Engineering Failure Analysis 82 (2017) 446–457

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

A new torquemeter to measure the influence of heat-treatment on MARK

torsional resistance of NiTi endodontic instruments
G. La Rosaa,⁎, F. Lo Savioa, E. Pedullàb, E. Rapisardab
a
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria, 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
b
Department of General Surgery and Surgical-Medical Specialties, University of Catania, O.V.E. II, Via Plebiscito 628, Catania, Italy

AR TI CLE I NF O AB S T R A CT

Keywords: NiTi endodontic rotary instruments have increased flexibility and strength compared with
Ni-Ti instruments stainless steel instruments, but they seem to be vulnerable to fracture in clinical situations. Heat
Torquemeter treatment (thermal processing) is one of the most fundamental approaches toward adjusting the
Heat-treatment transition temperatures of NiTi alloys and affecting the fatigue and torsional resistance of NiTi
CM-wire
endodontic files. In recent years, novel thermo-mechanical processing and manufacturing tech-
M-wire
nologies such as controlled memory wire (CM-wire), M-Wire and electrical discharge machining
(EDM) have been developed to optimize the microstructure of NiTi alloys and their mechanical
properties. Aim of this work was to investigate the torsional resistance (maximum torque load,
and angular rotation) of NiTi instruments made by different thermo-mechanical and manu-
facturing processes. For this purpose, a torque device able to perform static and dynamic tests of
Ni-Ti instruments for root canal treatment was designed and realized, by performing this device
through the design and optimization of the single components and on the system globally.

1. Introduction

During recent years, there has been a progressive tendency toward the use of nickel‑titanium (NiTi) rotary instruments (files) for
the preparation of the root canals [1,2]. At the same time, there was the appearance on the market of a large number of different NiTi
systems [3,4]. The manufacture of flexible instruments of varying characteristics (taper, shape, material, etc.) for using with low
speed motors, air or electric, has provided the opportunity to the expert clinician to achieve predictable shapes of the root canals with
the highest increased speed and efficiency. In recent years, the use of rotary instruments in NiTi metal alloy has established itself in
endodontics as the greatest innovation in the instrumentation of the root canal system [5,6]. The success of this technique compared
to methods that included the use of traditional hand tools is mainly due to the alloy mechanical properties superior to those offered
by steel, but also to the innovations made by manufacturing process as part of the design of the instruments, in particular, as regards
size and taper. The advantages that the introduction of NiTi alloys resulted in endodontics can be summed up in three basic points:
speeding up of operating procedures, streamlining operational procedures, predictability and effectiveness of treatment.
Despite the increased flexibility and strength compared with stainless steel instruments, NiTi endodontic rotary instruments are
vulnerable to fracture [7–20]. One study found that NiTi files fractured 7 times more often than stainless steel files [21]. Other studies
found a file fracture rate of approximately 5% in clinical practice [17,22]. Many variables might contribute to file failure, but the two
main causes are cyclic fatigue and torsional stress [19]. Each has been defined [15,23] and, clinically, cyclic fatigue seems to be more
prevalent in curved root canals, whereas torsional failure might happen even in a straight canal [24].

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: glarosa@dii.unict.it (G. La Rosa).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2017.08.005
Received 10 April 2017; Received in revised form 4 August 2017; Accepted 21 August 2017
Available online 31 August 2017
1350-6307/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. La Rosa et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 82 (2017) 446–457

