refer to DMUC ( 1997: 162, 421) shows triple-pulse son clave used in
sorne of the most common rhythmic figures uscd in Cuban a tp variant of punta.
popular music. Since these figures are also the basic build- Examples of triple-pulse son clave:
ing blocks of ensemble rhythms, the terms are used to iden- Tambor yuka (Antolof?Ía de la música (J/rocuhana 1978:
tify fundamentals of the music's structure as well. In Cuban CD).
popular music , these structural fundamentals-clave , tresillo , Lupemba, kunananga; makuta, Congos (Antolof?Ía de la
etc., are oftcn dcscribed using "Westem" music jargon, such música ajrocuhana 1984: CD).
as measures, notes, beats, etc. Bamboleate (5: 13) (Libre 1976: CD).
12. Las alturas de Simpson 1879 by Miguel Faílde (The 17. In Cuba the drum is callcd lumbadora. The practice of
Cuhan Danz.ón: lts Ance.stor.s and De.scendant.s 1982: CD). calling the drum conf?a originatcd in thc United States.
13. Thc Cuban notion of clave agrees with Gerhard Kubik's 18. This marímbula was made by Michael Cox (owned by
view that African timeline patterns represent the structural Gil Spitz) .
core of a musical piece in a condensed and concentrated 19. Ritmo Changüí arrangcd by Juan Carlos Brown (Grupo
forrn. Exploración 2000: CD).
14. Gerard and Sheller (1989: 14) state that "the clave feel- 20. /yesá is the Cuban name for Ijesa, a sub-set within the
ing is in the rnusic whether or not the claves are actually be- Yoruba ethnic group .
ing playcd ." For performers of Cuban-based popular music, 21. Arará is the name of Fon-based rcligion, dance and mu-
thc rhythmic structure is heard and understood in relation to sic in Cuba. The Fon livc in prescnt-day Bcnin and are related
clave, whether the actual clave pattem is played or not. In to the Ewe.
Cuban popular rnusic all bell pattems, in fact nearly all pat- 22. CIDMUC (1997: 62, 63) idcntilics the composite pat-
terns composcd of two-cclls, played by any instrument are tern consisting of rumba clave and thc main beats as la clave
cxpressions of clave. de Matan zas.
"Study will show that the rhythms themsclves , in mirroring ex. notes 4: 2 "Matanzas clave" in duple-pulse form:
clave, ha ve thcir own positivc and negative sides" (A mira and
Cornelius 1992: 24). lmtt·· -t r = =::__¡ : - --f ·t--==~
Nearly all African kcy pattems express the same cssential
rhythmic structurc as clave. This structure is observable in
African rhythms bascd on two opposing cclls, whether or not ~~le 1+ 1: ~~le 1+ ~~ 1: le ~~la 1: le 1+ la 1
a bell pattern is actually being played. In his chapter "A Com-
This clave pattern is used in contcmporary yambú.
parison of Drumming ," Jones (1959: 194-202) notes that in
Sorne of thc first recordings of duplc-pulsc " Matanzas
Central A frica, south of approximately 7°S ., iron bells are not
clave" used in guaguancó:
used to play timeline patterns. He demonstrates that although
La bandera de mi tierra (Los Muñcquitos de Matanzas
no bell is used to accompany the drumming of the Lata pco-
1956: CD).
plc (Zambia), the rhythmic strueture conforms to the standard
Cantar maravilloso (Los Muñequitos de Matanzas 1956:
pattcrn as much as the drumming of the Ewe (Ghana), sorne
CD).
2,000 miles away, where the bell pattern is a staplc.
Recording of triple-pulse "Matant.as clave" in columbia:
" At the root of all batá rhythms lies a concept called clave
Malanga murió (Conjunto Folklórico Nacional de Cuba
... Thc two measures are not at odds, but rather, they are
phonorecord).
balanccd opposites like positive and negative, expansive
 The Clave Matrix 247

ex. notes 4: 3 "Matanzas clave" in triple-pulse form: knowledged for over half a century. The lield of ethnomusi-
cology has focused on the triple-pulse form while writings on
IWII:r ~ ~ r r ~ :JI Cuban music deal with the duple-pulse version. Until rcla-
tively recently, dp son clave ("Havana clave") was considered

~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~
the iconic "Cuban clave." In fact, rumba clave is not even
1+ 1+ 1: la 1: 1+ la 1 mentioned in early works on Cuban music. Morales ( 1954:
8) shows only son clave, stating: "there is one only truc clave
What wc call mmha clave is a cornmon African bell pattern,
found within roughly thc sarne geographic arca as the stan-
30. Jones (1959: 211-212) says all three are "basically onc
dard pattern (scc map on p. 56). Jemes ( 1959: 21 O, 212) identi-
and the same pattern."
fies thc triple-pulse vcrsion as the standard pattem in simple
31. Bushongo raffia piJe cloth pattern, Congo-Kinshasa,
form. He also considcrs it the lívc essential accents within the
adaptcd from Williams (1971: 38).
standard pattcrn as playcd by thc Bemba of Zambia (Central
Africa). Egblcwogbc ( 1967, citcd by Collins 2004: 29) docu-
ments thc use of thc triple-pulse version among the Ewe of Chapter Five
Ghana (West A frica) and Stonc (2005: 82) cites its use by the 3-2/2-3 Clave Sequence
Swahili of Tanzania (East Africa). Winnitzki (2008: field re-
cording) recorded the pattern in Mali. Harington (1995: 63) l. Alaumbachemache (Puente 1957: CD).
identifies the duplc-pulsc form as a bell pattern used by the Canto y toque iyesa a Ochun (0:57) (Angarica 1998:
Yoruba and lbo of Nigeria. CD).
La clave del guaguancó ('guaguancó clave') is the name 2.lyesá (0:02) (Grupo Exploración 2000: CD).
used by CIDMUC ( 1997: 62) for modern rumba clave, which 3. Elegguá (Jiménez and lllu Aña 1994: CD).
it considers a synthesis of the "older" Ha vana (see note 9.) and 4. Eco (Santamaría, featuring Julito Collazo 1972: CD).
Matanzas clave pattcrns. Clave cubana is the name contempo- 5. "The spacing of rhythmic patterns in terms of points of
rary Cuban timba musicians use for rumba clave. entry produces ... the interplay of polyrhythms. As the spac-
23. "IThel Abakuá Socicty, founded in 1835 in Regla, wit- ing of such rhythms is guided by the resultan! figure or tune
nessed an exponential expansion through the 1850s, a tumul- expected to emerge out of the interplay, it is importan! that thc
tuous pcriod at the height of Cuba's sugar fortunes, which entry points are not missed, since this will cause confusion of
included nurnerous slave insurrcctions. lt was founded as an the expected resultant" (Nkctia 1974: 135).
institution of sclf-dcfensc, mutual support, and empowerment 6. Clave-based guajcos were first playcd as accompaniment
within slave society" (Brown 2003: 237). by the tres in son groups. In thc 1940s thc son montuno and
24. Brown (2003: 9-14) and Miller (2005: 23). the mambo layered multiple horn guajcos in contrapunta! ar-
25. Examples of triple-pulse rumba clave in abakuá: rangements.
Marcha efó de la Habana (Antología de la música afrocu- "Arsenio lRodríguezj once said his trumpeters played ligu-
bana 1988: CD). rations the Oriente tres-guitarists played during the improvi-
Abakuá (Afrocuba 1996: CD). sational part of el son" (Helio Orovio cited by Salazar 1992:
According to cchuayc.blogspot.com (2007: webpage), at no. 9, p.ll).
a historie joint performance of the Abakuá and Ekpe (Efik) "During the 1940's, the conjunto instrumentation was in full
societíes in París, thc Africans played the triple-pulse "son swing, as were the groups who incorporated the jazz band (or
clave" pattern on thc ckón bcll rather than "rumba clave" as big band) instrumentation in the ensemble, Guajeos (vamp-
the Cubans do. like lines) could be divided among each instrument section,
26. Many renowned rumbcros are Abakuá. Of all the trans- such as saxes and brass; this became even more subdivided,
planted African rhythms, abakuá is closcst to the rumba form featuring three or more indepcndent riffs for smaller sections
known as columbia. Sorne abakuá choreography has been in- within the ensemble. By adopting polyrhythmic elemcnts
corporated into thc columbia dance. from the son, the horns took on a vamp-like role similar to thc
Examples of triple-pulse rumba clave in columbia: piano montuno and tres (or string) guajeo" (Mauleón 1993:
Columbia andilanga (Yoruba Andavo 1993: CD). !55).
Columbia (Guines 1996: CD). Mauleón refers to the piano guajeo as piano montuno, a
Example of triple-pulse rumba clave in palo: common practice in North America.
Palos from Guanahacoa (Music O/ Cuba CD). 7. Guajeo example adaptcd from Mauleón ( 1993: 120).
27. Ekón bell adaptcd from CIDMUC (1997: 104). 8. Agua que cae del cielo (Adalberto Alvarez, Son 14 1981:
28. Today, son clave is a staple for a great deal of popular phonorecord).
Latin dance music outside of Cuba. The use of rumba clave Agua que cae del cielo (Portuondo 1983: phonorecord).
in popular music is primarily limited to Cuba. Sorne contem- 9. Guajco example adapted from Mauleón ( 1993: 119).
porary Cuban musicians call the rumba clave pattern clave 1O. Basic chord progressions like 1-IV-V-IV are commonly
cubana. used in Cuban popular music and clearly follow thc convcn-
29. The archetypal nature of son clave has been widely ac- tions of Western music theory. By contras!, performers of
248 Notes

African popular musie do not neeessarily pereeive these pro- "[Machito and his Afro-Cubans wcrel the Jirst Afro-Cuban
gressions in the same way. based dance band to overtly explore the conccpt of clave coun-
" . .. the harmonic cyde of C-F-G-F fi-IV-V-IV] prominent tcrpoint from an arranging standpoint - the ability to weave
in Congo/Zaire popular music simply eannot be defined as a seamlessly from one sidc of the clave to the othcr without
progression from tonie to subdominant to dominant and baek breaking its rhythmic integrity within thc structurc of a musi-
to subdominant (on which it ends) because in the performer's cal arrangcment" (Sanabria 2007: Latinjazz forum).
appreciation they are of equal status, and not in any hierarchi- 17. "Thc concept of utilizing 3-2 and 2-3 as a tcrminology
cal order as in Westem music" (Kubik 1999: 105). developed in NYC. 1 have done research on this with many
11. El manicero ('The Peanut Vendor') (Azpiazu 1932: of the legcndary figures in this tradition, most notably Ma-
CD). rio Bauzá, who 1 playcd with for eight years. In fact, 1 would
12. However, there is a growing trend of representing the strongly say that he started thc terminology. It is incontrovert-
musical period (one clave cycle) in a single measurc. Cruz ible in that it works , it's logical and cannot be denied in its ef-
(2004) represcnts the musical period in one measure , but he fcctiveness in the 'real world ' . It's also beautiful in its simplic-
also shows it in two mcasures in an Appendix for those who ity. What fascinatcs me is that othcr cultures did not dcvelop
are more comfortablc reading cut-time. Neraldo originally the eonccpt.
rcprescnted batá rhythms in the two-measure method in his "Whcn Mario Jirst utilizcd Edgar Sampson to writc the very
Jirst edition (2007). In the second edition (2008) he represents first drafts of arrangcments for the Machito and his Afro-Cu-
the musical period in one measure. Warden (2006: 118) and bans, he would draw three sticks for Sampson underneath the
Fernández (2007: 66) represent clave in a single measure. bar with the three-side and two sticks underneath the bar with
Jones (1959: 3); King (1960: 51) ; Locke (1982: 218); Ladze- the two-side. Thi s way he would always know rhythmically
kpo ( 1995 : webpage) and Agawu (2003: 75) all represent the where he was in the ehart and supervise Sampson who was
African bell pattem we call "clave" in a single measure. unaware of the clave concept in Cuban music. Mario utilized
13 . "!Clave 1 consists of a meas u re of three notes and anoth- Sampson's harmonic mastcry and Mario utilized his rhythmic
er mcasure of two notes, and can be playcd two ways: ' three- mastery . Sampson askcd Mario ' Why does it havc to be this
two' or 'two-three,' depending upon which measure is first" way?' Mario told me that he looked at Sampson and said 'This
(Mauleón 1993: 47) . is what makes Cuban m u sic Cuban! ,. (Sanabria 2004: per.
14. "Jinvestigating] the rhythmic structures of our music comm .).
we Jind th at all its melodic design is constructed on a rhyth- 18. Philadelphia Mambo (Puente 1959: CD); written per-
rnic pattern of two rneasurcs, as though both were only one, formed and recorded by Ernesto Antonio 'Tito" Puente ( 1923-
thc Jirst is antecedent , strong, and the second is consequent , 2000).
weak" (Grenet 1939: 15) . "Tito Puente lcarned the tcchniquc of drawing sticks under-
"ITJhc rhythm of the claves never changes. It consists of neath the corresponding bars to the thrce-side and two-side
two bars, onc a syncopated and the other a straight rhythm, from Mario [Bauzál. The evidcnce can be found in old manu-
which are repcated over and over again. The syncopated bar scripts that l've seen" (Sanabria 2004: per. comm.).
should be played when the rnelody is also syncopated and the 19. Chinatown (Mangua!. featuring Tito Puente, 1977:
straight rhythrn should be played when the melody is straight" CD).
(Cugat 1943: 5) 20. Muñeca (Eddic Palmicri 1974: CD).
"The simple two-measurc rhythmic figure played by the Muñeca (Charlie Palmicri 19R4: CD).
claves is the foundation of practically all Latin rhythm. From 21. Que vengan los rumberos (Machito 1941: CD).
the standpoint of rhythm, al! other instruments are generally "Tunes aren't necessarily in one clave or the othcr. Phrases
guidcd by thc bcat of the claves . There is only one clave beat are" (Bravo 2007: Latinjazz forum).
- it consists of two mcasures; howevcr, either measure may 22. "Clave is a two-measure pattern in which caeh measure
st.art a phrasc, depending upon the nature of the composition" is diamctrically opposed. Thc two rneasures are not at odds,
(Morales 1954: 7-8). but rather, they are balanccd oppositcs like positive and nega-
Morales uses the term heat to mean rhythm or pattern. tive, expansive and contractivc. or thc polcs of a magnet. As
"The guiding star of Latín rhythms is the clave, a double the pattem is repcatcd, an altcrnation from one polarity to the
meaning word referring to both a two-bar rhythmic pattern as other takcs place creating ... rhythrnic drive. Werc thc pat-
wcll as the special wooden strikcrs used to produce it" (Cohcn tem to be suddcnly reverscd. thc rh ythm would be destroycd
1974: 13). as in thc reversing of eme magnct within a series" (Amira and
"1 Clave 1is structured in a two-measure phrase ... " (Mauleón Cornelius 1991: 23).
1999: 47) . 23. Jamie Aebcrsold 's chart of ''Philadclphia Mambo"
"The clave is a two-measure rhythm .. ." (Hemández 2000: (1994: 1O) does not truncatc thc i\ and B sections. Nor is a
13). clave sequence indicated. On Black Orchid. Cal Tjader's ver-
15 . Guajco cxample adapted from Maulcón (1993 : 118). sion of "Philadelphia Mambo" (1956: CD) is entircly in 2-3
16. Francisco Rául " Machito" Gutiérrez Gillo (1909- with no truncated phrases. Thc i\ebcrsold chart could be inter-
1984). preted as a representation of the Black Orchid version. Since
Mario Bauzá ( 191 1-1 993). Tjader plays thc A guajeo in 2-3. this vcrsion docs not break
 The Clave Matrix 249

clave from the viewpoint of the performer. Bobby Móntez eordcd by Callen "Cal" Radcliffe Tjader ( 1925- 19R2).
rccorded just the 2-3 B section and re-named it "African Fan- 33. "This adaptation of the melodic eoncept to the rhythmic
tasy " ( 195X: CD). pattern is manifested in such a manncr that the change of a
24. Cal Tjader on JJe.1·car~a ( 1972: CD) and Stcve Pouchie measure in percussion produces such a notorious discrepancy
on Vihe Manio (2006: CD) truncate from Ato B, but do not between the mel ody and the rhythm that it becomes unbear-
truncatc the last 2-3 B fig ure when returning to rhe 3-2 A sec- able to the ears accustomed to our music . This is what thc Cu-
tion. Therefore, both versions break clave in the B toA tran- bans, employing a very graphic term , call gctting in the way
sition. (atravesarse)" (Grenet 1939: 15, 16).
25. "Sometimes it is inevitable . and you find that you must 34. Iyesá arranged by Michacl Spiro (Grupo Exploraeiún
jump the clave for the sake of thc flow of the picce" (Juan 2000: CD).
Formell cited by Mauleón 19Y9: 16). 35. Oyelo de nuevo (1 :21) (Los Muñequitos 1970: CD).
26. "1 tapthe clave with my foot whilc l'm playing ... when 36. lyesá (0:01 ) arranged byMichael Spiro (Grupo Explor-
the mu sic jumps the cla ve it\ like my hcartbeat is altered. So ación 2000: CD).
if the rcason for thc clave jump is to ' kccp the groove alive,' 37. Anabacoa (Grupo Folklórico y Experimenta l Nueva-
it's not happening forme" (Bravo 2003: Latinjazz forum). yorquino 1975: CD).
27. Beeausc many of their North American and Europcan
students frarnc questions in tcrms of 3-2 or 2-3, some Cuban Chapter Six
folklorists will use the terminology in an attempt to help them .
This can lcad to further confusion howcver because very of- The Lead
ten thc folkloric drummer will rcfer to 3-2 rumba clave as 2-3
clave. Rumba clave is the key pattern most commonly used 1. However, the contemporary style of caja used in agbe
for reference in Afro-Cuban folkloric music. Since rumba plays in a counter-clave mode that retlects inlluences from
clave has a group of two strokes ( 1, 1a), followed by a group bonkó and rumba quinto . It usually is played on a quinto drum ,
of three strokes (2a, 3+. 4). rnany Cuban folklorists ass umc rather than a tumba. Example o f contemporary style of caja:
this is what their students mean by 2-3 clave. Agbe arranged by Miguel Berna! (Grupo Exploración 2000:
The fact is that the 3-2/2-3 concept is forcign to most folk- CD).
loric musicians . Some composers and arrangers of Cuban 2. Mambo (0:28) (Cohen 1974: CD); timbales solo by Man-
popular m usic don 't relate to thc concept cithcr. Aecording to ny Oquendo (1931-2009).
Sonny Bravo (2006: Latinjazz forum), thc late Charlie Palm- John Santos transcribed the first publi shed ch art of this tim-
ieri would insist: "Therc's no such thing as 3-2 or 2-3 , thcre 's bales solo , whieh appeared in the Haight Ashbury Music Cen-
only onc clave!" ter (1983) monthly pamphlet.ln the 1990s Víctor Rendón pub-
"Don 't tell me about 3-2 or 2-3! In Cuba wc just play. We lished a chart of the solo in his Timhale Solo Transcriptions .
feel it, we don ·r tal k about su eh things'' (Mongo Santamaría, 3. José Madera transcribed the flrst published chart of the
cited by Washburnc 2008: 190) . accompanying bass and congas , which appeared in the liner
"In Cuba we don't think about !clavel . We know that wc're notes of Understanding Latin Rhythms -(Patato, Bobby Ro-
in clave. Because wc know that we ha veto be in cl ave to be a dríguez), Cohen (1974: only original phonograph release) .
musician " (Mongo Sa ntamaría. ci tcd by Gerard 200 1: 49). Rather than showing Patato 's unique three-drum mclody in
Cuban bassist, composer and arrangcr Alain Pércz (2000: my transcri ption , I ' ve chosen to use a sparser, generic single
timba.com) and Cuban drummer/composer Danfis Prieto drum tumbao.
(2008: leeturc) state that thc 3-2/2-3 conccpt is not used in 4. CTDMUC ( 1997: 63) refers to son clave as cla ve de La
Cuba. Habana(' Ha vana c lave' ) and attributes thc pattern to Havana-
"In Cuba we do not use thal 2-3, 3-2 formula ... 2-3, 3-2 style rumba. It is generally ag recd that when the son migrated
[is] not uscd in Cuba. That is how pcoplc learn Cuban music from the eastern provinces to Ha vana at the turn of the twenti-
outside Cuba" (Pérez). cth century, it adapted this clave pattern from rumba .
28. C. K . Ladzekpo and John Santos attended each other's To hear son clave in yambú and guaguancó, listen to Piñicro
leetures at the 1993 Summcr Arts program, hcld on the cam- (1955) ; Yaldés (1968); Conjunto Clave y Guaguancó ( 1990
pus of Humboldt Statc University. C. K. was amused by what and 1996); Yoruba Andabo ( 1993) and Ecué Tumba (200 1).
he thought was the unnecessarily complieated concept of 2-3 5. Eco (0:44) (Santamaría, featuring Julio "Julito" Colla1.0
clave, saying, "you are just beginning in the second half of [1925-2004]1972: CD);.
the bell pattcrn." 6. LP Theme (5:21) (Patato Yaldés, featurin g Nelson
29. Yemaya Olodo ( 1:07) (Santamaría 1960: CD) . González 1976: CD).
30. Ave María morena (di ana scction at 1:03) (Piñeiro,
featuring Carlos Embale 1Y55: CD).
Lindo yambú (diana scction at 1:20) (Cachao 1994: CD).
31. Mi guaguancó (Santamaría 1959: Yamhu phonorecord;
Mongo's Greatest Hits CD).
32. Mi guaguancó (Tjader IY58: CD); performed and re-
250 Notes

