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Functional Properties of Soybean Food

Ingredients in Food Systems
V. A. Jideani
Department of Food Technology,
Cape Peninsula University of Technology,
P. O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535, Cape Town
South Africa

1. Introduction
The food system is the transformation of raw materials into healthy food products within
biophysical and socio-cultural contexts which results in production, processing, distribution,
preparation and consumption of food. Food systems include components of food
availability, access and utilization which underpin food security (Gregory et al., 2005). The
expanding world population has resulted to a greater pressure for the consumption of plant
products in foods with aesthetic and organoleptic appeal; consequently resulting in a great
emphasis on the need for food ingredients with multiple functional properties. The role of
soybean as a traditional food item in Far East is well recognized where it is used to make
tofu, tempeh and soymilk. Advances in food technology resulted in the development of a
variety of edible soy products including concentrates, isolates and extruded-expanded
products; the consequence of which is increased soy consumption by populations of
technically developed regions of the world (Young and Scrimshaw, 1979). Soybean is
crushed into oil and defatted meal. The meal is usually used as an animal feed; a smaller
percentage is further processed into food ingredients including soyflour, concentrates,
isolates and textured protein. These are soy protein products used as food ingredients
because of their multiple functional properties. Functional properties have been defined as
“those physical and chemical properties that influence the behavior of proteins in food
systems during processing, storage, cooking and consumption” (Kinsella 1976). The
functional behavior of proteins in food is influenced by some physicochemical properties of
the proteins such as their size, shape, amino acid composition and sequence, net charge,
charge distribution, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, type of structures, molecular
flexibility/rigidity in response to external environment such as pH, temperature, salt
concentration or interaction with other food constituents (Damodaran 1997). The functional
properties are the intrinsic physicochemical characteristics which affect the behavior of a
food ingredient in food systems during processing, manufacturing, storage and preparation.
Such functional properties include water holding, oil binding, emulsification, foam capacity,
gelation, whipping capacity, viscosity and others. Functional properties are important in
determining the quality (nutritional, sensory, physicochemical and organoleptic properties)
of the final product as well as facilitating processing such as improved machinability of
cookie dough or slicing of processed meats (Kinsella, 1979). Therefore functional properties

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346 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology

of food proteins are important in food processing and food product formulation (Wu et al.
2009). However, these properties vary with the type of food products; for example, proteins
with high oil and water binding are desirable for use in meats, sausages, bread and cakes,
while proteins with high emulsifying and foaming capacity are good for salad dressing,
sausages, bologna, soups, confectionery, frozen desserts and cakes (Ahmedna et al. 1999).
This chapter presents a compilation of the functional food ingredients from soybean, their
composition and structure and conformation in order to understand the mechanism of
particular functional traits. The role of sprouting in soybean functionality will also be
discussed.

2. Food ingredients from soybean

Foods made from soybean may be divided into four classes namely, soy ingredients,
traditional soy foods, second-generation soy foods, and foods where soy is used as a
functional ingredient (US Soybean Export Council 2008). These food products are outlined
in Figure 1. Traditional soy foods include soy milk, tofu, tempeh, natto, miso and soy sauce.
Soy milk is a protein-rich, milky liquid obtained from the soaking and grinding of whole
soybeans with water, or from hydrating whole, full-fat flour, cooking the resultant slurry,
and filtering all or part of the soy pulp or fibre from the cooked liquid. Second-generation
soy foods include meat extenders, soy burgers, soy sausage, imitation chicken and soy
cheese. Foods in which soy is used as functional ingredient include baked goods to which
soy flour is added. Soy ingredients are the processed soybean protein products which
include soy flour (defatted and full fat), soy concentrates, soy isolates, texturized vegetable
soy protein and hydrolyzed soy protein. These soy ingredients (Figure 2) are the object of
our discussion.
Soy Flour
Mature, whole, yellow soybeans are used for human food production. Soy flour is flour
produced from hulled soybean seeds and is then ground into a fine powder; at least 97% of
the product must pass through 100-mesh standard screen and contain 50% protein (Berk,
1992). The production of edible soybean flours and grits may take place either as an
independent industrial activity or as a by-product of oil-mill operations. Soy grits are similar
to soy flour except that the soybeans have been toasted and cracked into coarse pieces (US
Soybean Export Council, 2010; Pyler, 1994; Lusas and Riaz, 1995). They are usually classified
into three groups according to particle size: coarse 10 to 20 mesh; medium 20 to 40 mesh and
fine 40 to 80 mesh (Berk, 1992). There are four forms: enzyme-active, natural or full-fat,
defatted, and lecithinated (Figure 2). Further classification of the commercial soy flours and
grits is in terms of their Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI) or Protein dispersibility Index (PDI).
Each of these tests indicates the percentage of total soluble nitrogen in water, with a range of
values from 0 to 100 (Dubois, 1980). These parameters indicate the extent of protein
denaturation and hence the intensity of heat treatment which has been applied to the
starting material. The PDI decreases with higher levels of heat treatment. The NSI method
gives lower values and has been related to PDI by the formula PDI = 1.07(NSI) + 1 (Lusas
and Riaz 1995; Central Soya Company 1988). Flours made from white flakes have NSI of
about 80%, while those from toasted flakes show NSI values of 10-20%. High PDI soy
ingredients are more soluble and have highly active enzymes and anti-nutritional factors
(Lusas and Riaz 1995).