Torsional failure is characterized by a maximum torsional load and angle of rotation. This last property reveals the capability of
the file to twist before fracture [25]. Because of this, file manufacturers have tried to develop new designs, manufacturing processes,
and kinematics to minimize fracture occurrence and create easier and faster techniques that maintain the original canal shape with
considerably less iatrogenic error [26,27].
In recent years, novel thermo-mechanical processing and manufacturing technologies such as controlled memory wire (CM-wire),
M-Wire and electrical discharge machining (EDM) have been developed to optimize the microstructure of NiTi alloys and their
mechanical properties [28,29].
The M-wire NiTi is subjected to thermo-mechanical processing [6] resulting in a reported increased flexibility [30], which could
result in better access and preparation of curved canals. ProTaper Next (Dentsply Maillefer, Ballaigues, Switzerland) (PTN) and
WaveOne (Dentsply Tulsa Dental Specialties, Tulsa, OK) (WO) are files made by M-wire NiTi but differ in their designs [31].
The CM-Wire has been reported to be subjected to thermo-mechanical process and, unlike conventional files that possess a stress-
induced phase transformation, these files behave more like what is termed martensitic-active or shape memory in orthodontic
literature [32]. Therefore, these files are also so called “Shape Memory Files”. In fact, files made by CM-wire do not rebound [13] to
original shape like conventional NiTi files. Hyflex CM (HCM) and Hyflex EDM (HEDM) (Coltene/Whaledent AG, Altstatten, Swit-
zerland) are two endodontic instruments made by CM-wire, but using two different machining methods. The shape of Hyflex CM
instruments is obtained by traditional grinding process of a CM-wire. Instead, the shape of new Hyflex EDM is due to an electrical
discharge machining (EDM) process [33].
EDM can be used to manufacture all types of conductive materials (e.g., metals, alloys, graphite, ceramics, and so on) of any
hardness with high precision [33]. During this procedure, the shape of a work piece is changed by building a potential between the
work piece and the tools. The sparks initiated in this process are melting and vaporizing the material of the work piece in its top layer
[34]. The EDM process creates a rough and hard surface that could improve the cutting efficiency of these files [33,34].
F6 SkyTaper (Komet/Gebr. Brasseler, Lemgo, Germany) are brand new instruments made by conventional NiTi shaped by tra-
ditional grinding processes [35]. WO Primary have a modified convex triangular cross section at the tip and a convex triangular cross
section in the middle and coronal portion of the instrument [36–38]. ProTaper Next are rotary instruments designed with variable
tapers and an off-centered rectangular cross section [39,40]. Hyflex CM instruments have a constant taper and a triangular cross-
section. HEDM OneFile has three different cross-sectional zones over the entire length of the working part (rectangular in the apical
part and two different trapezoidal cross sections in the middle and coronal part of the instrument working portion) to increase its
fracture resistance and cutting efficiency [33].
Even if many data are present in literature about cyclic fatigue of endodontic NiTi instruments, few data are available about the
torsional resistance of endodontic NiTi files that were subjected to different heat-treatment and/or manufacturing process. Moreover,
there are no data about torsional resistance of F6 SkyTaper as well as few are the comparisons on torsional properties of heat-treated
and conventional NiTi endodontic instruments. Therefore, the aim of this work was to investigate the torsional resistance (maximum
torque load, and angular rotation) of NiTi instruments made by different thermo-mechanical and manufacturing processes as
WaveOne Primary, ProTaper Next, Hyflex CM, Hyflex EDM and F6 SkyTaper (Fig. 1) because it is important for clinicians to know the
characteristics of different file designs and associated implications for use in different clinical situations.
To establish the performances in the use of rotary NiTi instruments in clinical practice, the behavior of the tools has to be

Fig. 1. A–E. Instruments tested. (A) F6 SkyTaper #25.06; (B) Hyflex CM #25.06; (C) ProTaper Next X2 #25.06; (D) WaveOne Primary #25.08; (E) Hyflex EDM
OneFile #25.08.

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Fig. 2. Loading scheme.

investigated in static field. For this purpose, it was designed and created a torque-meter providing, by means of a custom-made strain
gage load cell, the value of the resistant torque during the rotation of the quasi-static root canal instrument based on ISO 3630-1
standards (2008). The realization of this device was carried out by the design and optimization performed on the single components
as well as on the system globally. This type of torquemeter may ensure the accuracy and reproducibility of the measurements. The
quality of the measurements obtained assures a good linearity and a total absence of slippage.