Chapter Seven sense of metrum (the metrc bcing thc temporal rcference unit),
'polymetric' would describe the simultancous unfolding of
Issues of Notation, Terminology and severa! parts in a single work at difTcrcnt tcmpos so as not to
Theory be reducible toa single mctrum. This happcns in somc modcm
music, such as sorne of Charles lves's works, Elliott Carter's
l. Graphic of thc opposcd six-beat cyc!es in a circlc de- Symphony, B. A. Zimmermann's opera Die Soldaten, and
signcd by thc author. Pierre Boulez's Rituel. Bcing polymetric in thc strict sense,
2. C. K. Ladzckpo ( 1995: webpage) and David Locke ( 1982: these works can only be performed with severa! simultaneous
217) are the two scholars who advanced the theory of African conductors" (Aro m 1991: 205 ).
cross-rhythm. 11. The New Harvard Dictionary r1/ Music ( 1986: 489).
3. Much of thc music of the Nigerian Yoruba and the Yo- 12. AJan Dworsky and Bctsy Sansby's popular and comprc-
ruba-bascd music of Cuba has highly complcx cross-rhythms hendablc Conga Drumming ( 1984: 44 , 102) use pulse (box)
govcrned by kcy patterns . However, sorne of this music is notation and count thc triple-pulse structurc as "123456,
bascd on a simplcr single-celled structure. 123456", they cxplain " bccausc that's thc casicst to under-
4. Bo Diddley (Diddley 1955: CD). stand and learn". They al so count thc triple-pulse structure
Willie and the Hand Jive (Otis 1958: CD). as "1 +2+3+4+5+6+," becausc "counting thc cowbell pattcm
5. "In many arcas of Africa timc-line patterns were not used two different ways ... hclpl s 1 yo u get the correct lee! of thc
prior to thc impact of Congolesc and West African popular rhythm ." Thcy do not rcfcrcncc the four main beats in either
culture through mass media" (Kubick 1999: 60). triple or duplc-pulse .
6. King followed Jones's (1954: 45) examplc. 13. Dworsky and Sansby ( 1984: 23) count thc duplc-
7. King (1961: 15) pulse structure as eight main beats, in two sets of four:
8. Natalic Curtís ( 1920: 98) was the first to dcpict the Af- "1 +2+3+4+ 1+2+3+4+ ."
rican triple-pulse structurc as a measure of 7/8 joined with a 14 . " Many pattcrns acccnt bcat 4 of cach meas u re, which is
mcasure of 5/8. referrcd toas ponche ..." (Maulcón 1993: 63).
9. Agawu (2003: 85) 15 . " [Clave] is 'hcld togethcr· by a half-notc pulse on beats
1O. Thc idea of African polymeter is subscribed to by Jones 1 and 3. It is thc pulse which maintains thc stability of the
(1954), King (1961) and Chcrnoff(l979). rhythm ... " (Mauleón 1993: 46).
''A frican music is oftcn characterizcd as polymetric , be- 16. "Pcriod . (1) A complete musical utterance ... a period
cause , in contrast to most Western music, African music can- consists of two phrases (an anteceden! and a consequent) ... "
not be notatcd without assigning different metcrs to the differ- (The New Harvard Dictionary oj"Music 1986: 625).
cnt instruments of an ensemble" (Chemoff 1979: 45) . 17 . Joncs (1949: 26, citcd by ChernofT 1979: 40) .
In rcccnt dccadcs thc notion of African polymeter has been 18. Nearly all kcy pattcrns con ve y thc samc rhythmic prin-
challcngcd and 1 believe, disproven . cipies. Sorne patterns cxprcss it in a more straightforward
"Of thc many rcasons why the notion of polymeter must be manncr, while othcrs exprcss it more abstractly. Son clave and
rcjcctcd, 1 will mcntion threc. First, if polymcter were a genu- the standard bell are two of thc rnost archctypal kcy pattcrns.
inc fcaturc of African music, wc would expcct to find sorne Rumba clave, with its distinctivc third strokc, is si ightly more
indication of its pcrtincnce in thc discourses and pedagogical abstract. Tagrcc with Novotncy ( 1998: 163):
schcmcs of African musicians , carriers of the tradition . As far "It is clear that all of thcsc patterns are ma ni fcstations of the
as 1 know, no such data is availablc ... Second, because practi- same fundamental idea, that bcing onc cyclc of an on-bcat 3:2
cally al! thc ensemble music in which polymeter is said to be cross-rhythm followcd by onc cycle of an offbcat 3:2 cross-
opcrativc in dance music , and given thc grounding demandcd rhythm. To say that one of thc abovc pattcrns is a variant of
by chorcography, it is more likcly that thesc musics unfold another implics that onc pattcrn is historically older than thc
within pol yrhythmic matrices in single mctcrs rather than in . others, an axiom which 1 doubt could be provcn with satisfac-
.. " mixcd" mcters ... Third , dccisions about how to rcpresent tion."
drum ensemble music foundcr on the assumption, madc most 19. African music : Joncs (1954) and King (1960). Cuban
dramatically by Jones, that accents are mctrical rather than music : Grcnet (1939) and Morales ( 1954).
phcnomcnal ... phcnomenal accents play a more important 20. "rThe fivc-strokc vcrsion isl thc 'Standard Pattcrn' in
role in African music than mctrical accents. Because meter its simplcst and most basic form .. . Thc rclationship bctween
and grouping are distinct, postulating a single meter in accor- thi s basic lfive-strokcl form and the lscvcn-strokel variant ..
dance with thc dance allows phenomenal or contrametric ac- . is quite obvious if the two patterns are prcsentcd onc undcr
ccnts to emerge against a steady background. Polymetcr fails thcother"(King 1961:14).
to convey thc true accentual structure of African music insofar 21. King (1960: 52) .
as it creatcs the essential tcnsion between a firm and stablc 22. C. K. Ladzekpo (2008: pcr. comm.) also agrces with
background anda fluid forcground" (Agawu 2003: 84, 85). the general hypothesis . Santos ( 1983: 33) stalcs that rumba
"IThcl term 'polymctric ' is only applicablc toa very spe- clave " is derivcd directly frorn the 1sevcn-strokc 1 African bcll
cial kind of phenomenon. lf we takc "metre" in its primary parts". Maulcón (1993: 49, 50, 52) prescnts a chronological
 The Clave Matrix 2.51

sequence: seven-strokc 6/8 bdl , 6/8 son clave, 2/4 son clave, issue of simultaneous triple and duple pulses.
4/4 son clave. Sanabria (2008: Latinjazz) says "clave whether John Santos addrcsses the triple/d uple intcrprctation of
its rumba or son clave, has its roots in thc lseven-strokcJ 6/8 rumba clave in his 1983 article "The Clave: Corncrstonc of
bcll pattcrns that camc from sub-Sahara Wcst Africa." Cuban Music":
23. Curtís ( 1<nO: 98) docurncnts thc use of both the fivc "Thc proper feel of this !rumba clave] rhythrn, is actual! y
and seven-strokc pattcrn in East A frica. Jones ( 1954: 59) and closer to triple-meter" (Santos 1986: 33).
Kubik ( 1999: 54) docurncnt both pattcrns in Central Africa. Santos's transcription of rumba clave is in 4/4. If thc propcr
Joncs (1959: 2). King ( 1960:51 ,52) and Ladzekpo (2008: per. "feel" of rumba clave is closer to triple-meter than 4/4 , thcn
comm.) conlirm the widcsprcad use of both patterns in West why write it 4/4? Why not write it in triple-meter?
A frica. ln his 1996 instructional video Gelling Started on Congas,
Thc scven-strokc standard pattcrn is found in thc trans- Bobby Sanabria ( 1996: VHS v. 2) counts diffcrent bcat e yeles
plantcd Bantu (Congolcsc), Yoruba (Lucumí). Fon (Arará), while playing rumba clave:
and Bantu, Fon and Yoruba from Haití ("Haitiano'') musics in "The clave of rumba is interesting bccausc you can count
Cuba. Thc livc-strokc clave pattcrn is used in both the trans- it by four's or you can count it by threc's. You can also count
planted folkloric music and island-born popular music. it by six- so thc possibilities for syncopation are m ueh more
24. Curtís ( 1920: 98) transcribcd a traditional triple-pulse varied."
Shona-Ndua (Mozambiquc) song, in which the rhythm nearly In their own ways, Cohen, Santos, and Sanabria cach de-
word for word. is thc sevcn-stroke pattern . Hands clapping thc scribe the elusive triple/duplc phcnorncnon.
fivc-stroke "son clave'' pattcrn accompany the song. Howev- 27. Hemández (2000: 16).
cr, the two pattcrns are obscurcd in the transcription because 28. Michael Spiro (2006: 38) dcvotes an cntire chaptcr in
Curtís wrotc it in a rnulti-mctric/additivc form of alternating his Conga Guidebook to this tcchniquc, whic.:h he calls "lix"
measurcs of 5/8 and 7/8. (four and six) :
Examplc of a low-pitchcd drum altcrnating between the five " ...a major difficulty for those ra iscd in Wcstcrn cultures is
and sevcn-strokc pattcrn: that in Afro-centric rnusics the rhythmic distinction bctwecn
Balafon of Burkina Faso (Dances oj'Burkina Faso CD). three subdivisions per beat and four subdivisions pcr beat
Example of a bcll altcrnating bctwccn the llve and seven- (triple vs. duple), is frequently blurred . In severa! cases, thc
stroke pattcrn : differcnce does not exist at al!- there is a complete! y "ncw"
Congo: Palo Monte (Cuba, Les danses des dieux 1988: subdivision at work. This is what gives Rumba from Cuba
CD). and Samba from Brazil ande ven c.:ertain kinds of Bc-bop their
Example of triple-pulse son clave and the seven-stroke bell unique characters . lt is what my compadre Davc Garibaldi
played together in salsa: tends to refer to as that 'slinky stuff'. - Half thc time you
Bamboleate (5:13) (Libre 1976: CD). can't tell if you ' re in duplc fccl or triple fccl, and wc're jusi
In palo and columbia thc li vc-strokc rumba clave is oftcn not u sed to that ambiguity. Sometimes it e ven upscts us! 1 call
playcd along with the scvcn-strokc bcll. this 'averaging' of rhythm between a four anda six fcel, 'lix ·
Examplc of thc livc and scvcn-strokc patterns played to- (Four and Six), and it is an essential component of lcarning
gether: to swing in these styles. Fix is a concept we must acquirc,
Palos from Guanabacoa (Music oj' Cuba 1978: CD). rnanipulate and flnally, internalize."
25.1n columbia thc clave is olkn playcd on a guagua (piece 29. Capricho de abuela (Clave y Guaguancó 1996: CD). ,.:~
of bamboo) with two sticks; onc hand plays clave and the 30 . Thanks to James Whiting for this triple/duplc-pulse
other hand plays the main beats . clave graph.
Rumba columbia (Grupo Exploración 2000: CD). 31 . 'The lack of clave consciousncss in Cuba is starting to
This pattern is also playcd on a guagua in palo: be felt more and more where the rhythmic equilibriurn cstab-
Palo (Grupo Oba-llu 2007: CD). lished by the clave direction is being sacriticcd duc to lack of
26.ln his groundbrcaking 1974 record/booklct Understand- knowledge in how to work with it from an arranging stand-
ing Latin Rhythms, Martín Cohcn says this about the overall point by young arrangcrs cspccially in the timba movcmcnt"
"fecl" of guaguancó: (San abria 2003: Latinjazz).
"The guaguancó is a 6/8 rhythm originating in Havana, 32. In an intcrvicw with Rebeca Mauleón ( 1999: 16), Juan
Cuba, but with hcavy African roots .. .To make thc learning Formell, leader Los Van Van addressed thc issuc of"jumping"
process casier. the musical notation for the guaguanco was or "breaking" clave in contemporary Cuban popular music:
written in 4/4. but its corree! cxecution ca lis for a 6/8 ' fccl "' "Sometimes it is inevitable , and you lind that you must jump
(Cohen 1974: 13 ). the clave for the sake of the fiow of the piece. You shouldn ' t
We are left to pondcr thc diflcrcncc bctween 6/8 anda 6/8 fcel traumatized by this, and shouldn 't sacrifice the quality of
"feel" and how that "fccl" should aid us in interprcting a tran- a piece of music simply because the clave dircction must be
scription in 4/4. Would not thc lcarning process havc bccn interrupted. We Cubans, at least , like to think we havc "clave
easier ifthe chart werc writtcn in 6/8, if guaguanc.:ó were truly license" when it comes to this, and we don 't fecl as obsesscd
a "6/8 rhythm"? Clearly Cohcn is attempting to address the about the clave as many others do."
33. La sandunguita (2:46) (Delgado 1999: CD).
252

pholo: Kdli c Jo Brown

 Thc Clave Matrix 253

Glossary

Abakuá. 1. A secret fraternal organization of Cuba originat- beat cycle. A repeating sequence of beats. Thc most com-
ing in the Leopard Societies of West Africa, particularly the mon beat cycles in clave-based music are the four-beat cycle,
Efik 's E kpe and the Ejagham 's Ngbe secret societies. 2. The three-beat cycle , six-beat cycle , oftbeat six-cycle. eight-hcat
music and dance of the Abakuü. The abakuü ensemble con- cycle and offbcat eight-cycle.
sists of four drums (biankomo or biankomeko), a bell (ekón) bembé. l. A family of drums used by the Yoruba in Nigeria
anda woven basket shaker (erikundí). and Benin. 2 . A ritual and party in honor of the orishás. 3. A
additive rhythm. One of the two main methods of generat- set of Yoruba-based Afro-Cuban drums and thc triple-pulse
ing rhythm (the other being divisive rhythm). Additive rhythm rhythm they play.
is generated by combining pulse groupings of twos and threes binkomé. The high-pitched supportivc drurn of the abakuá
(or multiples there of). Because clave music contains triple ensemble.
groupings in duple-pulse structure and duple groupings in bombo. l. Spanish for 'large drum'; a marching bass drurn
triple-pulse structure it has often been misinterpreted as ad- used in conga de comparsa and mozambique , that cmphasizcs
ditive rhythrn. the bombo pulse. 2. The second cross-beat of 3:2 or the sec-
Afro-Cuban .iazz. Jaz:t. with Afro-Cuban rhythms, a sub-set ond stroke of tresillo . In the complete four-beat cyclc, bombo
of Latin jazz. is la and 3a.
agbe. 1. A Yoruba gourd instrument covered with a bead- bongos. Two small, attached drums held bctween the knees;
ed net. The African and Cuban versions differ slightly. Also thc traditional drum of the son (Spanish: honRÓ).
called shekere (Nigeria) . and chekeré or Niiiro (Cuba) . 2. Cu- bonkó. The lead drum of the abakuá ensemble. Full namc:
ban chekeré ensemble closely related to bembé, consisting of bonkó enchcmiyá.
three chekerés. a hoe blade (guataca) , or bcll and sometimes cachimbo. l. The highest pitched drum of the Afro-Cuban
accompanied by one or more conga drums. Bantu-based cnsembles and bcmbé. 2. The highest pitched
agogo . A douhle bell made of iron (Yoruba). A descendant chckeré in a set of three.
ofthe same name is used in Afro-Brazilian music. caja (cah-hah). l. The lead and lowest pitched drurn of the
Arará. l . The name uscd in Cuba for thc descendants of Bantu-based Afro-Cuban ensembles and bcmbé. 2. The lcad
the Fon ethnic group of West Africa, their religion, music and lowest pitched chekeré in a set of three.
and dance. 2. The ararü ensemble consisting of three or four Candomblé. Yoruba-based religion in Brazil consisting of
drums and an iron bell (ogün). 3. Batü drums accompanying three sub-groups: Nago, Ketu and ljexa, with influcnccs frorn
arará songs and dances play their own arará rhythm called additional ethnic groups: Jcjé (Fon), Angola and Congo (Ban-
toque arará. tu) and Caboclo (Native American). Thc Candomblé ensem-
asymmetric timeline . See key fHillern . ble consists of three drums (atabaques) and an agogo bell.
axatse (ah-haht-say). An Ewe gourd instrument covered Carnaval. The annual camival cclebrations held in Cuba,
with a beaded net. Brazil and throughout the Caribbean and Latín Amcrica , as-
backbeat. l.ln jau., rock and other North American genres, sociated with Catholic Lent and akin to the Mardi Gras of
an accent on main beats 2 and 4. Often eontinuously sounded New Orleans .
by a snare drum. 2. Main beats 2 and 4; the main beats not cáscara. Spanish for 'shell.' l. Thc pattern played on the
coinciding with the secondary heats in 12/8 , or tresillo in 4/4. si de (metal shcll) of the timbales , al so known as paila . 2 . A
See alsofrontheal. specific stick pattern in rumba that's al so uscd inCuban popu-
balafon. A Mandinka marimba . Also ealled hala. lar music.
Bantu. l. A large portion of the sub-Saharan population, cell. A basic rhythmic pattern spanning two rnain beats that
particularly in Central Africa. encompassing hundreds of is continually repeated. Clave consists of two cells , the most
ethnic groups, a major branch of the Niger-Congo linguistic common being 3:2 or tresillo.
group. 2. Thc name used in Cuba for the dcseendants of si aves chachá. Yoruba for 'butt;' the smaller head of the double-
brought from the Congo River Basin, thcir religion, music and headed batá; the chachás generatc a sccondary mclody within
dance (Spanish: lwnlú) . Also known as ConRo. the drum ensemble.
batá. Double-headed, hourglass-shaped drums from thc Yo- Changó. A dcified Yoruba king, thc orishá of thunder and
roba peoplc. In Cuba thcre are three progressively sized drums lightning and the owner of the batá drums (A frica: ShanRo or
in a set; in Nigeria and Bcnin thc Yoruba bata cnsembles vary Sango, Brazil: Xang6).
in numbers and types of drums used . changüí (chahn-gwee) . A forerunner of son originating in
beat. Thc larger unit of musical time. Sec al so pulse. There Cuba's eastem provinces consisting of tres, bongó de monte.
are severa! types of beats: primary (main) beats, secondary
beats, onbeats, oflbcats and cross-bcats.
254 Glossary

