UTILITIES UNIT – AREA SPECIFIC Chapter No. Rev.

RAW WATER & WASTE WATER 2.0 01

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2.0: WATER TREATMENT METHODS GQ 1 of 7
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MAB 20.05.2013

2.1 TREATMENT METHODS

Treatment of water employs that water should be able to produce desired results after
removal of impurities. These impurities, if present, can lead to undesired results.
Treatment of water can be divided into two main groups:

 Internal treatment.
 External treatment.

INTERNAL TREATMENT
Internal water treatment is that in which water is treated inside the specific unit
where it is being used. The treatment which is applied inside boiler drum can be
termed as internal treatment of water.

EXTERNAL TREATMENT
External water treatment is that in which water is treated before entering into the
specific unit where it is to be used ultimately. It is normal practice to remove
maximum impurities of water by external treatment. The methods used for external
treatment depend upon the type of water source and impurities of raw water.
Some general methods employed for external water treatment are given below.

1. CLARIFICATION

Clarification is the removal of suspended matter and color from water supplies. The
suspended matter may consist of large particles. The suspended matter may consist of
particles that settle out readily. In these cases, clarification equipment merely
involves the use of settling basins or filters. Most often, suspended matter in water
consists of particles so small that they do not settle out, but instead pass through

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 filters. The removal of these finely divided colloidal substances therefore requires the
use of coagulants.
The processes of coagulation and flocculation are employed to separate suspended
solids from water when natural settling rates are too slow to provide effective
clarification.

The general methods used for clarification are:

a) Sedimentation
b) Coagulation
c) Coagulation and Flocculation

a. Sedimentation
The coarse suspended particles in the water may be removed in a settling tank with
sufficient area giving enough residence time for settling.
Controlled blow downs from the bottom of tank may then remove the settled
impurities. However, simple sedimentation does not remove fine suspended particles
and some chemical aid is also required for their settling.

b. Coagulation
Coagulation is charged neutralization of finely divided and colloidal impurities in
water into masses that will settle rapidly or can be filtered. Colloidal particles have
large surface areas that keep them in suspension. In addition, these particles possess
negative electrical charges, which cause them to repel each other and resist adhering
together and do not allow them to settle down. Coagulation, therefore, involves
neutralizing the negative charges and providing a nucleus for the suspended particles
to adhere to.

c. Flocculation
The flocs formed by the coagulation may not be large enough to settle at desired rate.
A flocculent gathers floc particles in a net, bridging together from one surface to
another and binding the individual particles in to large ones. Flocculation is speeded
by slow mixing, which brings the flocs gently together. High mixing velocity tears
them apart and they lose their optimum size and strength.
Clarification with both flocculation and coagulation agents give the following
advantages:
 Settling rate is increased.

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  Sludge formed is denser as compared with the sludge with only coagulants.
Synthetic materials, called polyelectrolytes, have been developed for coagulation
purposes. These consist of long chain-like molecules with positive charges. In some
cases organic polymers and special types of clay are used in the coagulation process
to serve as coagulant aids. These assist in coagulation by making the floc heavier,
causing it to settle out more rapidly

d. Types of coagulants
The most common coagulants are iron and aluminum salts such as ferric sulfate,
ferric chloride, aluminum sulfate (alum), and sodium aluminate. Ferric and aluminum
ions each have three positive charges. These ions while coming in contact with the
colloidal particle neutralize these charges forming small flocs which can be settled
down if proper settling time is provided. With proper use, these coagulants form
flocs in water that serves as a kind of net for collecting suspended matter.
The mechanism of coagulation can be explained by the following reactions:

Al2 (SO4) 3 + 3 Ca (HCO3) 2 2A1 (OH) 3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2

2FeSO4 + CL2 + 3 Ca (HCO3) 2 2Fe (OH) 3 + Ca Cl2 + 2CaSO4

Aluminum hydroxide and ferric hydroxide while settling down adsorb suspended
particles.

e. Parameters effecting coagulation

pH:
There is a definite pH range required for every coagulation agent. Alum requires a
pH range of 5.5 – 7.5 while FeSO 4 needs a range from 7.5 - 10.5 for better
coagulation. If organic matter is present in the raw water, pH during coagulation is to
be optimised. Organic matter is originated from decay of plant and can be settled in
acidic pH, while coagulation of suspended particles requires alkaline pH.
Dosing of the coagulant agent should be proper to avoid increase in total salt content
of water.