2. General description of the testing machine

The principle for testing the torsion strength of root canal instruments is to measure the torque and angular deformation of each
file during a test [41,42]. A torquemeter has been designed and realized which, based on ISO 3630-1 standards, provides the real-
time measurement of the torque exerted on the various types of files by a servo-controlled motor. This choice was dictated by the
guidelines of ISO, which provide the use of a low-speed motor (2 rpm) and the connection of the root canal instrument between two
chucks.
The torque-meter is essentially based on the operating principle of the precision balance (Fig. 2). In fact, it consists of a lever with
equal arms that allows carrying out the indirect comparison between the torque produced on the endodontic instrument by the
stepper motor and the resisting torque measured by a strain gage load cell. Once the root canal instrument set on the chuck of the
stepper motor, this, rotating at an angular speed of 2 rpm, generates a torque rotating a second chuck. On the axis of the latter, it is
keyed a pulley connecting a steel cable that drag the right arm of the lever. The strain gage load cell provides the value of the force F2
that, due to the design characteristics of the lever, will be equal and opposite of F1. Then, it is possible obtain the value of the torque
as the product of the force multiplied by the pulley radius R.
Then, it was created a system transferring the static mechanical power supplied by the motor to the endodontic tool and
transforming it into a resistant torque. This device is composed (Fig. 3) mainly of a stepper motor and by a yoke at equal arms. The
first controls a chuck that transmits the torque to the root canal instrument, while the second is connected on one side to a pulley, the
other side is rigidly attached to a custom-made load cell, in turn connected to the base. The pulley is connected, via a shaft, to a
second chuck which allows the locking of the free end of the root canal reamer. Ultimately, the root canal instrument is clamped
between the two chucks: the first, integral with the drive shaft, transmits the torque; the other, connected by the torque transducer to
the strain gage load cell, returns the resistant torque.
Commercial available load cells were considered not suitable for application in this testing device. In effect, did not ensured the
necessary flexibility and lead immediately to breaking of files. In fact, the section of the canal instrument at the point of attachment
on the chuck connected to the yoke (3 mm from the tip) has an average diameter ϕ = 0.45 mm and, consequently, it is very sensitive
to the instant drag. Therefore, the device must have a degree of initial flexibility to overcome the static friction without causing
premature failure. Because of the high stiffness of its sensitive element, a standard load cell cannot guarantee this initial flexibility
and it is therefore necessary to profit by the elasticity of the strain gauge cell. For the excellent characteristics of mechanical
resistance, high elasticity and recovery of the silicone, the strain gage cell was made by placing a strain gauge between two silicone
strips of 1 mm thickness. Only in this way you can notice the good linearity in the process of loading and unloading. The two ends of
the strain cell were fixed on one side to the rocker arm and the other to the base. It was necessary to carry out careful initial
calibration to define the response curve of the instrument as a function of the applied loads.
Then, a static test on the yoke was performed to determine any systematic error related to the low stiffness of the strain gauge cell.
The cell accuracy was evaluated either in working conditions or subjected to a known load through the arm normally connected to
the pulley. During the torque of the file, close to the breaking load, the strain measured was ε1 = 48.37 μm/m, corresponding to a
force F1 = 0.325 N. A strain ε2 = 48.36 μm/m, instead, was obtained by applying the same load by calibrated weights. The per-
centage error (below 0.02%) shows that the force measured by the strain gauge cell corresponds to its actual value. The error on the
angle due to the elasticity of the cell Δθ, almost constant for all types of files analyzed, was obtained by the encoder software and it
was limited into 0.1 deg close to the breaking load; that of the force ΔF was measured into 0.001 N. They could be taken into account
to obtain the total value of the measured strength or neglected, due to their very low amount.
The standard model to achieve the torque-meter is shown in Fig. 3 and consists of the following parts:

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Fig. 3. The torquemeter realized.

• low speed reversible gear motor, capable of rotating the test specimens at 2 rpm;
• torque measuring device, fixed on two linear ball bearings mounted on the shaft of the device;
• first chuck, used to fix the specimens to 3 ÷ 5 mm from the tip and coaxial with the axis of the torque;
• second chuck, used to lock the handle of the specimen;
• separate amplifier, to monitor engine operations;
• digital display, for recording the torque and angular deformation;
• digital encoder, to measure the angular rotation and verify the frequency.
The stepper motor operating the root canal instrument was controlled in speed and position by means of a Java subroutine. The
stepper motor selected is the model 103-H7123-5040 (SIZE 2.2″, 0.85 Nm) and the programmable electronic board choice is the
1063-Phidget Stepper Bipolar1-Motor by Phidgets. The Phidget Stepper board controls position, speed and acceleration of the bipolar
stepping motor. Java was used as a programming language of Phidget board, while NetBeans IDE 8.0 as execution compiler.
In order to be able to remove between their chucks in the mounting phase of the endodontic instrument and bring them in the
working phase, the motor shaft has been replaced by two coaxial shafts. The interior is keyed to the motor shaft, the outer slides on
the first and is tightened with a locking screw once the desired position is reached.
The solid shaft to the engine has been adjusted, minimizing or eliminating altogether the starting eccentricity. Moreover, the
various components are mounted respectively on three flat aluminum bases (verified in the abutment plane), in turn fixed on a
granite platform (Fig. 3). To complete the system to make coaxial the shafts, it was also installed a return spring between the axes in
order to facilitate the detachment of the circuit at the time of the break of the instrument under test (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. File clamped by the chucks.