marímbula or botija (clay jug) and maracas . clave). See also with-clavc.
charanga. One of the two main instrumental formats of cross-beats. Beats that contradict the prevailing meter or
Cuban popular music (the other being son conjunto), con- structure. In clave-based music cross-beats are generated by
sisting of llutc, strings (violín and sometimes viola and grouping pulses contrary to their given structure, for example:
cello), bass, piano, congas, timbales and güiro. Modem-day groups of two or four in 12/8 or groups of three or six in 4/4.
charangas evolved from the charanga francesa, which inter- cross-rhythm. A sub-set of polyrhythm. thc result of cross-
pretcd thc French contredanse in the 1800s . These groups beats superimposed over the main beats .
werc brought to Cuba from Haiti when French plantation cruzado. A pattern or phrase that is opposite from its correct
owncrs llcd that island during the Haitian Revolution ( 1789- alignment with clave is said to be cruzado (crossed) or, as the
1805). Charangas (charanga orquesta or orquesta típica) Cubans pronounce it crusao.
play thc Cuban contradanza, danzá and danzón, as well as Dagara. An ethnic group from Ghana and Burkina Faso , a
later genres such as the chachachá, pachanga and songo. part of the Niger-Congo linguistie group.
chekeré. A gourd instrument with beaded net (Yoruba). danzón. A descendant of the Cuban contradanza, performed
Also Spanish: chequeré, English: shekere. Also called agbe by charanga bands and the lirst written music based on clave.
or !{üiro in Cuba. descarga. A Cuban jam session inlluenccd by North Ameri-
clave (clah-vay). l. A Spanish word meaning 'code,' can jazz and characterized by spontaneous guajcos and impro-
' key ' - as in key toa mystery or puzzle, or ' keystone' -the vised solos.
wedge-shaped stone in the center of an arch that ties thc diana. A vocal introduction uscd in yambú and guaguancó
other stoncs together. 2. One of two five-stroke patterns (son consisting of vocalized syllablcs instead of lyrics .
clave and rumba clave) representing the clave principie. 3. divisive rhythm. One of the two main methods of generat-
The organizing principie of most Afro-Cuban rhythms. ing rhythm (the other being addilivc rhythm). Divisive rhythm
clave matrix. The entire interwoven structure of clave- is generated by dividing the main beats by two 's and three's
based music as it relates to its generative source. and their multiples. It is symmetrical and bascd on an equal
clave music. Music rhythmically based on the clave prin- and regular beat scheme . All clave music is divisive rhythm.
cipie . djembe. Uem-bay) A popular hand drum or the Mandinka.
clave-neutral. A pattern or phrase that does not have an downbeat. The first bcat of a mcasurc oran entire composi-
established alignment in relation to the sides of clave. tion, typically marked by thc downward motion of a conduc-
claves. (clah-vays). Two hardwood sticks used to play tor's han d. Often con fu sed with main he al.
clave paterns in rumba and son-based genrcs. dun-dun. An hourglass-shaped drum of the Yoruba . Its
clave sequence. In popular music the clave is in either pitch can be changed whilc playing by squeezing the laces
a 3-2 or 2-3 clave sequence (also called clave direction). that connect the two hcads. Yoruba is a tonal language, so thc
When the chord progression begins on the three-side , it is a dun-dun 's fluetuating pitch enables it to pcrform a sophisti-
3-2 clave sequence; starting on the two-side, it is a 2-3 clave cated leve! of surrogate speech. Somctirncs called a '"talking
sequence. drum."
columbia. One of the three main forms of rumba, distin- duple-pulse. A unit of musical time creatcd hy dividing the
guished by a triple-pulse ( 12/8) structure. Columbia is a solo main beats by two or its multiples. Regular duple-pulses di-
dance traditionally done by men only. vide the main beats by four. Rcpresented in Unlocking Clave
conga. Short for conga de comparsa, the rhythm played in with the 4/4 time signature.
the streets of Cuba during Carnaval time. The instrumenta- Efik. An ethnic group from thc Cross Rivcr rcgion (Cal abar)
tion includes tumbadoras (conga drums), bombo (marching of southern Nigeria and northern Camaroons, bclonging to the
bass drum), redoblante (snare drum), cencero (cowbell), Niger-Congo linguistic group (Spanish: ejfk).
sartenes (frying pans) and trumpets. eight-beat cycle. Eight beats that divide the dave cycle,
conga drum. l. The Nmth American name for the quint- represented as cighth-notcs in 4/4 and as dotted eighth-notes
esscntial Afro-Cuban hybrid drum known as tumbadora in in 12/8.
Cuba . 2. North American usagc: The mid-sized drum in a set ekón. An iron bcll used in thc abakuá ensemble.
or thrce congas. enú. Yoruba for 'mouth,' the larger head ofthc double-head-
Congo. l . The Congo River Basin of Central Africa and ed batá and the one that "speaks" (surrogatc specch) , creating
its inhabitants. 2. Bantu-based religion, music and dance in the primary drum mclody.
Cuba, Brazil and Haiti. Ewe. (ay-way) An ethnic group of Ghana, Togo and Benin,
contradanza, Cuban. A Cuban version of the French con- belonging to the Gbc branch of the Nigcr-Congo linguistic
tredansc which emerged on the island in the early 1800s and gro u p.
is charactcrized by its use of simple African-based rhythmic folkloric music. One of two rnain types of clave-based Cu-
figures. Also known as the habanera. ban music (the other being popular music). Folkloric rnusic is
counter-clave. A pattern, phrase or single stroke that does essentially folk music, an auraltradition taught by rote . Clave
not coincide with the strokes of son clave (Spanish: contra- is the main referent in most Afro-Cuban folkloric music.
 The Clave Matrix 255

Fon. An ethnic group of Henin and southwest Nigeria, key pattern. A pattern which, in a condensed forrn , pro-
belonging to the Ghe hranch of the Niger-Congo linguistic vides a key or guide to the organizing principie toa rhythm.
gro u p. Key patterns are typically clapped , played on idiophones such
four-beat cyde. Sce primury hea1 cycle. as a bell, or on a high-pitehed drumhead. All key pattcrns are
four-part rhythmic countcrpoint. The primary and sec- interrelated and serve thc samc function.
ondary beats, key pattern and thc lead instrument or voice. kuchí yeremá. The mid-pitched abakuá drum that plays a
frontbeat. Main heats 1 and 3; thc rnain bcats coinciding supportive part.
with the secondary beats in 12/R, or tresillo in 4/4 (see also Latin jazz. Jazz using Latin American rhythms, most orten
hackheaf). When clave is written in two measures, the front- of Cuban origin.
beat is the downheat (lirst beat) of each measure . lamellaphone. A type of idiophone where metal keys or
generativc form. A basic tígure such as three-over-two tines ("tongues") are plucked.
that generales n1orc complcx and varicd rhythmic strueturcs. lock mode. The main mode of alead drum part; alead rno-
Also called the lhmrelicform. tif set ("lockcd") in a specific relation to clave and the other
guagua (wah-wah). l. Cuban slang for hus. 2. A hollowed drums .
piece of bamboo used to play key patterns in rumba. The Lucumí. The name used in Cuba for !he descendants of thc
guagua "drives thc rhythm." Yoruba ethnic group of West A frica, their rcligion, music and
guaguancó (wah-wahn-ko). One ofthc three main forms of dance.
rumba , guaguancó is a competitive partncr dance with sexual makuta. An crotic Afro-Cuban partner dance of Bantu ori-
symbolism borrowed from Bantu fertility dances. gin.
guajeo (wah -hay-o) . l. A typical Cuban ostinato melody, main beats. See primary heat cycle .
most often consisting of arpcggiated chords in syncopated mambo. l. A Cuban namc of Bantu origin for a style of
patterns . The guajeo was first played as accompanimcnt on music developed in thc 1940s involving the layering of con-
the tres in son-based music. 2. Ostinato patterns played spe- trapunta! percussion and guajeos. Arcaño y sus Maravillas
cifically by a tres. piano . an instrumcnt of thc violín family, and Pérez Prado were two of the most importan! bands in the
or saxophoncs. development of thc mambo. 2. An orchestral section of an ar-
guataca. The iron hoe hlade that serves as a bell in Afro- rangement often featuring layered horn guajeos (moñas) .
Cuban religious m u sic . Mandinka. An ethnic group living mostly within Guinea,
guide pattern. See key pallern. Mali, Ivory Coast, Senegal and the Gambia; a part of thc
güiro (wec-doh). l. A gourd instrument with ridges scraped Mande branch of the Niger-Congo linguistic group.
with a stick , used in charangas and modern salsa bands. 2. A marímbula. A large lamcllaphone of Bantu origin found in
name for chekeré. 3. A name for the chckeré ensemble and its Cuba and elsewhere in the Caribbean. The original bass of thc
accompanying dance (see aKhe). son ensemblcs , it is a resonating box sat on whilc plucking thc
gyil. A marimba of the Dagara people. metal tines ("tongues").
habanera. l . The stylc of contradanza playcd in the mid- mbira. A hand-held Shona lamcllaphone , usually played
1800s in Ha vana , Cuba 's capital. 2. A common rhythmic fig- inside a deze (resonating gourd). Thc tincs are pluckcd with
ure that is a composite of tresillo and the main beats . Also the thumbs, hensc its English name 'thumb piano.'
known as the tango rhythm. meter. The organization of rhythmic time into a rccurring
Ibo. An ethnic group of Nigeria, bclonging to the Niger- pattern of bcats . In Western music there are two main typcs of
Congo linguistic group. meter: triple and duple. Although 4/4 and 12/8 m ay be termed
idiophone. A percussion instrumcnt that is struck (bell , quadruple meter because they are bascd on four main bcats,
woodblock, claves), shaken (chekeré, axatsc) , or scraped they are nevertheless a sub-type (or 'special case,' as The
(güiro). New Harvard Diclionary of Music calls it) of duplc meter. In
itótele. Mid-pitchcd drurn of the African and Cuban batá a broader sen se then , al! clave music is in duple meter.
ensemblcs . montuno. Cuban Spanish for 'mountainous,' referring to
iyá. Yoruba for ·mother,' thc lead and lowest-pitchcd drum the mountainous, rural areas of Cuba's eastern provinces
of the African and Cuban batá ensembles . The drum 's full where this importan! changüí and son element originated. Thc
name is iyá i/u (Cuba), or iyaalu (Africa), which means montuno is the call-and-response scction (also called estri-
'mother drum.' billo) , the chorus (coro) section.
lyesá. l. A sub-group within the Yoruba ethnic group; mozambique (moe-sam-bee-kay). l. A Carnaval rhythm,
also spelled liesa (Nigeria) and fiexá (Brazil). 2. An Afro- later adapted to band , that was created in Cuba during thc
Cuban drum ensemble used in Yoruba-based rituals, consist- 1960s by Pedro Izquierdo, aka " Pello el Afrokán ." Mozam-
ing of four drums and two double iron be lis. 3 . Two different bique was one of the first post -Revolution Cuban rhythms and
rhythms played by the Cuban iyesá drums-a duple-pulse instigatcd the trend of using rumba cl ave in popular music.
iyesá anda triple-pulse iycsá. 4. Anothcr duple-pulse rhythm 2. A band rhythm combing elements of conga and mambo,
called iyesá is played by batá drums accompanying iyesá created by Eddie Palmieri's rhythm seetion in New York City
songs and dances.
256 Glossary

and inspired by Pello's creation of the same name . ground.

mula. l. The mid-pitched drum of the Afro-Cuban, Bantu- popular music. Onc of two main types of clave-based
based ensembles and bembé. 2. The mid-pitchcd chekeré of Cuban music (thc othcr being .fálkloric music). As used in
the aghc (or güiro) ensemble . Unlocking Clave, popular music rcfcrs to hybrid genres that
musical period. A complete musical phrasc consisting of includc elemcnts of Western harrnony. Popular music is often
two hal ves- antecedent and consequent. Clave represents the pcrformed on stage by profcssional musicians .
musical period in Afro-Cuban rhythms. primary beat cycle. Four beats that divide the clave cycle,
Niger-Congo. The largest linguistic group in Africa, stretch- rcpresented as quartcr-notes in 4/4 andas dotted quartcr-notes
ing from the southern end of the Sahara Desert to the tip of in 12/8. Also called thc main heats.
Cape Hope in South Africa . primary bombo. The sccond strokc of clave ( 1a); the bom-
ngoma. A cylindrical hand drum of the Bantu. bo that coincides with clave.
obiapa. The low-pitched supportive drum in the abakuá en- primary ponche. The third strokc of son clave (2+ ); the
semble . ponche that coincides with son clave.
offbeat. A pulse or stroke not coinciding with or not on a pulse. The smaller, regular unit of musical time (See also
bcat-offthe beat (Spanish: contratiempo). heat); a subdivision of the main beats. rcprescntcd as six-
otlbeat-eight cycle. The latent beats of the eight-bcat cycle teenth-notes in 4/4 and cighth-notes in 12/X.
(e anda pulses); those regular duple-pulses that are diametri- quinto. (keen-toe). l. The lcad drum part for rumba and
cally opposed to the eight-beat cycle. conga de comparsa . 2. Not1h American usagc: thc highest
offbeat-six cycle. Thc latent beats of the six-beat cyclc; pitched drum of the set of three congas.
thosc regular triple pulses that are diametrically opposed to rumba. A folkloric hybrid reflccting thc Afro-Cuban rhyth-
the six-bcat cyclc. mic sensibility. Its thrce main forms are columbia , yambú and
okónkolo. Thc highest pitchcd drum of the Cuban batá en- guaguancó. The rumba ensemble typically consists of three
semble . conga drums , claves, guagua and sometimcs a single maraca
onbeat. A pulse or strokc coinciding with a beat - on the and/or chekeré uscd to play steady beats.
beat. rumba clave. The clave pattern typically uscd in rumba.
onbeat-eight cycle. See eight-heat cycle. salsa. A gcneric classification for Cuban-stylc popular mu-
onbeat-six cycle. Sce secondary beat cycle. sic created outside of Cuba, originally coined and promoted
orishá. A Yoruba ancestral deity rcprescnting the forccs in the 1970s for commercial and political reasons. Although
of naturc and archetypal human personalities. Also spelled controversia!, in rccent years thc tcrm has becn broadened to
orichá (Cuba) , orixa (Brazil) and orisa (Africa). include sorne music from Cuba-salsa cubana.
palitos. A Spanish word meaning 'littlc sticks,' rcferring to samba. Afro-Brazilian dance in duplc-pulsc structure that
the two sticks uscd to play the guagua and the pattern the uses mostly pcrcussion instrumcnts and voicc and is a promi-
sticks play. The pattern is known as cáscara. nent feature of Carnaval in Rio de .laneiro.
palo. An Afro-Cuban, Bantu-based religion, music and secondary beat cycle. Six beats dividing thc clave cycle.
dance. The main emphasis of most 12/8 drum ensemble rhythms.
polymeter. The technique of combining two or more me- secondary bombo. The bombo in bctwccn the last two
ters, either simultaneously or successively as developed in strokes of clave (3a); thc bombo that does not coincide with
twcntieth century art music. Afriean cross-rhythm is often clave.
mistakcn for polymeter. However, the conflicting beats in Af- secondary ponche. Thc ponche that docs not coincide with
rican music are arranged within a hierarehal structure built son clave (4+).
upon a single meter- four main beats (duplc meter). segundo. Spanish for "second;' thc sccondary drum part
polyrhythm. A composite rhythm consisting of two or that answers the primary drum. For cxamplc. in guaguancó
more contrasting rhythms. thc mid-pitched conga answcrs thc low-pitchcd tumba.
punchando. A type of non-arpeggiated guajeo using block septeto. A son group consisting of scven membcrs: two
chords . The sequence of attack-points is emphasized, rather vocalists (claves and maracas). bongos. tres, guitar, bass and
than a sequence of different pitches. As a form of accompa- trumpet.
niment it can be played in a strictly repetitive fashion or as sexteto. A son group consisting of six mcmbers: two vo-
a varied motif akin to jazz comping. The most well known calists (claves and maracas), bongos. tres. guitar and bass. In
ponchando is the "Oye como va" vamp. early sextetos thc role of thc bass was fullfilled by the marím-
ponche (pone-chay) . l. The third cross-beat of 3:2 or the bula or botija (clay jug).
third stroke oftresillo. rn the complete four-beat cycle, ponche Shona. An cthnic group of /~imbabwc and Mozambique,
is the and pulse before beats 1 and 3 (4+ and 2+). 2. Spanish belonging to the Bantu branch of thc Niger-Congo linguistic
for 'punch,' a unison break (cierre) accenting ("punching") group.
the ponche pulse, typically used to transition from one song six-beat cycle. See secondary heat cvcle.
section to the next. As a break, ponche momentarily brings son (sewn). One of the most importan! Afro-Cuban musical
thc rnain emphasis of the rhythmic background to the fore- hybrids, the ancestor of most Cuban popular music.
 The Clave Matrix 257

son clave. The clave pattern used in son and in carly Ha- up. Often confused with offbeat.
vana-style rumba. with-clave. A pattern, phrase or single strokc that coincides
son conjunto. One of thc two main instrumental formats with thc strokes of son clave . See al so counter-cla ve.
of Cuban popular music (the other bcing charanga), consist- yambú. One of the three main forms of rumba , yambú is a
ing of: trumpet. bass, tres. guitar, bongos, claves and maracas partner dance that pre-dates guaguancó. Sometimes cajones
or güiro. In thc 1940s Arsenio Rodríguez rcplaccd the guitar (woodcn boxes) are substituted for conga drums.
with the piano, added thc conga drum and additional trumpets. yuka. An Afro-Cuban erotic partner dance of Bantu ori-
The son 's instrumental ion e volved furthcr by the adding of gin.
timbales and in most instanccs, abandoning the tres. These Yoruba. A major ethnic group of Nigeria who are al so
last developments remain the basic template of modern salsa. found in southern Benin; a part of the Niger-Congo linguistic
songo. l. Cuban usagc: A genrc of stylistic inventions cre- group. Elemcnts of Yoruba music and dance survivc in Cuba,
atcd by Los Van Van during the 1970s and 80s, developcd by Brazil, Haiti and Trinidad.
their timbalero Luis "Changuito'' Quintana. 2 . North Ameri-
can usagc: The general approach adoptcd by many Cuban
bands (mostly charangas) during the 1970s and 80s , in which
rumba and othcr folkloric elcrncnts and North American jazz
and funk wcre incorporated.
son montuno. A stylc of son dcvelopcd by Arsenio Ro-
dríguez in the 1940s. involving thc layering of contrapunta!
parts. See also so11 co11iunto.
standard pattern. l. Thc archctypal scvcn-strokc bell pat-
tern (Lockc). 2. The triple-pulse forrn of thc seven-stroke pat-
tern , as wcll as the livc-strokc "son clave" and "rumba clave"
pattcrns (Joncs and King). All thrcc patterns are considered
variants of a single archctype.
tango rhythm (Spanish: ritmo de tango). See habanera.
timba. A contcmporary band stylc in Cuba blcnding typi-
cal dance clcmcnts with rumba, jazz and hip-hop, interprcted
mostly by horn-bascd groups. A dircct descendant of songo,
timba was introduced by the group NG La Banda.
timbales (tim-ball-ays). A smaller, "Cubanized" set of or-
chestral tympani. originally devcloped for use in charanga
groups. Two singlc-headed drums mounted on a stand to
which cowbclls werc mounted in the 1940s.
tres. A "Cubanizcd'' guitar. consiting of three sets of double
strings and playcd with a pick. A traditional instrument of
changüí and son .
tresillo (tray-see-yo). l. Spanish for 'triplct' 2. The first
three strokes of duple-pulsc son clave and the duple-pulse cor-
rclative of thc sccondary beat cycle.
triple-pulse. A unit of musical time created by dividing the
main bcats by three or its multiplcs. Regular triple-pulses di-
vide the main bcats by thrcc. Reprcscnted in Unlocking Clave
with the 12/8 time signature.
timeline. Scc key fHIIlern.
tumba. l. Short for tumbadora. 2. North American usage:
the lowcst pitchcd drurn of the sct of thrce congas .
tumbadora. Thc propcr Cuban name for thc conga drum.
tumbao (A contraction of the Spanish word tumbado, from
the infinitivc tumbar - 'to knock down') . l . A rhythmic figure
derived from tresillo that is played by the bass. 2. The ponehe-
based conga drum part used in popular music (also known
as marcha) . 3. The commonly used term for a timba piano
guajeo.
upbeat. Thc last beat of a meas u re, typically marked by the
upward motion of a conductor's hand; synonymous with pick-
258