Agitation:
Agitation or mixing should be so controlled that coagulant is properly mixed with
water and at the same time it does not cause breaking or disintegrating of flocs.

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2: LIME SOFTENING
Lime softening is the process used to reduce temporary hardness of water by
treatment with lime. Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) reacts with soluble calcium
and magnesium bicarbonate to form insoluble precipitates.
For reducing the hardness of water the conditions are to be adjusted in such a manner
that calcium and magnesium salts are converted to their least soluble form. Ca CO3
and Mg (OH)2 are the least soluble salts. In the pH range of 5 to 9, most of the
dissolved CO2 reacts with carbonates and is present in the form of bicarbonates.
Addition of alkali results in the following reaction:

HCO3 + OH H2O + CO3

Carbonate ions react with calcium ions and precipitate in the form of CaCO3.
Reduction of calcium hardness depends upon the amount of carbonates present in the
water. If bicarbonates are less, additional carbonates normally in the form of sodium
carbonate are added to reduce calcium hardness.

Magnesium hardness is also reduced to some extent by reaction with hydroxyl ions.
Moreover Mg (OH) 2 while settling down also adsorbs silica on it. Formation of Mg
(OH) 2 is normally significant above pH value of 10. At lower pH silica reacts with
magnesium to form magnesium silicate.

Apart from reducing bicarbonate hardness the lime solution also reacts with other
magnesium salts present in the water according to the following reaction:

Ca (OH) 2 + MgSO4 Mg (OH) 2 + CaSO4 -A

Ca (OH) 2 + MgCl2 Mg (OH) 2 + CaCl2 -B

These reactions increase total dissolved solids in the water and also cause an increase
in calcium hardness.

3: CHLORINATION
Pre-chlorination effectively reduces raw-water organics through oxidation, and often
complements the coagulation / clarification process in handling difficult organics.

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 The chlorine in water causes a sequence of reactions by which the organic molecules
decompose. The oxidation of organic matter releases carbon dioxide.
Chlorine is one of the most widely used and cost effective disinfecting agent. The
prime oxidizing agents are hypochlorous acid, and to a much lesser degree,
hypochlorite ions. Any un-reacted chlorine in excess of these two is classified as free
residual chlorine.

In addition to serving as bactericides, chlorine and chlorine compounds oxidize iron,

manganese, hydrogen sulfide & Carbon and aid in their removal. It reduces
objectionable tastes and odors from drinking water.

C + 2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + CO2

Even in trace amount, free chlorine in the influent water to cation exchange resin
causes severe oxidation and de-cross linking of the resins, it releases organic
compound which results in irreversible fouling of the strong base anion resin.
Therefore, it is necessary to remove all the chlorine present in water.

4. DECHLORINATION:
Sodium Sulfite is used to remove chlorine in the water as shown by the following
reaction.
Na2SO3 + Cl2 + H2O Na2SO4 + 2HCl
Because of the relatively low chlorine residual (1ppm) maintained in the influent
water, the use of sodium sulfite for de-chlorination does not add significantly to the
ionic loading of the demineralizer.

5.0 FILTRATION
Removes suspended solids of the water after coagulation and filtration. The filters
usually consist of beds of granular material such as sand, gravel etc. Water flows
from top to bottom leaving all the suspended solids within filter bed. The filters are
back washed after a definite period depending upon increase in pressure drop or poor
filtered water quality.

6: AERATION

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 Aeration is the process of passing air through the water to remove dissolved gases
such as CO2, NH3, H2S etc. Moreover Iron and Manganese are less soluble in the
oxide form so they are precipitated in their oxide state. Organic matters are also
oxidised by aeration process.

The equipment normally used for aeration is packed or tray tower with induced or
forced draft blower. Depending upon the analysis of water, filter can be installed
after aerator if required.

7: DEAERATION
Dissolved oxygen present in the water is the major cause of corrosion. Oxygen can
be removed chemically or mechanically. It is normal practice to first remove the
major part mechanically in deaerator and then residual oxygen chemically.
Deaerators are sieve or bubble-cap tray towers. Steam and water are feed counter
currently to the tower; water is heated to the boiling point thus expelling out all
oxygen.
Chemically oxygen is removed by addition of sodium sulphite or hydrazine
according to the following reaction:

Na2 SO3 + 1/2 O2 Na2 SO4

N2 H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O

Hydrazine is preferred, as it does not give any solids as reaction products.