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Fig. 5. Sequence of loading and unloading to calibrate the load cell.

An incremental rotary encoder HEDS-5500#A06, quadrature output, maximum rotation 30,000 rpm, was fitted on the motor
shaft to measure the rotation angle correlated to the torque necessary to generate the breakage of the root canal instrument. For this
purpose, it has been studied a system capable of interrupting the power supply to the exact moment of the break. At first, this system
was based on an electric circuit obtained by connecting a motor power supply pole between the two chucks, obtaining that the tip
itself serve as a conductor. As long as the tip remains intact, the connection is secured and the shaft rotates; as soon as rupture occurs,
in theory you should terminate the connection and block the encoder. In practice, however, the two chucks being fixed at the same
distance, even rupture occurred, the electrical connection continued by an electric arc produced between the parts of the broken root
canal instrument. Thus, it was developed a device that, by means of a return spring, bring the two sliding shafts in the rest position as
soon as the break occurs, totally interrupting the electric contact (Fig. 4).
The real-time data management unit from the load cell and the encoder is a NI-PXI Platform, on which is implemented a software
that also controls the stepper motor movement in LabVIEW environment.
The calibration was performed by applying known loads to the strain gage load cell gradually increasing for a time necessary to
obtain a stable response and thereafter discharging it gradually to avoid the viscoelastic phenomena (Fig. 5). The detected values
were then fitted, obtaining the polynomial curve of the second order reported in Fig. 6. Let put in evidence, however, the good linear
behavior of the curve.

3. Preliminary experimental analysis

The first tests, only in order to verify the reliability of the torquemeter, were carried out on some Ni-Ti instruments of three
different types with the same size: Protaper-next, MTwo and HyFlex. Of these, an experimental procedure was designed, consisting of
static and dynamic tests: the first to measure the rotation and the torsional UTS, the latter to measure the fatigue strength.
Having to perform both static and dynamic tests, the software to control the testing procedure has been set in a different way,
depending on the type of test performed. Some parameters have remained unchanged for both tests, while others were modified. Only

Fig. 6. Load cell calibration curve.

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Fig. 7. Preliminary static tests.

the static tests are shown in this paper.

The static tests were performed by setting the number of steps of the stepping motor at a relatively high value (about 12,800 step)
with respect to the previous point of failure expected for each type. With this function, the stepper motor should fulfill four complete
revolutions but, as soon as the specimen arrives at break, the shaft rotation stops together with the measure of the encoder, integral to
it, by the mechanism above described. From the analyzed data, the time vs. torque graphs for the three types tested were obtained
(Fig. 7). The various instruments show large differences either in terms of stiffness or in terms of maximum rotation. It is possible to
observe that, as soon as the breaking point was reached, the connection between the two chucks is decoupled via the sliding shaft and
the return spring, resetting the torque. In this way, in addition to achieving a well-defined corresponding angle value, it is possible
clearly identify the breaking point. The system can freely return to the starting position by downloading all the stress in the loading
phase and coming back to a null torque.
The result of the tests carried out on endodontic instruments are also in good agreement with the values found in the technical
literature, confirming the reliability of the device [43].
As previously indicated, the device is able to perform dynamic tests, even if these are not part of the discussion in this paper. The
stepper motor, in fact, can rotate in both directions (clockwise and anticlockwise), simulating the behavior of the reciprocating
dentistry motors. The first tests were performed in angular rotation control by running the oscillations between the initial position,
corresponding to 0 degrees, and a position corresponding to a percentage of the breaking torque of each type of specimen to simulate
a loading control. For each instrument the rotation was applied for a very low cycles of fatigue (VLCF, 20 or 40 cycles). In order to
perform the alternate cycling testing, a specific routine was realized in NI LabVIEW, able to control the number of cycles, the amount

Fig. 8. Applied dynamic torque for a 20 cycles test.

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Table 1
Characteristics of the tested files.

File Size Taper Number of files tested

HEDM OneFile #25 0.08 20

WO Primary #25 0.08 20
Hyflex CM #25 0.06 20
F6 SkyTaper #25 0.06 20
Protaper Next X2 #25 0.06 20

of the angular rotation, the frequency and the number of acquisitions in a period. Fig. 8 shows an example of applied dynamic torque
vs. time for a 20 cycles test with a wave period of 25 s.