"
-
Thc Clave Matrix 259

Bibliography
Books and Theses
Aebcrsold, Jamey Brown, David
1994 Salsa./,otin Jo::. v. 64. Maney Aerborsold Jazz, 2003 The Light lnside: Abakuá Society Arts ami Cuhan
1m:. Cultural History. New York: Smithsonian Books.
Acosta , Leonardo Centro de Investigación de la Música Cubana (CID-
2003 Onc Hullllrcd Ycars o/ .faz-: in Cuha. Washington, MUC)
OC: Smithsonian Books. 1997 Instrumentos de la música folclórico-popular de
Agawu, Koli Cuba v. 1, v. 2, atlas. Havana: CIDMUC.
2003 Represcnting Aji·imn Music: Pos/colonial Notes , Charry, Eric
Querics. t>ositions. New York: Routlcdgc. 2000 Mande Music: Traditional and Modern Music oj'the
A1ves, William Maninka and Mandinka of Western Africa. Chica-
2006 Music o/ the Pcoplcs o/ thc World. Bclmont, CA: go: University of Chicago Press.
Thomson Schinncr. Chernoff, John Miller
Amccn, Robby and Lincoln Goincs 1979 African Rhythm and Sensihilities. Chicago: Univ-
1990 Funki/ving thc Clm·c. New York: Manhattan Musie, ersity of Chicago Press.
Belwin Music . Coberg, Adrian
Amira, John and Steven Cornelius 2004. Percusión afro-cubana v. 1, Percusiánjillklorica ;
1992 The Music o{Santcria-Traditional Rhythms ofthe Percusión mayor y menor. Bern: thc author.
Bauí Drums. Tempe . AZ: Whitediffs Media. Collins, John
Antonio, Rolando, and Pérez Fernández 1992 West African Pop Roots. Philadelphia: Temple Uni-
19S6 La hinari:aci<Ín de los rilmos ternarios africanos en versity Press.
América !~atina. La Haban a: Casa de la Américas. Cruz, Tomás with Kev in Moore, Orlando Fiol and Mike
Arom , Simba Gerard
2004 Aji·ican Polyphony afl(/ Polyrhythm: Musical Struc- 2004 The Tomás Cruz Conga Method v. 1, v. 2, v. 3. Pa-
turc ami Mcthodolo¡!J'. New York: Cambridge Uni- cific, MO: Me! Bay.
versity Prcss. Cugat, Xavier
Bartz , Gregory 1943 . Meet Mr. Cugat-Bringíng Latin Amerim to you in
2004 Music in l~'ast Afrim. New York: Oxford Univer- Music and Rhythms. New York : 1rving Berlín, lnc.
sity Press. Curtís, Natalie
Bebcy, Francis 1920 Songs and Talesfrom the Dark Continent. New
1975 Aji·ican Music, A Pco¡1/c :, Art. Brook1yn , NY: Law- York: Dovcr Publication s.
rence Hill. Da Fonesca, Duduka and Bob Wciner
Berlincr, Paul F. 1991 Brazilian Rhythmsfor Drumset. Miami: Manhattan
1978 Thc So u/ o/ thc Mhiro. Music ami Traditions of the Music.
Shona People ofZimhahwe. Chicago: University of Danniel, Yvonnc
Chicago Press. 1995 Rumba: Dance and Social Change in Contempo-
BarteniciT, lrmgard and Forrestine Paulay rary Cuha.lndianapolis: Indiana University
196S "Choreornetric Proliles," p. 256 in Folk Song Style Prcss .
ami Culture, cd. Alan Lornax. Washington, OC: Davis,Rick
American Association for thc Advancement of Sci- 2003 Trompeta: Chappottín, Chocolate and the Afro-Cu-
ence. ban Trumpet Style. Metuchcn, NJ: Scarccrow Press.
Bettlcheirn, Judith Doczi, Gyorgy
1993 Cuhan Fcstiva/,1·: An 11/ustrated Hístory . New York: 1981 The Power rd Limits: Proportional Harmonies in
Garland Publishing. Nature, Art and Architecture. Boston : Shambhala
Boggs, Vernon, W. Publictions.
1992 Salsiologv: Aji·o-Cuhan Music arul the Evolution of Duran , Ncraldo with Bill Summers, Michac l Spiro, Kcvin
Salsa in Ncw York City. New York : Excelsior Mu- Repp and Vanessa Lindberg
sic. 200S Bata Rhythmsjrom Matanzas, Cuba . San Francis-
Bramly, Serge co: Kabosile.
1977 Macumha. San Francisco: City Light Books Dworsky , Alan and Bctsy Sansby
Brand1y, Jimmy 1994 Conga Drumming. Pacific , MO: Mcl Bay.
2004 The Nnv Mcthod.Jár A/ro-Cuhan Drumming . Briar- Eglash, Ron
diff, NY: Hudson Music. 1999 African Fractals, Modern Computing and lndige-
260 Bibliography

nous Desi¡!,n. New Brunswick , NJ: Rutgers Univer- 2008 Ori¡!,ins oj"Cuhan Music and Dance , Chllfi!!,ÜÍ. Lan-
sity Press. ham, MD: Scarecrow Prcss .
Ferguson, Eric Lehmann, Bertram
2009. Afro-Cuban Son Trumpet in the Septeto Period: Per- 2002 The Syntax li{Clave: Perception and Analysis (!/
jiJrmance Practices and Historical Context . M .A. Meter inCuban and A/rican Music. MA Thcsis ,
Thcsis , California State University, Los Angeles . Tuffs University .
Pernandez, Robert, Levine, Mark
2007 The Afro-Cuban Folkloric Musical Tradition . Syl- 1989 The ./azz Piano Book . Pctaluma, CA : Sher Music Co .
mar, CA: Leisure Planet Boooks . 1995 The .lazz Theory Book. Pctaluma, CA: Sher Music
Flatischler, Reinhard Co.
1992 The For¡!,otten Power ofRhythm . Mendocino , CA: Levitin , Daniel J.
LifeRhythm . 2006 This is Yrmr Brain on Music. New York: Dutton .
García, David F. Locke, David
2006 Arsenio Rodrí¡!,uez and the Transnational Flows of 1990 Drum Damha: Talking Drum Lessons (featuring
wtin Popular Music . Philadelphia: Temple Univer- Abubakari Lunna). Tempe, AZ: Whitccliff Media Co.
sity Press. 1998 Drum Gahu: An fnlroduction lo African Rhythm .
Gerard, Charley and Marty Sheller Tempc. AZ: WhitccliiT Media Co.
1989 Salsa : The Rhythm of Latín Music . Te m pe , A'Z: London, Justin
Whitecliffs Media Co. 2004 HearÍil!!, in Time . Ncw York: Oxford University
Gon<;alvcs, Guilhermc and Mestre Odilon Costa Press .
2000 The Carioca Groove, the Río de Janeiro's Samba Malabe , Frank
Schools Drums Sections. Rio de Janeiro: Groove. 1990 Afro-Cuban Rhythmsfár Drumsel. Ncw York: Man-
Grcenberg, Gary hattan Music Inc .
2001 Con¡!,a Drumming: Afro-Cuban Folkloric Rhythms. Manuel, Petcr ed.
Nevada City , CA: the author. 2009 Creolizin!!, Contradance in !he Carihhean . Philadcl-
2001 Bata Drumming: Oru Seco and Special Toques. Ne- phia: Temple University Prcss.
vada City, CA: the author. Mason, John
Grenct, Emilio , tr. R. Phillips 1992 Orín Orisa , Son¡!,s.Jár the Selected Heads . Brooklyn ,
1939 Popular Cuhan Music . New York: Boume. NY: Yoruba Theological Archministry.
Guilfoylc, Conor Mauleón, Rebeca
2006 Odd Meter Clave . Rottenburg: Advance Music. 1993 The Salsa Guidehook. Petaluma , CA: Sher Music
2009 Rhythmic Reading for Drummers . Rottenburg: Ad- Co.
vance Music. 1999 /01 Montunos. Petalurna, CA: Shcr Music Co.
Hagadorn , Katherine Mead, Ryan
2003 Divine Utterances: The Performance ofAfro-Cuhan 2007 Text-to- Texl Ali¡!,nmenl in the Music olLa Charan¡!,a
Santería. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books. Hahanera . SSP Honors Thcsis, Stanl'ord University.
Horn , Diana Victoria The author.
1996 African Printed Textile Designs . Gilsum, NH: Miller, Ivor
Stcmmer house. 2008 Voice 11{ the Leopard: African Se ere/ Societies and
Hartigan , Royal Cuha. Jackson. MI: Univcrsity Prcss of Mi ss issippi .
1995 West African Rhythmsfor Drumset, ed . Dan Thress. Montejo, Estaban
Van Nuys , CA: Alfred Publishing . 1968 The Autohio¡!,raphy ola Runmmv S/ ave'. ed. Miguel
Kcita, Mamady with Uschi Billmeir Barnet , tr. Jocasta lnnes . Ncw York: Panthcon Books .
1999 A Life for the Djemhé- Traditional Rhythms of the Morales, Humberto and Hcnry Alder
Malinké . Brussels: Arun. 1954 How to Play La/in American Rhv1h111 lnslruments.
King,Anthony New York: Belwin lnc.
1961 Yoruha Sacred Music from Ekiti. Ibadan: University New Har vard Diclionary oj" Music
Press. 1986 ed. Don Michacl Randcl. Cambridge: Harvard Uni-
Kubik . Gerhard versity Press .
1999 Aji-ica and the Blues. Jackson , MI: University Press Newman , James , L.
of Mississippi. 1995 The PeoplinR oj"Aji·ica; A Geo¡!,raphic lnterpretation.
Lapidus , Benjamín New Havcn : Yalc Univcrsity Prcss.
2005 "Stirring the Ajiaco: Changüi, Son and the Haiti an Novotney, Eugene D.
Conncction," p . 237 in Cuhan Counterpoint; the 1998 The Three ARainst Two Rela1ionship as the Founda-
Lefiacy of Fernando Ortiz, ed. Mauricio A . Font tion ofTimelines in West Aji-ican Musics. Ph .D. the-
and Alfredo W. Quiroz. Lanham, MD: Lexington sis, University of lllinois.
Books.
 l

The Clave Matrix 261

Ortiz , Fernando Silver to Con¡.:o Square. Chicago: Chicago Rcview

1950 Los inslrttlllentos de la mtísicafólklórica de Cuba. Prcss.
19go Ir. John Turpin 111 ano B .E. Martínez. Oak- Sülsbruck, Birgcr
land. Ci\: the lranslators. 1980 Latin American Percussion. Wappingers Falls, NY:
Owuso, Hieke Beekman Books lnc.
2007 Aji·icun S'vmhols. South New York, NY: Sterling. 1999 Congas • Tumhadoras, Your Basic Conga Reper-
Ogunade, Taiwo toire . Herning: The Associ ation of Music Teachers
1991 Nigerion Musiml Stvles. New York : Oluweri Publi- in Denmark.
calions. Temperlcy, David
Orivio , Helio 2004 The Co,;nition ofBasic Musical Structures.
2004 Cuha11 Musicjiom A lo Z. Durham , NC: Duke Uni- "Grouping Structure in African Music." Cam-
versity Press. bridge: MIT Press .
Palmer, Robert Thompson, Robert Farris
1995 An Unrulv Historv ofRock ·n ' Rol/. New York: Har- 1974 African Art in Motion. Bcrkeley : University of
mony Books. California Press.
Peñalosa, David 1984 Flash CJ{the Spirit. Ncw York: Yintage Books.
2010 Rumha Quinto. Redway,CA: Bembe Books. 1991 Dancing Between Two Worlds: Kon¡.:o-Angola Cul-
Rendón, Víctor ture and the Americas: Essay. Ncw York: Caribbc-
n.d . Timholes Solos. n.p. , the author. an Cultural Center.
2001 The Art of l'loying Timbales. New York: Music in Uribe, Ed
Motion Films, LTD. 2006 The Essence ofAfro-Cuban Percussion and Drum
Roberts, John Storm Set . New York: Alfred Publishing Co.
1972 Hlack Music oj"Hvo Worlds. Ncw York: Sehirmer Vaughan, U mi, Carlos Aldama
Books. 2012 Carlos Aldama's Life in Batá . Bloomington, IN:
199g Thc Latin Tinge: The lm¡Jacl ojLatin American Mu- Indiana University Press.
sic on the Unitcd Sta/es. New York: Oxford Univer- Yélez, María Teresa
sity Press. 2000 Drummingfor the Gods, Th e Lije and Times o/ Fel-
1999 Latin.la:::: . Ncw York: Schirmer Books . ipe García Vil/ami!. Philadclphia: Temple Univer-
Samba. Mokhtar sity Press.
2001 African Rhvthms amllndependence for Drumset, Villepastor, Amanda
eJ. Dan Thrcss. New York : Music in Motion Films. 2006 Bata Conversations: Guardianship and Entillemenl
Schuller. Gunther Narratives about the Bata in Ni¡.:eria and Cuba .
196g Early .lo~ z. v. 1, lts Roots and Musical Develop- Ph.D . Thesis, School of Oriental and African Stud-
mcnt. New York: Oxford University Press. ies, University of London.
Shilgi, Jerry Wadc, David
n.d. Orisha Song Antlwlogy. n.p., the author 2006 Symmetry: The Ordering Principie. New York:
Spiro, Michael Walker and Co.
2006 Thc Conga Drummcr :,· Guidehook. Petaluma, CA: Warden , Notan
Sher Music Co. 2006 Cajón Los Muertos: Transculturalion and Emergen/
Staplcton. Chris and Chris May Tradition in Afro-Cuhan Ritual Drumming and
1990 Ajricw1 Rock, thc Pop Music ofa Continent. New Song . M.A. Thesis , Tufts Univcrsity.
York: Dutton. Washburnc, Christopher
Stewart, Gary 2008 Sounding Salsa. Philadclphi a: Temple University
1992 Brcukout. Projiles in A/rican Rhythm. Chicago: Uni- Press.
versity of Chicago Press. Washington, Erica Lanice
Stone, Ruth M. 2005 "Shabach Hallelujah!": The Continuity ofthe Ring
2005 Music in West Africa. New York: Oxford University Shout Tradition as a Site ofMusic ami Dance in
Press. BlackAmerican Worship. M .A . Thesis, Bowling
Stover, Chris Green State University.
2009 A Th eorv ofFiexihle Rh_whmic Spacesfor Disapor- Williams, Geoffrcy
ic African Music. Ph .D. thesis , University of Wash- 1971 African Designs from Traditional Sources. New
ington . York : Dover Publications.
Sublet, Ned Zaslavsky, Claudia
2004 Cuha al/(/ its Music: From the First Drums lo the 1973 Africa Counts, Number Pattern in African Cultures.
Mamho . Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Boston: Prindle, Weber and Schmidt.
2008 The World that Made New Orleans,from Spanish
262 Bibliography

Periodical Articles, Liner Notes and Websites

Where dates and/or publishers are unavailable, articles can usually be found online.

African Music Digcst Coburg, Adrian

http://launch .groups .yahoo .e o m/ group/ http: //www.iyaloddc .ch.
AfricanMusic/. Cohcn, Martin (tcxt) and José Madera (music transcriptions)
AfroCuba Wcb 1974 Understanding La/in Rhy1hms. lincr notes. phono-
http: //a frocubawcb.com . graph only, LP Yenturcs LPV-337-A.
Afropop Worldwidc http: //www.congahcad .com.
http: / /afropop .org. Collins, John
Agawu , Kofi 2004 African Musical Symbolism in Conlemporary Per-
2006 "Structural Analysis or Cultural Analysis? Compar- speclive (Roo/s, Rhylhms and Relalivily). Berlin:
ing Pcrspcctives on the 'Standard Pattern 'of West Pro Business.
African Rhythm ," Journal ofthe American Musico- CongaPiace.com
logical Society 59 , no. 1: 1-46. http://www.co ngaplacc.com.
Almendra, John Courlander, Harold
1996 "Timbales and Drumset Independcnce Applica- 1949 Cult Music oj'Cuba.liner notes. Folkways
tions ," La!in Percussionist no. 3: 14. Records FE 441 O.
Altmann, Thomas Cox, Barry
2006 "Thc Giraldo Rodríguez Record," http: //w ww 2002 Rumba Lyrics: Cancionero rumbero, http://www
.ochcmusic.de/artgiro.htm. .nolanwarden .com/lati nperc/cancionero .pd f.
http: / /www.ochem usic .de. Cuban Music Forum
Anku, Willc http ://launch .gro u ps .yahoo .com/group/
2000 "C ircles and Time: A Theory of Structural Orga- CubanMusic/?yguid=60405217.
nization of Rhythm in African Music," Society for Daniel, Yvonne
Music Theory 6, no . l. 1991 "Changing Yalues in Cuban Rumba; A Lower Class
Askcw, Grcg Black Dance Appropriated by the Cuban Revolu-
1996 "Tambores iyesá, "Latin Percussionist no . 3: 6. tion ," Dance Research Journal, Fall.
Atkinson, Kim Djembe-L
"Lcsson Notes," http: //www.pulsewave.com . http://launch .gro u ps. yahoo .com/ gro u p/djembe-1/
Bascom, William R. ?yguid=418487704.
1951 "Thc Yoruba of Cuba." Lagos. Descarga.com
Bembc, lnc. http://www.descarga.com/cgi-bin/db.
http://www.bembc.com . Echú Aye
Boggs, Ycrnon W. http://echua y e .blogspot .com.
1993 "Johnny Otis, R&B /Mambo Pionecr," Latin Beat Explorations in Afro-Cuban Dance and Drum
Magazine 3, no . 9: 30. (Howard Kaufman, director)
Bongo Group, Thc http ://www .humboldt .edu/~cx tended/a frocuban/.
http ://launch .groups.yahoo.com/group/ Floyd Jr., Samuel A.
ThcBongoGroup/. 1999 "La música negra en el círculo caribeño," The Cen-
Boogalu Productions ter for Black M usic Research American Music 17 ,
http ://www.boogalu.com. no. 1: l.
Cabrera, Lydia FolkCuba.com
1955 Música de los cultos africanos en Cuba. English http ://www.folkcuba.com.
lincr notes tr. Adam Raskin. Fournier, Alexandrine Boudreault
Carp, David 2002 "The Tumba Francesa Socictics in Cuba," Essay.
n.d. " Barry Rogcrs: Salsero, Searcher, World Musi- Gerstin, Julian
cian ," http: / /www.descarga.com/cgibin/db/archives/ 2007 "Sandy Pércz: [nnovating with Afrocuban Tradi-
Prolilc42?Lh8einfm ;; 115. tion," Percussive No/es, April.
ChcrnoiT, John M . Guilfoyle , Conor
2006 "The Rhythmic Medium in African Music," New Drum Lcssons, http://www.conorguilfoylc.com.
Lilerary History, v. 22, no. 4 "The Clave in Fivc."
"Five Over Two."
 l
The Clave Matrix 263

"Latin Funk in Fivc.·· "The Roots ofTimba."

"Subdivisions." "The Elemcnts ofTimba ."
"Cuban Patlcrns for Kit." "Timba Gears."
'Thc Cascara Gcts Funky." "The History ofTimba."
Ladzekpo, C. K. Noble, Hil ary
1995 ''Foundation Coursc in African Dancc-Drumming," http:// www.hilarynoblc.eom.
http: //b mrc .bcrkclcy .cdu/people/ladzekpo/ Ortiz, Fernando
Foundation .htm l. 1936 "The Xylophonic Clave of Cuban Music: An Eth-
"The Myth of Cross-Rhythm." nographic Essay." reprinted in Center for Social
"Thc Structure of African Rhythm ." Research, March , 1992. CLJNY Graduate School.
" Beat Schcmcs." Palmer, Robert
"Dcvclopmcntal Tcchniqucs of Cross-Rhythm." 1988 "The Cuban Connection ," Spin Ma f:{azine, Novem -
"Tcch niquc of Main Beat." ber, p. 27.
'' Measure Schcmcs." Pantaleoni, Hewitt
"Techniquc of Composite Rhythm ." "Three Principies ofTiming in Anlo Dance Drum-
"Tcchnique of Polyrhythm.'' ming."
''Six Against Four Cross-Rhythm ." Peñalosa, David
"Thrcc Against Four Cross-Rhythm." 1996 Música Yoruba, Conjunto Folklórico Nacional de
"Eight Beat Scheme." Cuba. lincr notes, tr. Fernando Peñalosa. Bembe
" Rhythmic Framework Exercise.'' CD 22010-2.
Lapidus. Bcnjamin 1999 " Hcaring Clave and Discerning the Melodies of the
2004 "Ca no Estremera and thc Art of the Soneo," Cen- Batá Drums," Latin Percussionist no . 8: 4.
/ro .lounwl XVL no. 2. 2000 "The Quinto Cross," Latin Percussionisl no. 10: ~-
2005 "El Tres (Instrumental Musical)," La/in Beat 2001 "Guaguancó Quinto-Tumba-Segundo Conversa-
Maga ;.inc, October, 2005 . tion," ed. Peter Greenwood, Latin Percussionist no.
2005 "Thc Changüí Gen re of Guantánamo, Cuba," Soci- 12:5.
elyjór t ;lllllomusicologv ./ourna/49 , no. l. http://ww w.unloekingclave.com .
Latin Beat Magat.ine Rendón , Yietor
htt p://www .la ti nbeatmagazinc .corn/ . 1996 " Timbales Fills ," "6/8 Bass Drum Yariations,"
Latin Jazz Forum Latin Percussionist no. 3: 17 , 19.
(Luis Moreno, Moderator) 2000 "Solo Ideas for Timbales ," Latin Percussioni.1·t no.
hit p://launch .groups. yahoo .com/group/latin jazz/ 10: 15 .
'lyguid=60405217. 2001 " Reading a Ti m bale Latin Percussion Chart,"
Levine, Mark Latin Percussionist no. 13: 8.
http://www.marklcvinc.com . Sakeyfio , Odukwe G.
Locke, David 1980 Yoruba Music and Dance at /la Ranf:{un Odun
1982 " Principies of Off-Beat Timing and Cross-Rhythm t;gungun Festival. liner notes. Folkways
in Southern Ewe Dance Drumming,'' Society for Records FE 4294.
t;¡hnomusico/ogv ./ournal. Novcrnbcr, p . 217. Salloum, Trvor
Jones , A. M. 2000 "Gagá," Latin Percussionist no. 11 : 8.
"On Transcribing African Music," A/rican Music Salazar, Max
Societv .lounwl pp. 11-14. 1992 " Who lnvented the M ambo? Part 1" La1in Beat
King , Anthony Magazine 2, no. 8: 9.
1960 "Thc Employment of the Standard Pattcrn in Yoruba 1992 " Who Invented the Mambo ? Part 2" l~alin Beal
Music ," American Music Sociely .lournal pp. 51-54. Magazine 2, no. 9: 9.
Millcr, lvor Sanabria, Bobby
2003 "Jesús Pércz and the Transculturation of the Batá 1986 "The Songo," Modern Drummer Maf:{azine, April, p.
Drum'' Uiálogo no. 7: 70 76.
2005 "Cuban Abakuá Chants: Examining New Linguis- Santos, John
tic and Historical Evidence for the African Diaspo- 1982 The Cuban Danzón : lts Ancestors and Uescen-
ra ,'' Afrimn S1Udie.1· Review, Apri 1, p. 23. danls.Jiner notes. Folkways Records FE 4066.
Moore , Kevin 1983 "Manny Oquendo Timbalc Solo" Haight Ashbury
2001 "The Four Great Clave Debates,'' http: //www. Music Center (pamphlet) no . 1O.
timba .com/fans//e la vede bates .asp . 1985 Music ofCuba. liner notes. Folkways Records FE
2008 "Timba, Undcrstanding Cuban Rhythms," 4064.
http:l /www.ti mba .corn/artists /news/index .as p. 1985 "Songo," Modern Drummer Maf:{azine, December,
2M Bibliography

p. 44. Vurkac, Mechet

1985 "Bomba," Modern Drummer Magazine, March, p. "Stati stical Signa! Processing Mcthods for the
28. ldentification of Clave Structure in Latín Ameri-
198ó "The Elegant ," Modern Drummer Magazine, June , can Rhythms ," http://web .eces .pd x .edu/-ssp/
p. 30, Reports/2004/Yurkac .pd f.
198ó "The Clave: Comerstone of Cuban Music ," Modern ¡Vamos a guarachar!
Drummer Maf?azine, September, p. 32. http:/ /esquinarumbcra .blogspot .com.
1986 "Advanced Conga Drum Workshop," Modern Walker, Chris "Flaco"
Drummer Maf?azine Dece mber, p. 42 http://www.flaco.net.
1987 "Conga de Comparsa," Modern Drummer Magazine , Walton, James
March, p. 56. 1955 "lron Gongs from the Congo and Southern
1987 "The Brazilian Tamborim," Modern Drummer Maga- Rhodesia," Journal of the Royal AnthropoloRi-
zine, June, p. 44. callnstitute o/Great Briwin and lrcland 55,
1987 "The Mozambique ," Modern Drwnmer Magazine p. pp. 0-23 .
86. Warden, Nolan
1996 "Tumbao Diferente #2 Latin Percussionist no. 3: 12. 2000 "Mongo Santamaría Conga Solo," Latin Pcrcussion-
2000 " Bomba Songueá," Latín Percussionist no. 11: 7 . ist no. 11 : 9. http://www.nolanwarden.com/
2000 "Tumbao Diferente #6, Threes and Twos," Latin Per- latinpe rc/cancioncro .pdf.
cussionist no . 10: 6. 2005 "A History of the Conga Drum , Percussive
2001 " Bomba Songuerá II," Latín Percussionist no. 12: 10. Notes Fcb. p. 8.
2001 "Tu m bao Diferente #6," Latín Percussionist no. 13: http://www.nolanwarden .com.
6. Washburne, Christopher
http://www .johnsantos .com. 1997 "The Clave of Jazz: a Caribbean Contribution to
Schloss . Andrew the Rhythmic Foundation of an 1\frican-Ameri-
1981 Carnival in Cuba. liner notes . Folkways Records FE can Music," 8/ack Music Research .lournal.
4065. March.
Spiro , Michacl 1995 "Clave: Thc African Roots of Salsa." Ka/inda'
http://www.michaclspiro .com. Newsletter jár tlze Centerfor 8/ack Music Research,
Stover, Chris Fall.
2008 "Construing Rhythmic Spaces in Diasporic African http://www.chriswashhurnc.com.
Music," Musical Currentsfrom the Left Coast pp . Whiting , James
84-108. Cambridge Scholars Press. 2008 "Rumba Clave: An lllustrated 1\nalysis," http://
Sulsbruck, Birger rumbaclave.blogspot ..:om/2007108/
http://www.sulsbruck .dk/B irger/B irger.htm. rumba-clave-illustratcd-anal ysis .htrnl.
Thompson , Robcrt Farris
1991 "Dancing Betwecn Two Worlds: Kongo-Angola Cul-
ture and the Americas." New York: Caribbean Cul-
ture Ccntcr.
Timba.com
http://www.timba .com.
Toussaint, Godfried
n.d . "Gcometric Properties of Musical Rhythms," http://
mavcn.smith.cdu/~streinu/FwCG/e-proc/taslakian.
pdf.
2002 "A Mathematical Analysis of African , Brazi lian and
Cuban Clave Rhythms" Montreal , School of Com-
puter Science.
2005 "The Euclidean Algorithm Generatcs Traditional
Musical Rhythms ," Proceedings (d BRIDGES:
Mathematical Connections in Art Music and Sci-
ence p. 47 Banff.
UnlockingCiave.com
(David Peñalosa , host)
http://unlock ingclave .com .
 The Clave Matrix 265

Discography
Sub-Saharan African Music
Addy, Yacuh Master Drummer of Ghana Makossa phonorecord 11-86012 ( 19~2)
Addy, Mustapha Tcttcy Master /Jrummer of Ghana, v. 1 Lyriehord phonoreeord 7250
Master Drummer of Ghana, v. 2 Tangent phonoreeord 139 ( 1980)
Les percussions du Ghana A ron CD 64055 ( 1980)
The Royal Drums of Ghana Welt Wunder CD 102-2 ( 1991)
Kpanlop,o Party Lyrichord phonorecord 725 1
Com e and Drum WeltWunder CD 101-2
Ade, King Sunny .fu .fu Music Mango CD 9712 (1982)
Syn cro System Mango CD 9737 ( 1983)
Africando Trovador Sterns CD 1045
Ambassadcurs lntcrnationalcs, /.es Amhassadeurs lnternationales Rounder CD 5053
Les, with Salir Kcita
Anthology of African Music Nip,eria, v. 3 lgho Music BM phonorccord 30 L2311
Baobab. Orchcstra Pira te :1· Choice World Circuit CD 014 (1982)
Berliner, Paul, rccorded by The Soul ofMbira Nonesuch CD (1973)
Dairo , l. K. .fu .fu Master l . K. Dairo Original Music CD 009-2
Franco t:t le tout puissant O . K . ./azz Esperance CD 50 ( 1990)
Gillis, Vcrna , rccordcd by Music 1?/the Ashanti ofGhana Smithsonian FW CD 04240 ( 1979)
Ghana ... Music of the Lyrichord CD 7321 ( 1975)
Northern Tribes
Kaminsk i, Joscph S .. rccordcd by Asante Kete Drumming: Music Lyrichord CD 7454 (200 1)
ofGhana
Kcita. Mamady Percussions Malinke FMDCD
Ladzckpo. C. K., with Kwaku Ritual Music ofthe Yeve Makossa phonorecord 86011 ( 1982)
Ladzckpo, Agbi Ladzckpo
and Kudzo Donkor
Ladzckpo , C. K .. and thc Bcat Yanu1s é Blue Heron phonorecord 70101 ( 1986)
Merchants
Ly, Mamadou Mandinka Drum Master Yillage Pulse CD 1001 (1992)
Mamady, Kcita and Scwa Kan Percussions Malinke Wassolon Fonti CD 159 ( 1989)
Mapfumo, Thomas The Chimurenp,a Singles Shanachie CD 43066 ( 1976-1980)
_ ____ ., and thc Blacks Corruption Mango CD 9848 ( 1989)
Unlimitcd
Hondo TMBU CD 13 (1993)
Mensah, E. T. Giants o/ Dancehand Highlife Original Music CD O11 ( 1970)
Mujuru , Ephat Rhythms of Lije Lyrichord CD 7407
National Thcatrc of Nigcria Oha Koso Kalcidophone phonorecord 2201 ( 1975)
Nico , K wamy and Rochcrcau Aji·ican Fiesta Sonodisc CD 36512
Nigerian Beat Twins , Seven Seven KICC CD ( 1989)
Oba, Adedara Arunra Loja Yoruha Traditional Music v. 2 Kola phonorecord 29
Olatunji, Bahatunde Drums of Passion Columbia CD 8210
More Drums ofPassion Columbia phonorecord 9307
_ _ _ __ .. with Joc Hcndcrson Soul Makossa Paramount phonorecord 6061 ( 1973)
Oriental Brothers lntcrnational Heavy on the Highlife! Original Music CD 012.267
Roberts , John Storm Afro-Cuhan Comes Home: The Original Music cassette tape ( 1986)
Birth and Growth of
Congo Music
Rose, Dudu N'Diayc Sahar Melodic CD 49135-2
Turnbull, Colin M., rccordcd by Music o/ the Rain Forest Pygmies Lyrichord CD 7151 ( 1961)
West African Instrumental Quintet West A(rican instrumental Quintet Heritage CD 16 ( 1929)
Zimbabwe Shona Mhira Nonesuch CD (1977)
266 Discography

Various artists Azagas & Archibogs; The 60s Original M usic CD O14 ( 1960s)
Sound of Lagos Highlife
Benin, Rhythms and songsfor VDE CD 612 ( 1990)
the Vodun
Cameroon Unesco CD X029
Central Africa: Kongo drums Buda CD 92525-2
Central African Republic Unesco CD 8020
Drums of the Yoruba of Nigeria Smithsonian FW CD
Drums of West Africa, Ritual Lyrichord phonorccord 7307
Music of Chana
Ewe Drumming from Chana Topic CD 924 (2004)
Ewe Music of Chana Smithsonian FW 04222 ( 1969)
Dances of Burkina Faso Buda CD 82481-2
lvory Coast Festival Drums Allcgro Music CD 140216 ( 19)-17)
Senegal- Musique Wolof 2007, Ocora Radio-Francc CD
Sound d'Afriques v. 1 'Soukous ' Mango CD 9697
Sound d'Afriques v. 2 'Soukous' Mango CD 9754
Yoruba Bata Drums : Elewe Music Smithsonian FW CD 04294 ( 19XO)
and Dance
Yoruba Drumsfrom Benin , West Smithsonian FW CD 40440
Aj"rica
Yoruha Street Percussion Original Music CD O16
 Thc Clave Matrix 2ó7

Afro-Cuban Folkloric Music

Abilona Tambor Yoruba v. 1 Caribe CD box sct ( 1999)
Tambor Yoruha v. 2 Caribe CD box set (200 1)
Afroamcrica Afrocuban Songs and Rhythms VDE-Gallo CD (1997)
Afrocuba A/rocuba Rehearsal, Matan zas Recorded by Michael S piro. cassette ( 1()H4)
Rituales afrocubanos Egrem CD 0058 ( 1993)
Raíces africanas Shanachie CD 66009 ( 1996)
Aguabclla, Francisco Francisco Aguabella y su OLM CD 10037 (1992)
grupo oriza
Oriki ara oko Olmr CDI0038
Cantos a los oríshas Pimienta CD 534-2 (1992)
Alfonso, Jesús DemDnstration in An·ata Author 's collection, cassette ( 1992)
All Stars de la Rumba Cubana La rumba soy yo BiS CD 9039 (2000)
Angarica, Papo Fundamento Yoruba v. 1 Egrem CD 0253 ( 1998)
Fundamento Yoruba v. 2 Egrem CD 0377 (2000)
Ban Rarrú Ritmo já/klórico CD
Barreto. Emilio Santismo en ritual Luz CD 000 1 ( 1996)
Barrcto, Justi Comparsas Cubanas Gema phonorecord 3072
Guaguancó 69 Gema phonorecord ( 1969)
Batsita, Candita Ritmo de santo Maype CD 130
Berrios, Stevc First World Milestonc CD 9234-2 ( 1995)
Bobé , Eddic Central Park Rumba Piranha CD 1365 ( 1999)
Cabrera, Lydia Havana & Matanzas, Cuba , Batá, Smithsonian Folkways CD 40434 ( 1957)
Bemhé and Palo Songs
A/ro-Cuban Sacred Music Smithsonian Folkways CD ( 1957)
from the Countryside
Rhythms and Songsfor the Oríshas Smithsonian Folkways CD (1957)

Calvo, Alfredo Bmá and Bembé in Matan zas Kabosilc CD

Cardona, Milton Bembé American Clave CD 1004 ( 1987)
Carillo. Anthony Mis raíces CD
CJDMUC Fie/d Recordings: Rumba phonorecord
Clave y Guaguancó. Conjunto Son¡;s and Dances Xenophile CD 4023 ( 1990)
Déjala en la puntica Egrcm CD0211 (1996)
Noche de la rumba Tu mi CD 1085 ( 1999)
Coburg, Adrian and Julio Davalos Antolo¡;ía Yoruba v. 1, v. 2 lyalodde CD (2006)
Antoloxía Yoruba v. 3, v. 4 lyalodde CD (2006)
Cohcn, Martín and Patato Understanding Latin Rhythms LPV phonorecord LPY-337-A ( 1974)
Courlandcr, Harold. rccordcd by Cu/t Music (~/Cuba Folkways CD 4410 (1940)
Cruz, Celia Homenaje a los santos Rodven CD 136
D'Akokkan Tiembla la tierra Envida CD 7162 (2006)
Conjunto de Percusión Homenaje Jesús Pérez in Arieto phonorecord 4246 ( 1987)
Danza Nacional de Cuba memoriam
Cuero y Cajón, Grupo Grupo cuero y cajón Nolan Warden CD (2000)
Cutumba Ritmos cubafricanos v. 1 Academy of Folklore & Dance CD (2005)
Ritmos cubafricanos v. 2 Academy of Folklore & Dance CD (2005)
Orishás música para danzar Academy of Folklore & Dance CD (2006)
Deep Rumba This Nixht Becomes a Rumba American Clave CD 1024 (1998)
A Ca/m in the Fire o/ Dances American Clave CD 1030 (2000)
Desandann. Vocal Grupo Descendants Bembe CD 2022-2 ( 1999)
Díaz,Anga An¡;a Nacimientos cassette tape
Ecué Tumba Buena vista en guaguancó CD
En solar de Pogoloti Camajan CD (2003)
Embale, Carlos Carlos Embale Arieto phonorecord LP 381 O
Rumbero Mayor Egrcm CD 0020
_____ . y Cubason Qué bueno canta Embale Egrem phonorecord 3927 1 CD
 2Ml Discography

Exploración , Grupo DrumJam Bembe CD 2026-2 (2000)

Folklorico Nacional de Cuba, Conjunto Folklórico Nacional Areito phonorecord .1156
Conjunto
Música Yoruba Bembc CD 2010-2 ( 1970s)
Conjunto Folklorico de Trinidad Musica tradicional spirituana Egrem phonorecord 4.1H.1
v. 2 Tonadas Trinitarias
Folkloyuma Oriente de Cuba: rumba Nimbus CD 5425 ( 1995)
Galarraga, Lázaro Festival Yoruba OLMCD 10036
Arará 50-50 CD (2006)
Goyo, El Rumba rapsodia Egrem CD 0121 (1995)
La rumba es cubana Abdala CD (200 1)
Güines, Tata Aniversario Egrem CD O156 ( 1996)
llu Aña and Regino Jiménez Sacred Rhythms Be m be CD 2027 -2 ( 1994)
Jiu lrawo Tambor de las estrellas cassette tape ( 1989)
1r Iré Iré Lukumí
Tambor Lukumí
Lila CD 001 (2000)
Earth CDs (200 1)
lroko with Bill Summers !lu orisha Interworld CD 924 ( 1996)
and Lá:t.aro Galarraga
Izquierdo, Pedro " Pello el Congas por barrios Areito phonorecord LP 4471
Afrokán"
!roso Obba Extrema casualidad CD
Jáuregui, Mario Demonstration in Tijuana cassette ( 1987)
Jiméne1. and llu Aña, Regino Sacred Rhythms Be m be CD 2027-2 ( 1994)
Jiménez, Regino Study Guide for Afro-Cuban demo CD ( 1996)
Percussion
LP Rumba Ensemble Montvale Rumba LPV CD 109 (2002)
Martin, Gina Santero v. 1 TH Roven CD
Santero v. 2 TH Roven CD 159
Martínez, Pedro, and Román Díaz The Routes ofRumba Rumbosdelarumba.com CD 09694 (2009)
Mendez. Silvestre Driza Secco CD ( 1958)
Muñequitos, Los 1 Los Papines Guaguanco v. 1 Antilla CD 565 ( 1956)
_____ ., 1 Los Papines Guaguanco v. 2 Antilla CD 595 ( 1956)
Muñequitos de Matanzas , Los Rumba abierta WS Latino CD 4205 ( 1958)
_ _ _ _ _ . 1 Afrocuba Folklore matancero Qbadisc CD 90 1.1 ( 1970)
_ _ _ __ . 1 Afrocuba Live in Cuba Author 's collcction, cassette (early 80s)
Rumba caliente Qbadisc CD 9005 (1977, 19H8)
Congo yambumba Qbadisc CD 9014 ( 1983)
Live at Goyo :1· House Recorded by Michacl S piro , cassette ( 19H4)
Cantar maravilloso Globestyle CD 05.1 ( 1989)
Live at the Arcata Theatre Author 's collection , DAT ( 1992)
Live In New York Qbadisc CD 9026 ( 1992)
Vacunao Qbadisc CD 9017 (1995)
lto iban echu Qbadisc CD 9022 ( 1996)
Rumberos de corazón Pimienta CD 566-2 (200.1)
Tambor de fuego BIS CD 296 (2007)
Oba llu Afro-Cuba: Drumsfrom the Roots Soul J azz CD 162 ( 2007)
Papines , Los 1 Los Muñequitos Guaguancó v. 1 Antilla CD 565 (1956)
_ _ _ _ _ ., 1 Los Muñequitos Guaguancó v. 2 Antilla CD 595 ( 1956)
Guaguancó "conto' los hierros " Manopla phonorecord ( llJ72)
Oye Men Listen . .. Guaguanco Bravo CD 105
Bolero-Rumba-Guaguancó Manopl a CD 1024
Live at La Peña, Oakland Author 's collcction. cassette ( 197X)
Homenaje a mis colegas Vitral CD 4105 ( 198lJ)
Rumba sin alar E! Inspector CD 9426 ( 19l)4)
Tambores cubanos Barbaro CD 239 ( 1995)
Papines en descarga Orfeon CD 16181 (2001)
Siguen OK Egrem CD (2004)
 ...,