4. Description of the investigation

One-hundred endodontic NiTi rotary instruments (files) from five endodontic systems (Table 1) were used in this study. All files
used were 25-mm long, with 20 instruments used in torsional resistance tests. Every instrument was inspected for defects or de-
formities before the experiment under a stereomicroscope SZR-10 Optika; none were discarded.
The torsional load was applied until fracture to estimate the mean ultimate torsional strength and angle of rotation of the
instruments tested using the above described device following ISO 3630-1 [18,19]. Each file was clamped at 3 mm from the tip using
a chuck connected to a torque-sensing load cell; after which, the shaft of the file was fastened into an opposing chuck able to be
rotated with a stepper motor. The files were rotated in the clockwise direction at a speed of two revolutions per minute until file
failure. The torque load (Ncm) and angular rotation (deg) were monitored continuously at room temperature (21 °C), and the
ultimate torsional strength and angle of rotation at failure were recorded. The boundary conditions and, then, the actual torques are
strictly linked to the constraints, particularly in correspondence of the tip constraint [44]. To avoid any dependence, length of the
clamped section as well as the measure units [N cm] were chosen following the indication of the standard ISO 3630-1.
The fracture surfaces of all fragments were examined under a scanning electron microscope ZEISS Supra 35VP to look for to-
pographic features of the fractured instruments. The length of the fractured file tip was measured by using a digital microcaliper
Mitutoyo.
The data were first verified with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for the normality of the distribution and the Levene test for the
homogeneity of variances. Thus, data were statistically evaluated by the analysis of variance test and the Student-Newman-Keuls test
for multiple comparisons (Prism 5.0; GraphPad Software) with the significance level established at 5% (P < 0.05).

5. Results

The mean and standard deviations of the torque maximum load and angle of rotation until fracture for instrument size #25, 0.08
taper and size #25, 0.06 taper are presented in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively.
Typical torque/angular rotation curves for torsional fracture for instrument size #25, 0.08 taper and size #25, 0.06 taper are
presented in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively.
Between instrument size #25, 0.08 taper, HEDM OneFile (CM-wire) showed higher angular rotation (P < 0.0001), but lower
maximum torsional strength to fracture (P < 0.05) than WO Primary (M-wire). In the same way, comparing instruments size #25,
0.06 taper, Hyflex CM (CM-wire) showed higher angular rotation (P < 0.0001), but lower maximum torsional strength to fracture
(P < 0.05) than ProTaper Next X2 (M-wire).
F6 SkyTaper (conventional NiTi) showed same torque load and angular rotation to fracture than Hyflex CM (CM-wire)
(P > 0.05), but same torque load (P > 0.05) and higher angular rotation (P < 0.05) than ProTaper Next X2 (M-wire).
The mean length of the fractured fragment (3.0 mm) was not significantly different for all of the instruments tested (P > 0.05).
Scanning electron microscopy of the fracture surface showed similar and typical features of torsional failure for the 5 brands. The
concentric abrasion marks and the fibrous dimple marks at the center of rotation for torsional failure are shown in Figs. 11 and 12.

Table 2
Mean torque and angle of deflection of instruments #25, 0.08 taper: Hyflex EDM (CM-wire) and WaveOne Primary (M-wire).

Instrument Torque (Ncm) Angle of rotation (degrees)

Mean Standard deviation Min Max Mean Standard deviation Min Max

Hyflex EDM OneFile 1.31 0.05 1.22 1.41 564.20 74.40 428 740
WaveOne Primary 1.71 0.12 1.48 1.86 226.30 28.37 169 258

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Table 3
Mean torque and angle of deflection of instruments #25, 0.06 taper: F6 SkyTaper (traditional NiTi), Hyflex CM (CM-wire), ProTaper Next (M-wire).

Instrument Torque (Ncm) Angle of Rotation (degrees)

Mean Standard Deviation Min Max Mean Standard Deviation Min Max

F6 SkyTaper size #25, 0.06 taper 0.94 0.08 0.84 0.98 466.20 28.60 411 556
Hyflex CM size #25, 0.06 taper 0.85 0.06 0.75 0.92 579.40 83.10 496 746
ProTaper Next X2, size #25, 0.06 taper 1.19 0.14 0.98 1.41 270.70 24.40 220 297

2
Torque [N*cm]
1,8

1,6

1,4

1,2

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2 Angle [deg]

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
WaveOne Primary Hyflex EDM OneFile.

Fig. 9. Torque vs. rotation curves for instruments with tip size 25 and 0.08 taper.
WaveOne Primary; Hyflex EDM OneFile.

1,8
Torque [N*cm]
1,6

1,4

1,2

0,8

0,6

0,4
Angle [deg]
0,2

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

F6 SkyTaper; ProTaper Next; Hyflex CM.

Fig. 10. Torque vs. rotation curve for each brand of tip size 25, 0.06 taper files.
F6 SkyTaper; ProTaper Next; Hyflex CM.

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Fig. 11. A-B. Scanning Electron Micrographs of fracture surface of separated fragments (A = Hyflex EDM OneFile; B = WaveOne Primary). (A–B) Concentric abrasion
marks and skewed dimples near the center of rotation are typical features of torsional failure.

Fig. 12. A–C. Fracture surface of rotary NiTi instrument demonstrating the characteristic smooth surface and central dimpling resulting from torsional failure.
Scanning electron micrographs of fracture surface of instruments with tip size 25 and 0.06 taper: A = F6 SkyTaper Hyflex; B = Hyflex CM; C = ProTaper Next.

6. Discussion

Several variables such as instrument size, taper, cross-sectional design, and manufacturing techniques affect the clinical per-
formance of endodontic files and their resistance to fracture by torsion [29].
M-wire, the alloy used to manufacture WO and ProTaper Next, and CM-wire, the alloy used to make Hyflex CM and the new

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HEDM, are two types of heat-treated NiTi [30,33]. Studies have investigated and compared the cyclic fatigue resistance of instru-
ments made by these two types of heat-treated NiTi [19,20,45], however only few data are available about their torsional resistance
to fracture.
In this research, torsional tests were performed following the ISO Standard 3630-1 as in previous studies [46,47].
The new torquemeter developed and used in this study, as previously described, is able to perform static as well as dynamic
torsional tests creating repetitive cycles of torsion and release at settable different angles of rotation. In this study, static torque test
was preferred because, in clinical practice, endodontic files are often used in continuous rotation and they could be usually broken
after a single blockage that exceed their maximum torque and/or angular rotation limit [8]. Moreover, the ISO Standard for torsional
test of endodontic instruments describes only static test [48]. However, in some situation as well as when reciprocating instruments
are used, it is possible that endodontic instruments could suffer torsional fatigue that is possible to study by dynamic torsional tests
[16]. Due to the possibility to perform static and dynamic research with this new torquemeter, further researches could investigate
the relationship between maximum torque strength and angular rotation of static test for instruments that received different amount
of torsional fatigue by dynamic tests. Indeed, it was reported that a repetitive torsional load reduces the torsional strength and
rotation angle of an endodontic instrument [49].
The broken fragment after the torsional tests showed an average length of 3 mm that coincided with the site of torsional loading
application (at D3).
The files tested varied in cross-sectional designs and dimensions; thus, this report provides a comparison of specific files and not a
systematic investigation of factors affecting file mechanical properties [13].
In terms of cross-sectional design, at the level of torsional load apply (3 mm from the tip), Hyflex EDM and Protaper Next are
square, WaveOne and Hyflex CM are triangular and F6 SkyTaper is a “S-shaped” endodontic instrument [19,33,35].
As it was reported, there is a direct relationship between size of the file to torsional resistance. Similarly, the greater taper
instruments display greater torque but less angle of rotation [13]. Therefore, data were compared between instruments that have
same dimensions (tip size and taper).
For the #25 tip and 0.08 taper files, HEDM showed significantly higher angular rotation to fracture but a lower maximum torque
load to failure than WO. In agreement with data reported in literature [33], these results are probably caused by the different alloy
and manufacturing processes of the instruments tested. In fact, in a supplementary examination, no significant differences were found
in the cross-sectional area of the instruments tested (WO = 107,587 μm2 and HEDM = 110,439 μm2) measuring the cross-sectional
configuration of each instrument captured at 3 mm from the tip (D3) under scanning electron microscopy by software (AutoCAD).
For the #25 tip and 0.06 taper files, Hyflex CM showed significantly higher angular rotation to fracture but a lower maximum
torque load to failure than ProTaper NEXT X2. These results are probably due not only for the different alloy of the instruments
tested, but also for the different cross-sectional area of these instruments (PTN = 118,552 μm2, Hyflex CM = 98,143 μm2) [19,20].
In agreement with these results, it was reported that M-wire instruments, such as WO and ProTaper Next, generally possess greater
torque resistance but smaller angles of rotation before fracture than CM-wire files (such as HEDM and Hyflex CM) [13,29]. Moreover,
as already reported, instruments with a big cross-sectional area should have higher torsional resistance than the ones with a small
cross-sectional area [50,51].
Among the instruments #25 tip and 0.06 taper files tested, F6 SkyTaper (conventional NiTi) showed same torque load and angular
rotation to fracture than Hyflex CM (CM-wire) (P > 0.05). These findings are probably due to the CM-wire (Hyflex CM) angular
rotation and torque load resistance higher and lower respectively than conventional NiTi (F6 SkyTaper) as reported in literature from
one hand and from the other hand due to the Hyflex CM cross-sectional area higher than the one of F6 SkyTaper (80,548 μm2) that
cause its lower angular rotation and higher torque load resistance than F6 SkyTaper.
Moreover F6 SkyTaper showed same torque load than ProTaper Next X2 (M-wire). These results are probably due to the higher
flexibility of M-wire than conventional NiTi compensated by the smaller cross-sectional area of F6 SkyTaper than the one of ProTaper
Next (PTN = 118,552 μm2).
On the other hand, F6 SkyTaper showed higher angular rotation than ProTaper Next X2 (M-wire). These results are probably due
to the higher impact of the cross-sectional area than crystalline alloy structure differences on flexibility, and therefore on angular
rotation resistance, of ProTaper Next X2 (M-wire) than F6 SkyTaper (conventional NiTi). In fact, the cross-sectional area of F6
SkyTaper is really smaller (80,548 μm2) than the one of ProTaper Next (PTN = 118,552 μm2).
The SEM analysis revealed typical fractographic appearances of torsional fractures that were similar among the five brands tested.
Torsional failure is characterized by severe distortion with the characteristic smooth area and circular abrasion marks all around the
skewed dimples near the center of rotation on the fracture surface [17,52,53]. Oval microvoids are usually visible in the central
dimples of instruments torsionally fractured.
The clinical implications of the high angle of rotation before fracture in CM-wire instruments tested may be beneficial because it
may provide clinicians an indication that there is plastic/permanent deformation and fracture is imminent [13]. On the other hand,
WO could be used for the constricted canal that might induce higher torsional load stresses [47]; while F6 SkyTaper files have
medium values of torsional resistance and it will be possible to use them in a high percentage of root canals.
The authors are also working by creating the numerical model of some of the endodontic instruments tested in this paper. Due to
the high complexity of the instrument shape (variable profile, pitch, taper, …), the FE model will be reconstructed by optical
techniques, as μCT scan or laser scanning techniques [54].