The Clave Matrix 269

Piñiero, Ignacio. fcaturing Carlos Festival in Havana Milestone CD 9337-2 (1955)

E mhale
Puente, Tito Top Percussion RCA CD 3264-2 ( 1957)
"Puntilla'' (Orhmdo Ríos) A Trihute lo Gonzalo Asencio Smithsonian CD 40543 (2008)
Quinto, Pant:hn ¡,·n el solar la cueva del humo Round World CD 9704
Rumha sin fronteras World Music CD 1031 (2003)
Rodríguez, Gira Ido Afro tamhores hatá Orfeon phonorecord 12-38008 ( 1959)
Ros, Lázaro Asoy i: can/os Arará BIZ CD 418 (1993)
Songsfor Eleguá Ashé CD ( 1996)
Orisha Aye Unicornio CD box set (200 1)
Rumeros de Cuha ;. Dánde andabas tú, acerekó? Egrcm CD (2004)
Rumboleros Protesta carabali Envidia CD 6325 ( 1968)
Santamaría. Mongo IJrums and Chants (Changó) Vaya CD 56 ( 1954)
Ya m bu Fantasy phonorecord 8012 ( 1958)
A/ro Rools (Yambu, Mongo) Prestige CD 24018-2 (1958, 1959)
Our Man in Havana Fantasy CD 24729-2 ( 1960)
Monf{o 's Way. Up from the Roots Collectables CD 6259 ( 1971, 1972)
Santos, and El Coro folklórico Hacia el amor Xenophile CD (1994)
Kindemho , John
Para ellos Machete CD 204 (2004)
Spiro, Michael and Mark Lamson Bata Ketu Bcmbc CD 2011-2 ( 1996)
Spiro. Mit:hacl and Michael Bata Mbira Bembe CD 2031-2 (2005)
Williams
Totico (Eugenio F. Arango) Totico y sus rumbe ros Montuno CD 515 ( 1981)
Trinidad Música, Conjunto Música tradicional spirituana v. 1
Folclórico de
Música tradicional spirítuana v. 2
Yaldés. Carlos "Patato," and Totico Patato y Totico Yerve CD 5037 ( 1968)
Valdés, Carlos "Patato ," Understanding Latin Rhythms LPY CD 110 (1974)
Ready jór Freddy LPY CD 104 (1976)
Authority LPV CD 103 (1976)
Batá y rumba LPV phonorecord 586 ( 1979)
Valdés, Mcrt:editas. y los Cuba ASPIC CD 55512
tambores de Jesús Pére;
Va1dés, Merceditas Aché Egrem/ Artex CD O1O
_ _ ___ ., y Grupo Aché v. 4 Egrem CDO 160 (1995)
Yoruba Andabo
Yoruha Andabo Ct!iones bullangueros Free on1ine down1oad ( 1987):
http://esquinarumbera.blogspot.com
El callejón de los Rumberos PM CD DM203 (1993)
Rumba en La Habana Pimienta CD 606869
Zayas, Alberto Guaf{uancó ajrocubano Panart phonorecord 2055 ( 1955)
A/ro-Frenetic Panart phonorecord 3053
Various artists Aji·o Cuba Rounder CD 1088 ( 1994)
Anthogoía de la música afro- Egrcm CD boxed set 00 JI
cubana
Caliente = Hot Ncw World CD 244-2 (1977)
Carnaval in Cuba Folkways CD (1980)
Carnaval a Santiago de Cuba LDX A phonorecord 4250
Cuba: musique alro cubaine Alvarés phonorecord 453
Cuba Les danses des dieux Ocora CD 559051 ( 1988)
La musica del pueblo Egrem phonorecord 3441
Música campesina Ethnic CD 6758 ( 1992)
Music ol Cuba Folkways CD 4064 (1978)
Real Rumba Corazon CD 110 (1994)
The Yoruba 1 Dahomean Collection Ryko CD 10405 ( 1998)
Wemilere Santería: SacredDrums Long Distance CD 0490203 (2003)
270 Discography

Cuban Popular Music

Arro-Cuban All-Stars Step Forward CD
Alanso , Poncho Yo no quiero piedra en mi camino Egrcm CD O113 ( 1995)
Aliamcn, Orquesta Santa Clara Areito phonorecord
Orquesta Aliamen Areito phonorecord 3887 ( 1980)
Live in Santa Clara Recorded by Robc rt Holland , cassette ( 1985)
Haciendo bailar al pueblo Areito phonorecord 4556 ( 1989)
La cumbancha Salsa Center CD 304520
Alvarez y su Son, Adalberto Adalberto Alvarez y su Son Areito phonorecord 4212 ( 1985)
La salsa caliente Artex CD O11
Y que tu quiere que te den PM CD 2002
.lufiando Con Candela
Aragón, Orquesta That Cuban Cha Cha Chá RCA CD 2446-2 ( 1956)
The Heart ofHavana v. 1 RCACD3204-2(1957 . 1958)
The Heart of Havana v. 2 RCACD 3488-2 (1957. 1958)
Cha Cha Charanga Candela CD 428752 ( 1997)
Arcaño y sus Maravillas, Antonio Danzón mambo Tumbao CD 029 ( 1944-51)
Bamboleo Te fiUSto o te caigo bien Ahí-Namá CD 1003-2 ( 1997)
Yo no me parezco a nadie Ahí-Namá CD 101 3-2 (1988)
Ya no hace falta Ahí-Namá CD 1024 ( 1999)
Qué bueno está Ahí-Namá CD 1027 (2000)
Barroso, Abelardo Best of Abe/ardo Barroso-
El sonero de Cuba
Calzado y La Charanga Habanera, Pa' que se entre La Habana Magic CD 0019-3 ( 1996)
David
Tremendo delirio Magic CD 40068 ( 1997)
Caney, Cuarteto y Sexteto Perfidia Tumbao CD 038 ( 1938-41)
Caney, Cuarteto Cuarteto Caney with Machito Tu m bao CD 005 ( 1939-40)
Calle, La Santa Morena Bembe CD 2015-2 ( 1996)
Caro Band, La Te Salva Be m be CD 2016-2 ( 1997)
Vale la pena Bembe CD 2021-2 ( 1999)
Chappottín y Chocolate Estrellas de Cuba Antilla CD (1995)
Cruz, Celia Celia Cruz Sin~? S Palladium CD 13 1
Cru z, Celia , con la La incomparable Celia Palladium CD 133
Sonora Matancera
La dinámica Palladium CD 152
Cuhanismo Malemhe Hannibal CD 1411 ( 1997)
Greetings From Havana Al M CD 1091 (2007)
Dan Den Salsa en arte Candela CD 2882 ( 1998)
Dan Den Nueva Fania CD 114 ( 1999)
Dale campana Egrem CD (2002)
Delgado, lssac Con ganas Qbadisc CD 9012 ( 1994)
Farjardo 's All Stars Cuban .lam Session TH Rodven CD 13102
Flynn , Frank Emilio Original Cuban Masters Essential Media CD (2007)
Sexteto Habanero Son cubano Tumbao CD 001 ( 1924- 1927)
Sexteto y Septeto Habanero Grabaciones completas Tumbao CD ( 1925-1930)
Hermanos Bravo Conga tu carnaval Tu mi CD 089 (2000)
lrakcrc Grupo lrakere Egrem phonorecord 3926 ( 1977)
lrakere v. 4 Egrem CD 0147 (1978)
Calzado del cerro Vitral CD 4053 ( 1983)
Homenaje a Beny Moré Messidor CD 25904 ( 1984)
BabalúAyé Bembe CD 2020-2 ( 1998)
Izquierdo, Pedro "Pe llo el Pello el Afrokán y su ritmo BIS CD 114
Al'rokán" mozambique
Un sabor que canta Vitral CD 4122
 The Clave Matrix 271

J iménez, Generoso Uanzones Seeeo CD 9183

r;¡ trombón majadero Bembe CD 2017-2 (1965)
Generoso, qué bueno toca usted Termidor CD 89756-2
Klimax Mira si te f{USta Mansana CD 17 (1996)
Manolín el médico de la salsa Para mi gente Ahí-Namá CD 1002-2 ( 1997)
Somos lo máximo Caribe CD 9488 ( 1996)
Manolito y su Trahuco Directo al corazón Bembc CD 2014-2 (1996)
Contra todos los pronósticos Euro Tropical CD 1 ( 1996)
Se rompieron los termómetros Eurotropieal CD 7924 (2002)
Locos por mi Habana Egrem CD 0647 (2004)
Hablando en serio Egrem CD 0765 (2006)
Manzanillo , Orquesta Original de Cof{e el camarón Siboney phonorecord 271 ( 1983)
Puros Qbadisc CD 9003 (1992)
A la hora que me llamen voy Egrem CD 0038 ( 1992)
original y sin copia Egrem CD 0214 ( 1996)
Maravilla de Florida , Orquesta Orquesta Maravilla de Florida Areito phonoreeord 3856 ( 1980)
A bailar sabroso Siboney phonorecord 276 ( 1983)
El af{ua coge su nival Salsa Center CD 304575
Puros como el son Areito phonorecord 4417 ( 1987)
Moré, Heny The Most from Beny Moré RCA CD 2445 ( 1955-1957)
N. G. La Banda En la calle Qbadisc CD 9002 ( 1992)
Echa/e limón Artex CD 076
Simplemente lo mejor de Caribe CD (1994)
/,a cachimba Caribe CD 9470 (1995)
en directo desde el patio de mi Caribe CD 9462 ( 1985)
casa
Veneno Caribe CD 9497 (1997)
Opus 13 Que llueva de una vez Arcito phonorecord 4229 ( 1985)
Merenf{ue a quilo Arcito phonorecord 4423 ( 1987)
Orquesta 440 La 440 Areito phonorecord 4106 (1983)
Con sabor carabalí Areito phonorecord 4475 ( 1988)
Paulito y su Elite Sofocándote Magie CD 0016-3 (1995)
Paulito F.G . Nueva Fania CD 104 (1996)
Con la conciencia tranquila Nueva Fania CD 108 ( 1997)
Pedroso, Cesar "Pupy" Pupy y los que son, son Pimienta CD (2002)
Piñeiro y Septeto Nacional, Ignacio Piñeiro and his Septeto Tumbao CD O19 ( 1928, 1930)
Ignacio Nacional
Revé, Elio Orquesta Revé Egrem/Guama phonorecord 20 13
Revé Elio y su ritmo changüí Siboney phonorecord 251 ( 1982)
Rumberos latinamericanos Areito phonorecord 4320 ( 1985)
Suave suave Discos Cubanos CD 002
Revé , Orquesta El ritmo changüí Salsa Center CD 30451 3
Revé y su charango. Elio Papá t-'ief{ua Egrem CD 0078 ( 1993)
Ritmo Oriental, Orquesta Orquesta Ritmo Oriental Areito phonorecord 3461 ( 1974)
Bailando de todo Egrem phonorecord 3536 ( 1975)
Historia de La Ritmo v. 1 Qbadise CD 9007 (1974, 1978)
Historia de La Ritmo v. 2 Qbadise CD 9008 (1978 , 1983, 1987 , 1988)
La Ritmo: Rhythm Section Live Recorded by Michael S piro , cassette ( 1984)
La ritmo te está llevando Areito phonorecord 3145 ( 1985)
30 Años Artex CD 053
Charanga Show Artex CD 055
Tremenda Habana Zum Zum CD 501 ( 1995)
El ritmo de la ritmo Egrem CD 0108 (1995)
Rivera, Niño Niño Rivera y su conjunto Egrem CD O106 ( 1995)
Rodríguez y Edesio Alejandro So u/ of Cuba Bembe CD 2019-2 (1998)
Adriano
272 Discography

Rodríguez, Arsenio El alma de Cuba, grabaciones Tumba o CD Box set 315 ( 1940-1956)
completas RCA 1940-1956
Sabroso y caliente Antilla CD 586
Quindembo Sony CD 469742-2
Rubalcaba, Gonzalo Mi gran pasión Messidor CD 15999 ( 19X7)
Rumbavana, Conjunto Conjunto Rumbavana Areito phonorecord 3472 ( 1974)
Rumbavana en Santiago Siboney phonorecord 203 ( 1981)
Te traigo mi son cubano MS CD 70 18
Sierra Maestra Dundunbanza WCD 041 ( 1994)
Son 14 Bayamo en coche Areito phonorccord 3XJ4 ( 1979)
Son como son Areito phonorccord ]964 ( 1981)
Cuhanía Candela CD
Son Yoruba de Papo Angarica El diablo Egrem CD
Sublime, Orquesta Sublime Havana Bembe CD 2025-2 (2000)
Típica Juventud , Orquesta Mi orquesta sigue igual Siboney phonorecord 252 ( 1982)
Típica '73 Típica '73 en Cuba Fania CD 00542 ( 1979)
Van Van, Los Los Van Van v. 1 Areito phonorecord 3320 ( 1969)
Los Van Van v. 2 Areito phonorecord 3425 ( 1974)
Qué pista v. 8 Areito phonorecord 4118 ( 1983)
Live at the Havana Jazz Festival Recorded by Rob Holland, et al ., cassette ( 1985)
Lo último en vivo Caribe CD 9425 (1994)
¡Ay Dios, ampárame! Caribe CD 9475 ( 1995)
Disco Azúcar BIS CD
The Legendary Los Van Van ] CD box set ( 1969- 1990s)
Live in America MLM CD 1087-2 ( 1998)
Llegó Van Van Atlantic CD 83227-2 ( 1999)
Chapeando Unicornio CD 8026 (2005)
Live at Miami Arena Pimienta CD (2006)
Zorro, El La vida entera Bembe CD 2030-2 (2003)
Various artists The Cuhan Danzón, Befm·e There Arhoolie CD 7032 ( 1906-1929)
Was Ja zz
Música campesina Ethnic CD 6758 (1992)
Sextetos cubanos Arhoolie CD 7003 ( 19]0)
 The Clave Matrix 273

Mambo, Salsa and Related Genres Recorded Ouside of Cuba

Alfredo (Rodríguet.), Patato. Sonido Sólido TR phonorecord ( 1983)
Totico
Afro Boricua. Grupo Bombazo Blue Jackel CD 54516 ( 1998)
Alegre AII-Stars The AfeRre All-Stars phonorecord
Alvare1. y Mayómbc Orquesta. Con el ritmo del tambor Palomonte phonorecord 17 ( 1981)
Chico
Barretto. Ray Han! Hands Emusica CD 130 091 ( 1968)
Acid Emusica CD (1972)
Carnava l Fantasy CD 2471 3 ( 1973)
Indestructible Emusica CD (1973)
Barrello Power EMusica CD 130 090 ( 1972)
Indestructible Emusica CD 130 033 ( 1973)
Barretto Emusica CD 130 279 ( 1975)
Batachanga. Orquesta La nueva tradición Sugarloaf phonorecord 2000 ( 1982)
Mañana para los niños Earthbeat CD 2557 ( 1985)
Batacumbele En aquellos tiempos Disco Hit CD 9106
Afm-Carihhean Jazz Montuno CD 525 ( 1987)
Con un poco de songo Disco Hit CD 1692 ( 1989)
Live atthe U. ofPuerto Rico Montuno CD 526-527 (1989)
Blades , Rubén Buscando Ame rica Elektra CD ( 1984)
Borrell, Roberto Roberto Borre!! y Conjunto Típico
Cubano
Bosch, Jimmy Soneando trombón Ryko Latino 1004 (1998)
Salsa dura JRGR 03 ( 1999)
El avión de la salsa 2004, JRGR 12
Broadway, Orquesta Pasaporte Musical CD
Céspedes, Conjunto Una sola casa Xenophile CD 4007 ( 1993)
Vi vito y coleando Xenophile CD 4033 ( 1995)
Clásico, Conjunto 30 años exitos Lo Mejor CD 11082
Colón, Willie /:J Juicio Fania CD 424 (1972)
Cortijo y Kako Ritmos y cantos callejeros Ansonia CD 1477 (1970)
Cortijo. Ral'acl El sueño del maestro Disco CD 1689
Cruz, Celia, and Tito Puente Cuba y Puerto Rico son E Music CD 130 004 ( 1966)
Cruz, Celia, and Johnny Pacheco Celia & .lohnny E Music CD 130 003 (1974)
Cruz, Celia, y Sonora Ponceña Lo ceiha Vaya CD 84 ( 1979)
Cruz, Celia, and Willie Colón The Winners Charly CD 132
Cruz. Celia, and Ray B;metto Ritmo en el corazon Charly CD 172 (1988)
Cruz and Skins, Miguel Noche de rumberos Kubaney CD 382-2 ( 1980)
Cubasong '82 Cuhasong '82 SNP phonorecord 4002 ( 1982)
Díaz y Su Qba , Jesús Caramelo Bombo CD ( 1999)
Jardinero Bombo 32603 (2003)
Fania All Stars Live al the Cheetah v. 1 Emusica CD ( 1971 )
Live atthe Red Garter v. 2 Emusica CD 130 079 ( 1972)
Live al Yankee Stadium Fania phonorecord 004 70 ( 1973)
Live in A¡;·ica Fania phonorecord FA 15 LP ( 1986)
Folklórico Experimental y Nueva- Concepts in Unity K-Tel CD (1975)
yorquino, Grupo
Lo dice todo Son y CD ( 1977)
Gran Combo. El ¡Aqui estamos y de verdad! Sony Discos CD (2004)
Harlow, Larry La raza /alina , a Salsa Suite Fania CD 00516 (1977)
Lemvo and Makina Loca, Recardo Tma masamha RC CD 1990 (1996)
Silo Salvador Putumayo CD (2000)
Libre Con salsa ... con ritmo Salsoul CD 20-7016-2 (1976)
Tiene calidad Salsoul phonorecord 4114 ( 1978)
274 Discography

Los lideres de la salsa Sal so u 1 phonorecord 4122 ( 1978)

Increíble Soulsol CD 20-700 12
_ __ _ _ .. Manny Oquendo 's Sonido , estilo y ritmo Montuno CD 522
_ _ _ __ .. Manny Oquendo Ahora AMO 101 (1993)
y su
_ _ __ _ ., Manny Oquendo Mejor que nunca Mi testones CD 9226-2 ( 1994)
y su
_ __ __ ., Manny Oquendo On the Move! Milesstones CD 9263-2 ( 1996)
y su
Moderna Tradición, La Orquesta Goza conmmigo Danzonemos CD 6312 (2000)
Pachcco , Johnny , José Fajardo Las tres flautas Fania CD 561 ( 19XO)
and Pupi
Pacheco, Johnny, and José Fajardo Pacheco and Fajardo Música Latina CD 603 ( 19X2)
Palmieri, Charlic Pachanga At The Caravana Club
Palmicri, Eddie La Perfecta Alegre CD X 170
Mo zambique Tico CD 1126 (1965)
The S un of Latín Music MP CD 3109
Gold MPCD 3 133 (1973 , 1976)
Unfinished Masterpiece MP CD 3120
Lucumi, Macumba, Voodoo Sony Tropical CD 469743 ( 1978)
Eddie Palmieri Musica Latina CD 205 ( 19X 1)
Palo pa' rumba Fania CD 56 ( 1984)
Solido Musica Latina CD 59 ( 19X5)
La verdad Fania CD 24 ( 1987)
El rumbe ro del piano RMM CD 82197 ( 199X)
Pérez, Lou Qué color Fania phonorecord
Nuestra herencia; Our heritage Fania phonorecord
Prado , Perez Go Go Mambo! Tu m bao CD O 13 ( 1949-1950)
Kuba-Mambo CD
Puente, Tito El rey del timbal Tumbao CD O11 ( 1951 )
Tito Puente Live! Mambo CD 62067 ( 1951-1959)
Cuban Carnaval RCA CD 2349-2 ( 1955, 1956)
The Complete 78s v. 3 Fania CD 130. 140 ( 1959)
ChaCha Cha Live at Grossinger:~ BMG Tropica l CD 64628 ( 1959)
Mamborama Charely CD 253
Mambos by Tito Puente Palladium CD 121
Ce ' magnifique Tico CD 1440 ( 1981 )
Rcinoso, Fito Lo que me gusta: dinero CD 3012-2
Rodríguez, Arsenio Quindembo Sony CD 469742-2
Rodríguez , Tito At the Palladium Palladium CD 108
Tito Rodríguez and his Orchestra Palladium CD 139
Sabu with Arsenio Rodríguez Palo Congo Blue Note CD 226665 (1957)
Santamaría, Mongo ¡Sabroso! Fantasy phonorecord 805X
Mongo 's Way. Up from the Roots Collectables CD 6259 ( 1971. 1972)
Uhane Vaya CD ( 1976)
Sonora Ponceña Explorando EMusicaCD 130 194(1978)
Sonora Ponceña and Celia Cru z La ceiba Vaya CD 84 ( 1979)
Típica '73 Típica '73 Emusica CD 130 226 ( 1974)
Típica '73 Live Universal C D 130 14 1
Típica '73 en Cuba Fania CD 00542 (recorded in C uba) ( 1979)
lnto the 80s Fania CD ( 1981)
Vi lato , Orestcs /t 's About Time Rafea CD O1 (2009)
Zape ro ko Cosa de locos Montuno phonorccord 519 ( 19X3)
 The Clave Matrix 275

Afro-Cuban/Latin Jazz and Descargas (Jam Sessions)

Afro Cuba, Grupo Grupo Afro Cuba NCL phonorecord ( 1980)
Aguabella. Francisco Agua de Cuba Cubop CD 018 (1999)
Cuhacán Cubop CD 038 (2002)
Ochimini CuBop 042 (2004)
A ida, Cuarteto 1) '. with Chico ¡.._·¡original Cuarteto D'Aida RCA CD 3393 ( 1957)
O'Farrill
All Stars de la Rumba Cubana La rumba soy yo BIS CD 9039 (2000)
Los Amigos with Guillermo Instrumentales cubanos Egrem CD 30 ( 1962, 1982)
Harrcto, Tata Guincs and
Emilio Flynn
Barretto. Ra y Camaval Fantasy CD 24713 (1973)
t:ve o/ the Be holder At1antic CD ( 1977)
!.a cuna Son y CD ( 1979)
Handprints Picante CD 4473 ( 1991)
Anceslral Messages Picante CC 4549 ( 1993)
Tahoo Picante CD 4601 (1994)
Bauza, Mario Afro-Cuban Jazz Caiman CD 9017 ( 1987)
Tanga Pimienta CD 360628 ( 1992)
The Legendary Mambo King Messidor CD 15819-2 ( 1992)
My Time is Now Messidor CD 15824-2 ( 1993)
944 Columbus Messidor CD 15828-2 ( 1994)
Batacurnbele Afro-Caribbean Jazz Montuno CD 525 ( 1987)
Bcllita Be/lita y jazztumbatá RW CD 9705 ( 1997)
Bellson, Louis Ecué: ritmos cubanos Pablo CD 632-2 ( 1977)
Benítez. John Descarga in New York Khaeon CD (200 1)
Berrios, Stevc First World Milcstone CD 9234-2 ( 1995)
Bias, Johnny Skin and Sones CuBop CD 008 (1997)
Bongo Logic ¡Despierta! Rhythm Safari CD 57141 ( 1991 )
Bongo-Licious Montuno CD 530 (1993)
Tipiqueros Montuno CD 531 ( 1996)
Bronx Horns Catch the Feeling Jazz Records CD (1999)
Brachfcld, Andrea Son Charanga - Back with Sweet Latín Cool CD 1005 (2003)
Bunnett, Jane Spirits (1/Havana Denon CD 9011 (1991)
Alma de Santiaxo Timba CD (200 1)
Cachan (Israel Lópcz) Cuhan .lam Sessions Egrem CD 0169 (1957)
Cachao y su conjunto-descarxa MaypeCD 168
Descart:a xuajira Caney CD 516 ( 1959-1961)
Dos Salsoul CD 7005 (1976)
Cachao y su Descarga Salsoul CD 7015 ( 1977)
Latin Jaz.z Descarga v. 1 Tania CD 0002 ( 1985)
Latín .lazz Descarxa v. 2 Tania CD 00 1 ( 1981 )
Master Sessions v. 1 EK CD 64320 (1994)
Master Sessions v. 2 EK CD 67319 (1995)
Cuba linda Cineson CD 25329 (2000)
Ahora sí Univisión CD 100750 (2004)
Calloway, John Diaspora Bombo CD (2003)
Candito Beautiful Blue Note CD ( 1970)
Caravana Cubana Late Night Sessions Rhino CD ( 1999)
Del alma Música Latina CD 49043-2 (2002)
Cardona, Milton Camhucha American Clave CD 1028 ( 1999)
Cclesta AII-Stars with Charlic Salsa Festival MPCD 3125
Palmicri
Chihuahua All Stars Descarga cubana Palladium CD 158
Conga Kings Cándido, Ciovanni Hidalgo Chesky CD (2000)
and Patato
 276 Discography

Jazz Descargas Chesky CD (200 1)

Carcasses, Bobby Ja zz Timbero Tu mi CD 069 ( 199X)
Forbidden Cuba in the 80's RMD CD 2236 ( 199X)
Corniel, "Chembo" For the Rest ()[ Your Lije Chemboró CD (2007)
Portraits in Rhythm Chemboró CD 1001 (200X)
Cubanismo Malembe Hannibal CD 1411 ( 1997)
Deep Rumba This Night Becomes a Rumba American Clave CD 1024 ( 199X)
A Calm in the Fire of Dances American Clave CD 1030 (2000)
Descarga Boricua Abrazate RMM CD 282020 ( 19%)
Díaz. Anga Anga Nacimientos cassette tape
Echu Mingua 2006, WC CD 071
Díaz , Felipe , with Eric Dolphy The Latín Jazz Quintet Palladium CD 145
Duran, Hilario Habana nocturna Justin 125-2 ( 1999)
Encuentro en la Habana Alma CD (2005)
Enclave Enclave Zoho CD 2005 10 (2005)
Disapora Encla ve Enclavejazz 1001 CD (200X)
Escovedo, Pete and Sheila Solo Two Fantasy CD
Estrada Brothers About Time Rumba Jazz CD ( 1995)
Estrellas Caiman Descarga in New York Caiman CD 9035 ( 1995)
Fania All Stars Live at the Red Garter v. 1 Fania CD 355 (1972)
Flynn, Emilio Algo Bueno Caney CD 515 (1959)
Grupo Folklorico y Experimental Concepts in Unity K-Tel CD (1975)
Nuevayorquino
Garland, Red Manteca Prestige CD 4n -2 ( 195:-i)
Garner, Errol Mambo Moves Mercury CD 834-909-2
Gillespie. Dizzy Dizzy Gillespie and his big band: GPN CD 23 ( 1948)
In concert with Chano Pozo
----~ ·• with Chico Afro UMG CD (1954)
r O'Farrill
1 Afro-Cuban Jazz Moods Pablo CD 447-2 ( 1976)
----~·· with Mongo Summertime Pablo CD ( 19XO)
Santamaría
----~ · • and the United Live at the Royal Festival Hall Red In k CD 55890 ( 19X9)
Nations Orchestra
Gonzalez , Jcrry Ya yo me curé Pangea CD 6242 ( 1980)
The River is Deep Enja CD ( 1982)
Gonzalez and the Fort Apache Rumba para Monk Sunny side CD 1036 ( 19:-iX)
Band. Jerry
Obatalá Enja CD 79609 ( 19X9)
Earthdance Sunnyside CD 1050 ( 1991)
Moliendo café Sunnysidc CD 1061 ( 1992)
Crossroads Milestone CD 9225 -2 ( 1994)
Gonzalez, Ruben lntroducing Ruben Gonzalez Nonesuch CD 79477 ( 1997)
Chanchullo Nonesuch CD 79503 (2000)
Güines y su Grupo Cubano, Tata, Descarga Fuentes EP phonorccord ( 198 1)
Güines. Tata, and Anga Díaz Pasaporte Enja CD 9012-2 ( 1995)
Gutierrez, Julio 1 Niño Rivera Cuban Jam Sessions Panart CD 115
Hancock , Herbie lnventions and Dimensions B1ue Note CD X4147 -2 ( 1963 l
Hanson, Susie Solo Flight Jazz Caliente CD 222 ( 1993)
Hcnderson , Joe Canyon Lady Milcstone CD 949-2 ( 1973)
Hcrwig, Conrad Latin Side ofJohn Coltrane Astor P1atc CD ( 1996)
Another Kind of Blue Ha1fnote CD (2003)
Herwig , Conrad, and Brian Lynch Que viva Coltrane Criss Cross CD 1254 (2004)
Hidalgo, Giovanni Villa Hidalgo Universal Latino CD ( 1992)
Hands o.f Rhythm Verve CD ( 1997)
Hutcherson, Bobby Montara Blue Note phonoreL:ord 551-G ( 1975)
 The Clave Matrix 277

Ambos mundos Landmark CD 1522-2 ( 1989)

lrakere Grupo lrakere Egrern phonorecord 3926 ( 1977)
The Bes/ oflrakere Columbia CD 57719 (1979 , 1980)
Misa nef{ra Messidor CD 15972 ( 1987)
f'.xubrancia Jazz House Records CD 009
Live al Ronnie Scott :0,· World Pacilic CD 80598 ( 1991)
Indestructible Artcolor CD 36010 ( 1993)
¡Afrocubanismo-' Be m be CD 20 12-2 ( 1996)
Babalú Ayé Bembe CD 2020-2 ( 1998)
lrazu with Arturo Sandoval Mambo lnn Palladium CD 159
lrazu SACEM CD 8464
lrizan·y, Ralph, and Timbalaye Ralph lrizarry and Timbalaye Shanachic CD 66010 ( 1998)
Bes/ Kept Secret Shanachie CD 66026 (2000)
lt :vTim e BKS CD 18901 (2003)
Jirnénez, Generoso H/ trombón majadero Bcmbe CD 2017-2 ( 1965)
Generoso qué bueno toca usted Termidor CD 89756-2
Kenton. Stan Cuhan Fire Blue Note CD (1956)
¡Viva Kenton! Blue Note CD (1959)
Krausc, Bcrnie Citadels oJMystery Takoma CD (1979)
Latín Giants or Jau The Latin Giants Play the Music Gigante CD 0001 (2004)
of the Palladium-Tito Lives
Trip to Mamboland Gigante CD (2007)
Le vine, Mark . and the Latín Tinge Hey, lt :1· Me Left Coast Clave CD 001 (2000)
Serengeti Left Coast Clave CD (200 1)
Mar k Le vine and the Latin Tinge 7 Bridges CD (200 1)
Isla Left Coast CD 003 (2003)
Lópcz-Nussa, Ernan From Ha vana toRio Velas CD (2000)
Hahana Report
Lópcz, Orlando ··cachaíto'' Cachaito Noncsuch CD 79630-2 (200 1)
Lucca. Papo Latín Jazz FaniaCD 669 (1993)
Machito and his Afro-Cubans Machito and his Ajro-Cubans Palladiurn CD ( 1941)
Machito, Chano Pozo, Arscnio Lef{endary Sessions Tumbao CD 017 (1947-1953)
Rodríguez
Machito and his Afro-Cubans Much Macho Pablo CD ( 1948 , 1949)
Cubop City Tumbao CD O12 ( 1949)
Ajá1-Cuban Jazz Saludos Amigos CD 62015
Tremendo cumban Tumbao CD 04 (1949-1952)
This is Machito and his Ajro- Seeco CD 9075 (1954)
Cubans
Latín Soul Plus Jazz Caliente CD 149 (1958)
Mambo Caravan Tico CD 1007 (1959)
Ritmo Pa ' Gozar Caney CD 511
Mucho Mucho Machito Palladium CD 119
Machito
Machito at the Crescendo GNPCD 58
Machito & his Salsa Big Band Impulse CD 33106 (1983)
f"ireworks MPCD 3131 (1977)
Mangua! Sr.. José Buyu LPV CD 101 (1977)
Mann. Herbic A/ro ro Bossa to Blues Columbia phonorecord 9188
Flautista Polygrarn CD 557448 ( 1959)
Standing Ovation at Newport WOU CD 1445 (1965)
Marcos and the Afro Cuban A todo Cuba le gusta Nonsuch CD 79476 (1977)
Al! Stars, Juan de
Distinto; diferente Nonsuch CD 79501 ( 1999)
Márquez y Eclipse, Basilio !:.'elipse total Bembe CD 2040-2 (200 1)
Martignon, Hector Re/uf{ee Zoho CD 200705 (2007)
278 Discography

Martinez , Ton y La Habana vive Blue Jackel CD 5026 ( 1998)

Mafere.fún Blue Jackel CD so:n (1999)
Mejías, Paoli Mi tambor Paoli Mejías CD 2004 (2004)
Transcend Paoli Mejías CD 2006 (2006)
Jazzambia Paoli Mcjías CD 107191 (2008)
Móntez, Bobby .lungle fantastique Cubop CD ( 1958)
Matos , Bobby Footprints Cubop CD 005 (1996)
Mauleón, Rebeca Round Trip Bembe CD 2023-2 ( 1999)
Latín Fire Rumbcca CD (2004)
Descarfia en Calijórnia Poimienta CD (2006)
Morales, Noro Recordando los exitos de RCA 3357-2 (1953-1955)
His Piano and Rhythm AnsoniaCD 1272(1960)
Narell, Andy Hidden Treasure Inner City CD
Stickman Windham Hill CDOIOI (1980)
Noble, Hilary Noble Savage Whaling City CD O16 (2002)
_ _ _ _ ., and Rebecca Clinc Enclave Zoho CD 2005 10 (2005)
_ _ _ _ ., and Rebecca Cline Disapora Enclave Enclavcjazz 1001 CD (2008)
Nueva Manteca Afrodisía Timclcss CD 355 ( 1991)
Bluesongo Lucho CD 7706-2 ( 1992 )
O'Farrill, Arturo Live in Brooklyn Zono CD 200507 (2005)
O'Farrill, Chico Fiebre Tropical Yema ya CD 9431
Cuban Blues UMG CD ( 1950)
Pure Emotion Milcstonc CD 9239 ( 1995)
Oliva , Long John Lucumí Orisha CD (2002)
Buscando la ortograjfa Lucumí CD 02412 (2003)
Cuba y Rico Orisha CD (2005)
Pacheco , Johnny Latín Jam Fania CD 328
Palmicri, Charlic A Giant Step Budda CD 003 ( 1984)
Palmieri , Eddie, and Cal Tjadcr Bambolea/e CD Charle y 194 ( 1966)
_ _ _ _ ., and Cal Tjadcr El sonido nuevo Verve CD 3 14 5 19 812-2 ( 1966)
Palmieri, Eddie Sueño Cap/lntuition CD 7-91353 -2 ( 1989)
Palmas Nonesuch CD 961649-2 ( 1994)
Vortex RMD 82043 ( 1996)
Paunetto, Bobby Yincc Commit lo Memory RSYP CD 1779 ( 1977)
Peraza, Armando WildThing Skye CD ( 1968)
Pérez, Alain En el Aire Ayva CD (2006)
Peruchín The lncendiary Piano of Peruchín! GNP phonorecord 50
El marqués del marfil Tumbao CD box sct ( 1954-65)
Peruchín Jr. Descart;a Dos Lusafrica CD (2002)
Ponche , Daniel ¡New York Now! Celluloid phonorccord 5006 ( 1983)
Arawe Polygram CD 90631-2 ( 1987)
ChanfiO te llama Mango CD 877-2 ( 1990)
Pozo, "Chano" El Tambor de Cuba Tumbao CD box sct 305
Prieto. Dafnis About the Monks Zoho CD 200502 (2005)
Absolute Quintet Zoho CD 200606 (2006)
Taking the Soulfor a Walk CD (2008)
Puente , Tito In Percussion Tico CD 1O11 ( 1956)
Top Percussion RCA CD 3264-2 ( 1957)
The Complete 79s v. 3 Fania CD 130, 140 ( 1954)
ChaCha Cha Live at Grossinger's BMG Tropical CD 64628 ( 1959)
Night Beat RCA 71997
Tambo RCACD3470-2(1960)
_ _ _ _ ., and Patato Just Like Magic LP CD 102 ( 1979)
On Broadway Picante CD 4207 ( 1983)
El rey Picante CD 4250 ( 1984)
Mambo diablo Pi cante CD 4283 ( 1985)
 Thc Clave Matrix 279

Sensación Picante CD 4301 (1986)

Un poco loco Picante CD 4329 ( 1987)
_ _ _ _ _.. with Phil Woods Salsa Meets Jazz Picante CD 4354 ( 1988)
Royal T Picante CD 4553 ( 1993)
Special /Jelivery Picante CD 4732 ( 1996)
Quintcrco , Luisto Percussion Madness Rapster CD (2006)
Reyes Sr., Walfrcdo de los Sin timbal no se ¡me' bailar CD(l958)
Sabor Cubano Rumba CD 55550 ( 1960)
Ribo!. Marc Marc Ribot y lo cubanos postizos WEA CD ( 1998)
Rivera, Paquito IY F,n Finlandia NCL phonorecord 0045 ( 1980)
Blowin · Columbia phonorecord 37374 ( 1981)
Mari el Columbia phonorecord 38177 ( 1982)
.. and Arturo Reunion Messidor CD 15805 ( 1991)
Sandoval
40 Years of Cuban Jam Sessions Messidor CD 15826-2 ( 1983)
Rizo , José , and Jau. on thc Ja zz on the Latín Side All Stars Cubop CD 0029 (2000)
Latin Sidc All Stars
Rodríguez , Alfredo Cuba linda Rykodisc CD 1399 ( 1997)
Rodríguez, Johnny '"Dandy" Dandy :1· Dandy, a Latin Ajfair LPV CD 106 (1970)
Rodríguez :rito Live al Birdland Palladium CD 102 ( 1962)
Rubalcaba. Gonzalo Live in Havana Messidor CD 15960 ( 1986)
Mi xran pasión Mcssidor CD 15999 ( 1987)
Ruiz. Hilton Manhattan Mambo TeJare CD 83322 ( 1992)
Heroe.1· TeJare CD ( 1993)
Hands on Percussion Verve CD ( 1995)
Salvador, Emiliano Nueva visión Qbadisc CD 90 18 ( 1979)
Ayer y hoy Qbadisc CD 9011 ( 1992)
Sanabria, Bobby ¡New York City Aché! Flying Fish CD 70630 ( 1993)
Bix Bond Afro-Cuban Dream ... Arabesque CD O149 (2000)
Live and in Clave!!!
Cuarteto Aché Khaeon CD 200207 (2002)
Bix Band Urban Folktales Jazzhcads CD (2007)
Kenya Revisited Live!!! Jazzhcads CD 1167 (2009)
Sánchcz, Poncho, with 1-'rcddic Cambios Picante CD 4439 ( 1991)
Hubbard
Sánchcz, Poncho, with Eddic Para todos Picante CD 4600 ( 1994)
Harris
Sandoval , Arturo Variaciones para trompeta NCL phonorecord 0047 ( 1980)
Flixht 10 Freedom GRP 9634 (1991)
Santamaría , Mongo Skins Mi les tone CD 4 7038-2 ( 1962)
Mongo at the Villaxe Cate Riverside CD 490-2 (1963)
Greatest Hits Columbia CD 1060
Fuexo Fania CD
Afro-Indio Vaya CD (1975)
_ __ _ _ ., with Dizzy Gillcspic Summertime Pablo CD 626-2 ( 1981)
Santos and thc Machete Ensemble , Africa Earthbeat CD 42511-2 (1988)
John
Machete Xenophile CD 4029 ( 1995)
¡Machetazo 1 Machete CD (1998)
Tribute to the Masters Cubop CD 025 (1999)
S. F Bay Machete CD 201 (2002)
Brazos abiertos Machete CD (2003)
20th Anniversary Machete CD 205 (2005)
Santos Quintct , John Papa mambo Machete CD 206 (2007)
Perspectiva.fragmentada Machete CD 208 (2008)
Santos, John, and Ornar Sosa Nfúmbe, Live at La Peña Price Club CD 1004 (1997)
280 Discography