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7. Conclusions

The present study is part of a larger research program performed in co-operation between research groups of Engineering and
Medicine departments on the behavior of Ni-Ti instruments for root canal treatment. In order to perform a testing campaign on Ni-Ti
instruments in different loading and environmental conditions, based on ISO 3630-1 standards, a dedicated torque-meter was de-
signed and realized.
The performances to torque of the instruments depend on the shape, the material composition and the working process and have
to be investigated both in static and dynamic conditions. Then, the device was designed to carry out either static or dynamic (Very
Low Cycle Fatigue) tests.
The realization of this torque-meter was possible thanks to a careful optimization performed as well as on the individual com-
ponents and on a global device. Particularly, the choice of the material and of the geometry with which it was realized the strain gage
load cell (suitable for the measurement of a low-torque amount without providing an excessive torque), the torque transmission
system and the mounting of the instrument on the chucks.
It was also designed and made a transmission system to coaxial axes, allowing easy installation of root canal instruments on the
chucks, and able to stop the engine in the exact instant of failure, so as to obtain the corresponding torsion angle.
A preliminary campaign of tests was performed on three different type of Ni-Ti instruments. The good performances of the device
have been highlighted by both the result of the tests performed on the root canal instruments, which are in good agreement with the
values found in the technical literature, as well as for the quality of the graphics obtained, which have a good linearity and a total
absence of slippage.
Comparing instruments of the same dimensions, results showed higher flexibility and angular rotation to fracture but a lower
maximum torque load to failure of HEDM and Hyflex CM (CM-wire for both files) than WaveOne and ProTaper Next (M-wire for both
files) respectively. Moreover, EDM manufacturing process seems be a potential production method of endodontic mechanical in-
struments.

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