Scpúlveda. Charlic The New Arrival Antilles CD 056-2 ( 1991)

Algo nuestro Antilles CD 768-2 ( 1993)
Shcllcr. Marty Why Deny PVR CD (2007)
Snowboy Para Puente CuBop CD 039 (2002)
Sonido Isle ño ¿Quien tiene ritmo ? Tresero CD 11 O1 (1996/98)
El Asunto Tresero CD 1102 ( 1999)
Tres is the Place Tresero CD 1103 (200 1)
Blue Tres Tresero CD 1104 (2004)
Sosa , Ornar, and John Santos Nfumbe, Live at La Peña Price Club CD 1004 ( 1997)
Sosa, Ornar Prietos Ota CD 1008 (2000)
Swartz and Eyc Contact , Harvie Havana Mañana Bembc CD 2024-2 ( 1999)
Tcrry, Yosvany Cabrera KRM 1117 (2005)
Tico AII-Stars Descargas at the Village Cate v. 1 Tico phonorecord 1135 ( 1966)
Descargas at the Village Cate v. 2 Tico CD 1145 ( 1966)
Descargas at the Village Cate v. 3 Tico phonorecord 1155 ( 1966)
Tjader, Cal Mambo with Tjader Fantasy CD 271-2 ( 1954)
Los ritmos calientes Fantasy CD 24712-2 ( 1954/57)
Latin Kick Fantasy CD 642-2 ( 1956)
Black Orchid Fantasy CD ( 1956)
Latín Concert Fantasy CD 643-2 ( 1958)
Monterey Concerts Prestige CD 24026-2 ( 1959)
So u/ Sauce Verve CD 668-2 ( 1964)
_ _ __ ., and Eddie Palmieri El sonido nuevo Verve CD 314 519 812-2 ( 1966)
_ _ _ _ ., and Eddie Palmieri Bamboleate CD Charle y 194 ( 1966)
Latín + Jazz = Cal Tjader DJZ 504 ( 1968)
Descarga ( Live al Funky Quarters) Fantasy CD 737-2 ( 1972)
Primo Fantasy CD 7762 ( 1973)
La onda va bien Picante CD 4113 ( 1980)
Afuego vivo Picante CD 4176 (1982)
Torres, Juan Pablo Cuba melódica NCL phonorecord 0049 ( 1980)
Pan caliente Dimensión Gol den phonorccord 000 1 ( 1981)
Son qué chévere Circular Movcs CD 7005 (2000)
¡Como pica! Pimienta CD 548-2 (2002)
Tyner, McCoy La leyenda la hora Koch CD ( 1982)
McCoy Tyner and The Latín Al!- TeJare CD 83462 ( 1999)
Stars
Valdés, Alfredo Up Tempo Mood Turquino CD 001 (1992)
Valdés , Bebo Descarga caliente Caney CD 512 ( 1952-57)
Bebo Rides Again Timba CD ( 1994)
Recerdos de Habana Town Cricr CD 525
Valdés, Chucho Tema de chaka Egrem phonorecord 40 13
_ __ _ ., and lrakere ¡Afrocubanismo! Be mbe CD 2012-2 ( 1996)
_ __ _ ., and lrakere Babalú Ayé Be m be CD 2020-2 ( 1998)
Bele bele en La Hababa Bluc Note CD 23082 ( 1998)
Biyumba palo congo Bluc Note CD 989172-2 ( 1999)
Valdés, Carlos "Patato'' Authority LPV CD 103 (1976)
Valcntinc , Dave Live at the Blue Note GRP CD 9568-2 ( 1988 l
Vasquez, Papo Breakout Timclcss CD 311 ( 1992)
At the Point
Vi lato, Orcstes lt :1· About Time Rafea CD O1 (2009)
Vocal Sampling, Grupo Una forma más Sire/WB CD 61792 ( 1993)
Wallacc, Waync Three in One Patois CD (2000)
Washburne, and thc Sytos Band , The Other Side Jazzheads CD 1139 (200 1)
Chris
Wcinstcn and Cosa Nueva Cuban Roots Latín Cool CD (1967)
Orchcstra, Mark
Wcinstcn and Cuban Roots, Mark Cuban Roots Revisited Cubop CD O 19 ( 1999)
 Thc Clave Matrix 2K 1

AIKo más Jazzheads CD 1148 (2004)

Various artists Carnaval a Santiap,o de Cuba LDX A phonorccord 4250
Montuno Sessions with Charlie MRB CD004
Palmieri
Los Musicos de Cuba Palladium phonorccord 110
Mambo Show Budda CD 021
_ _ ___ . with Pcruchín. Tumhao cubano Pall ad ium CD 160 ( 1959)
Chico O 'Farrill.
and Rcné Hcrnándc1.
282 Discography

Afro-Brazilian Music
t\ndré e sua Batería, Mestre Batucada COLP phonorecord ( 1977)
Atkinson. Kim Carnaval Spirit Pulsewave CD (2007)
Batucada brasilcira Origens Polygram phonorccord 2493 O12 ( 1981)
Caicara , Mcstrc Académia de Capoeira de Angola COELP phonorecord 41133 ( 1973)
Costa , Paulinho Da Agora Pablo CD 630-2 ( 1976)
Eu, Bahía Atabaque e berimbau Polygram phonorecord 6470 O<n (1972)
Gcraldo e sua Batería, Mestrc Batudaca genial Oba phonorccord 9-A
Gil, Gilbcrto Refavela Warncr/Brazil CD ( 1977)
lleAiye Canto negro Warner/Brazil CD ( 1992)
25 años Sony/Brazil CD ( 1999)
Mendcs, Margarcth Ele gibo Mango CD 539-855-2 ( 1990)
Mendes and Brazil 77, Sergio Primal Roots A&M CD ( 1972)
Mi guel , Padre Fantáslica batucada Iri s CD
Batería nota JO Top Tape phonorecord 003
Batería nota JO v. 3 Top Tape phonorecord 6006
Batería nota JO v. 4 Top Tape phono record 061
Musiquc du monde: Brésil Les eaux d'Oxala Buda CD (2005)
Olodum Revolution in Motion World Circuit CD 031 ( 1992)
Liberdade WEACD(I997)
Osvaldo da Cuíca e Grupo Vai Vai Vamos sambar MPL phonorccord 9327
Papcte Berimbau e percussiio MPL phonorecord 9335
Paulinho Ba!ucada Escota de Samba da Philips phonorecord 5630 458
Cidade
Percira, Nazarc Brasil capoeira Playasound CD (2003)
Pcrrone , Luciano Batucada fántastica Paramaso phonorccord 1194
Batucada fántastica v. 4 Whatmu sic CD
Pittigliani , Armando Batucada v. 3 Phillips phonorccord 2002
Batucada v. 4 Phillips phonorecord 318 ( 1977)
Spiro, Michael, and Mark Lam son Bata Ketu Bembe CD 2011-2 ( 1996)
Timbalada Cada cabeza & um mundo Polydor CD 813-2 ( 1995 )
Axé Bahía Universal CD (2006)
Vasconcelos, Naná Zumbi Europa phonorecord 20 1
Various artists Afros e afoxés da Bahía Mango CD 539 893-2
Batería maravilha Top Tape phonorccord 6030
Candomhlé Fontana vinyl LP 6470 598 ( 1977)
A fantástica batería v. 2 Top Tape phonorecord 6008
A fa ntástica hatería v. 3 Top Tape phonorecord 6009
A fantástica batería v. 4 Top Tape phonorecord 6030
A fantástica batería v. 5 Top Tape phonorccord 6031 ( 1981)
A fantástica batería v. 6 Top Tape phonorecord 6040 ( 1982)
Macumba Riosom phonorecord 50 18
The Yoruba 1 Dahomean Collection Ryko CD 10405 ( 19118)
Collection; Orishas Across
the Ocean
 Thc Clave Matrix 2X3

Mi scellaneous
Atkinson, Kim Clave Consciousness v. 1 Pulscwave CD (2002)
lnside the Key Rhythm
Clave Consciousness v. 2 Pulsewave CD (2005)
African Key Rhythms
Bartholemew, Dave The Very Best oj" Bayou CD 1003 ( 1949)
Dave Bartholemew
Bizet, Georges Carmen Hif{hlif{hts BMG CD ( 1972)
Calypso Alro-Umonese Music of Lyrichord CD 7412 (1988)
Costa Rica
Caribbean Rcvcls Hailian Rara and Dominican Gaga Folkways CD 40402 ( 1978)
Cepeda (Luis '"Chichito" Cepeda) /Jancinf{ !he Drum, Bailando al Bembe CD 2028 (2002)
tambor
Cepeda, Rafael t;t rohle mayor Baile le CD 010 (1996)
Diddley, Bo 20/h Cen/ury Master.\· - The CD (1955)
Millennium Collection:
Th e Best oj" Bo Diddley
Dunham, Katherinc The Singing Gods Caney CD 523 ( 1956)
Foula Vodoulc Ede Yl1 Foula CD 001 (1998)
Gottschalk , Louis Moreau A Night in !he Tropics Hnh CD ( 1999)
Guadeloupc Gwoka, Soirée lwéwoz á cacao Ocora CD 56003 1
Handy, W.C. W. C. Handy\· Memphis Blues lnside Sounds CD
Band
Humboldt Calypso Band Pan on !he Move HCB CD O1 (1998)
Joplin, Scott Greatest Hils RCA CD 60842-2
Lomax,Aian Grenada. Creole and Yoruba Rounder CD 1728-2 ( 1962)
Voices
Lomax ,A ian South ern .lourney, v. 8 Rounder Select CD
Morton , "Jcll y Roll" The Complete Recordings By Alan Library Of Congress
Lomax
Morton, "'Jclly Rol!"" ".felly Rol! " Morton 's Greatest HitsRCA CD 68500-2 ( 1926-29)
Music frorn the World Musique Populaire de Colombie Buda CD 92522-2
Music frorn thc World S!eel Band Music ofthe Buda CD 82455-2
Caribbean lslands
Ottis, Johnny R&B Dance Party v. 1 1 & TCD 101
Our Boys Pan Progression Mango CD 162-539-916-2 ( 1991)
Rudder, David Haiti Sire CD 25723-2 (1987)
Ulloa, Francisco ¡Merengue.' Globestyle CD 020 (1987)
Yodo u Ritual Possession ofthe Dead lnteiTa CD (1997)
Various m1ists Calypso Breakaway Rounde r CD 1054 ( 1927-41)
Creo/e Beguinesfrom Martinique Arhollie CD 7013 ( 1929-51)
Drums ofTrinidad Folkways CD (1956)
Hurricane Zouk Earthworks CD 6129 ( 1987)
The Yoruha 1 Dahomean Collection Ryko CD 10405 ( 1998)
Collection; Orishas Across
the Ocean
Vaudou en Hai'ti Macaya phonorecord 103
Wes!lndies Nonesuch CD 72091-2 ( 1983)
284 Vidcography

Videography
Afrocuba de Matanzas 50 Years On La Ti m bala DVD O1 (2007)
Rumba matancera La Timbala DVD 02 (2007)
Aguabclla, Francisco Sworn to the Drum DVD Flower Films 00117 (1995)
Aldama, Carlos Oruigbodu Jerry Shilgi et al. VHS
Alfonso, Daniel El lenguaje del tambor Kabiosile DVD (2007)
Atkinson, Kim Mozambique! v. 1, v. 2 Pulse Wave OVO
Barroso, José Francisco Dances of the Orisha Obakoso OVO (2005)
Bclafontc, Harry, (various artists) Roots of Rhythm Oocurama OVO 9476 ( 1991)
Bcrrios, Stcvc Latín Rhythms Applied to Alchcmy VHS (1992)
Drumset
Bcrroa, Ignacio Mastering the Art o/Afro-Cuban Warner Brother VHS ( 1995)
Drumming
Borrcll, Roberto, and Viola Un trío inseparable Boogalu OVO
Gonzalcs
Bronowski , Jacob The Ascent of Man Ambrosc Video DVD ( 1973)
Burns , Kcn Jazz PBS OVO boxcd sct (200 1)
"Chaguito" (Santiago Garzón Rill) Rumbameo Boogalu OVO
"Chaguito" y sus timberos Pi-mozambi-son Boogalu OVO 009
Dcrcn , Maya The Divine Horsemen: The Living Microcincma DVD ( 1953)
Gods of Haití
Garibaldi, David, Michael Spiro Talking Drums DCI VHS (1994)
and Jesús Díaz
Goincs, Lincoln, and Robby Funkifying the Clave OCI VHS 225 ( 1996)
A meen
Gonzálcz, Jcrry In the Tradition Alchemy VHS
Hidalgo, Giovanni Conga Virtuoso OCI VHS (1996)
lrizarry, Ralph Drum Solos Revisited Warner Bros. DVD (2004)
Martíncz, Javier Campos Cuban Rumba RMP OVO 9651
Muñcquitos de Matanzas , Los Live at the Arcata Theatre Produccd by David Pcñalosa and Dcborah Kctclscn
OVO ( 1992)
Live at Eureka High School Dcborah Kctelscn, et al. Author's collection OVO
(1994)
Live in L. A. Opción Sónica 204 DVD (2004)
Quintana, José Luis "Changuito" History of Songo Warner Bros. VHS (1996)
History of the Tumbado ras Wamer Bros. VHS ( 1996)
Quintana, José Luis "Changuito," Duets DCI VHS 245 (1995)
and Giovanni Hildago
Oquendo, Manny Timbales and Bongos Alchemy VHS
Rumbcros de Cuba Rumbón tropical Boogalu OVO
Silvcrman , Chuck Practica/ Appfications ofAfro- CPPVHS
Caribbean Rhythms To
The Drumset
Sanabria, Hobby Getting Started on Congas v. 1, OCT VHS ( 1996)
v.2,v.3
Sotolongo, Pedro Jesús Orta Oruigbodu Author's collcction VHS
'El Asmático'
Sulsbrück, Birgcr Latín-American Percussion Warncr Bros. VHS (2000)
Suso, Jali N y ama Kora Player ofthe Cambia Original Music VHS 003
Wcckl , Davc, with Walfrcdo de Drums and Percussion: Working OCI VHS ( 1992)
los Reyes Sr. it Out v. 1., v. 2.
Various artists La rumba Cuban VHS 1978
U laka laka la Boogalu OVO (2003)
Tremendo vacilón Boogalu DVD
Whats Cuba Playing At! B BC docu mcntary ( 1985)
 Thc Clave Matrix 285

photo: Eugcnc Novo1ncy

286 About the Author

David Peñalosa

Born in Los Angeles, David's earliest memory of drumming is banging on his mom's pots and pans in
the kitchen as a toddler. David is a student, performer, researcher, and teacher of Afro-Cuban percussion,
Vice President of Bembe Records, proprietor of UnlockingCiave.com, and author of Rumba Quinto. Da-
vid is al so a faculty member of the annual Afro-Cuban Dance and Drum Workshop , held on the campus
of Humboldt State University (http://www.humboldt.edu/afrocuban). David is a preeminent clave theorist
and is sought out by scholars and authors for his analytical expertise. He is credited with conceptual guid-
ance in the Tomás Cruz Conga Method books, Kevin Moore's multi-volume Beyond Timba series, and
Conor Guilfoyle's Odd Meter Clave.
Contact: david@unlockingclave.com. Vist Unlocking Clave on facebook
www.unlockingclave.com
 Thc Clave Matrix 287

Peter Greenwood

Born in New York City where he studied, taught, and performed the classical guitar, Peter has devoted
his life to all things musical: playing, composing, teaching, and musicology. He has performed as a solo-
ist, with flutist Paul Horn et al, with chamber ensembles and symphony orchestra. His published works
include two anthologies of keyboard music transcribed for guitar solo (Pieces for Classical Cuitar) and
flute & guitar (The Rosewood Book), and a CD of classical and original music. Through drumming in
amateur groups that play African, Cuban, and Brazilian music, percussion classes (Babatunde Olatunji,
C. K. Ladzekpo, Kim Atkinson, David Peñalosa, et al) and his study of various disciplines (TaKeTiNa,
Orff Schulwerk, etc.) he has acquired a working knowledge of the concepts and principies set forth in the
Unlocking Clave series.
Peter began his work as an editor in New York editing instructional books: folk, blues, classical and
flamenco guitar, rock & jazz drumming, etc. Over the past two decades, he has edited severa) important
projects in the field of music education: The Forgotten Power of Rhythm by Reinhard Flatischler, Now's
The Time: Jazz in the Classroom (and other books) by Doug Goodkin, renowned Orff teacher/clinician
and Unlocking Clave which he saw through a gestation period of fifteen years. Although Peter's focus is
primarily music, his wide-ranging interests have enabled him to edit books on other subjects as well: yoga,
natural medicine, even a book on psychology (Eros, Lave, and Sexuality by John Pierrakos, founder of
Core Energetics).
Peter Greenwood lives in the San Francisco Bay Area and, when he's not working on his film project
about harmonious proportion as exhibited by natural forms, geometry, and rhythm, he's helping writers
tune up their words. Or he's playing and dancing tango.
Contact: goenso@ gmai l.com
288

Availahle from online

TOP SELLERS FROM BEMBE stores and direct from:

www.bembe.colll.
The Best 1n Progressive Afro-Cuban Music
~
MUSICA YORUBA ELTROMBON
Conjunto Folklórico MAJADERO
Nacional de Cuba Generoso Jiménez
2010-2 2017-2

An all time classic and The Director of thc Bcny

one of the best records of Moré Big Band and thc most
Cuban Santería ever produced. celebrated trombonist in thc
lt features an unparalleled as- history of Cuban m u sic lcads
semblage of Cuban folkloric his own big band .
masters, including Lázaro Ros.

SACRED RHYTHMS DIRECTO AL CORAZON

llu Aña Manolio y su Trabuco
Directed by Regino Jiménez 2014-2
2027-2
A premiere Cuban composer
Sacred music of Santería. The and musician leads one of the
clearest recording of batá most dynamic and prolific tim-
drums ever made. ba/salsa bands in Cuba on thcir
ground breaking first release

DRUM JAM BABALUAYE

Grupo Exploración Chucho Yaldéz and lrakcre
Directed by David Peñalosa 2020-2
2026-2
Cuba's 12-piece supcr-group
An orchestra of percussion, blends jazz, timba , salsa and
an unprecedented master- folklore. Nominatcd for a
piece of experimental instru- Grammy and featuring Lázaro
mental folklore. Ros.

BATA MBIRA ¡AFROCUBANISMO!

Michacl Spiro Chucho Valdéz and lrakere
and Michac l Williams 2012-2
2031-2
Chucho Yaldéz and
Scamlcssly fuscs sacrcd mu- Irakere, Changuita and Los
sic from Cuba and Zimba- Muñcquitos de Matanzas
bwc, crcating a lush palcttc performing together livc!
of sound that is far grcatcr
than thc su m of its parts.
Clave
A Spanish word meaning 'code,' or 'key,' as in the key toa mystery
or puzzle. Also 'keystone,' the wedge-shaped stone in the center of
an arch that ties all the stones together. Clave is the key pattern that
both binds and decodes the rhythmic structure of Afro-Cuban music.

Matrix
The point of origin from which something takes form and develops ;
a grid-like array of elements, an interwoven pattern.

Clave Matrix
The entire interwoven structure of clave-based music as it relates to
its generative source .

90000 >