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Functional Properties of Soybean Food Ingredients in Food Systems 347

Enzyme-active flours
Enzyme-active soy flour is produced from defatted soybeans that have been processed in
such a manner as to preserve the activity of the enzyme lipoxidase. As early as 1934 it was
reported that ground soybeans could be used for bleaching the carotene pigments of wheat
flour during bread making (Wolf 1975). One method of preparing the bleaching agent
involved grinding washed beans, removing the hulls, and mixing the resulting full-fat flour
with four parts of corn flour; between 0.75 and 2% of the soy-corn flour mixture was
sufficient for bleaching. This action is as a result of the activity of lipoxygenase in soybean.
However, many studies have reported that increased addition of raw soybean in food
products results in undesirable bean flavor. In addition to bleaching the pigments,
lipoxygenase is also reported to cause oxidation of gluten proteins resulting in finer crumb.
In the US enzyme active soy flour preparation are used at 1% level on wheat flour basis. In
some continuous bread baking process, the lipoxygenase preparation is incubated with
cottonseed or soybean oil and the peroxidised oil is then used in the dough formula
resulting in improved bread flavor.
To obtain the enzyme active flour soybean seeds are cleaned, sorted into uniform size to
minimize variations in processing, equilibrated to 10-12% moisture, preheated to 55oC
(enhances loosening of hulls from the cotyledons during cracking and aids the removal by
aspiration) and cracked into six to eight pieces by using corrugated rolls. The raw
cotyledons are milled into full-fat enzyme active flours. Active-defatted soy flour could be
obtained by defatting the obtained flour with hexane at 66-71oC (Lusas and Riaz 1995).
Full-fat flours and grits
Conventional processing method for full-fat flours and grits is shown in Figure 3. Natural or
full-fat flour contains natural oils (18-20%) found in the soybean. Inactivation of
lipoxygenase is a key step in the preparation of good flavored full-fat soy flours. Methods
that have been reported include (1) conditioning of soybeans at 13-14% moisture in hot air
(100oC) or steaming of dehulled beans and subsequent drying and grinding to full-fat flour;
such flour; (2) microwave heating before cracking and dehulling and (3) extrusion cooking
in which the soybeans were cracked and dehulled followed by a dry-heat preconditioning to
inactivate lipoxygenase and other enzymes (Wolf, 1975; Kanzamar et al. 1993; Lusas and
Riaz 1995). The treated seeds are tempered to 15-20% moisture after cooling and extrusion
cooked. The extruded material is dried, cooled and milled into flour (Mustakas et al 1971).
White flakes
White flakes are produced by cleaning, heating and cracking soybeans, removing the hulls
by aspiration; flaking the chips to about 0.25-0.30 mm thickness and extracting the oil by
hexane to 0.5-1.0% oil. While the oil is removed by extraction, the carotenes are removed as
well and the extracted residue gets a typical white colour, hence the name white flakes
(Anon, 2008a). Processors produce white flakes with PDIs of 20, 70 and 90. Flaking ruptures
the cotyledon cells allowing the oil to flow together, becoming accessible to lipases in the
presence of heat and moisture. Beany flavor in defatted soy flours has been reduced
significantly by preheating the soybeans before dehulling or flaking for the PDI objective of
the specific product where appropriate (Lucas and Riazs 1995). White flakes have uses and
is sold as an intermediate form for other products. White flakes and defatted soy flour with
a high PDI serve as raw material for the manufacture of most protein concentrates, isolated

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soy protein and texturised soy flour. They are also used alone or in combination with whole
soybeans, as a starting material for the production of soy sauce (Berk 1992).
Defatted flours and grits
Defatted flour and grits have the oils removed during processing, contains less than 1% oil
(Berk, 1992). The defatted flour or grits actually consists of a range of products rather than a
single one. The important variable in the processing is the toasting step- a moist cooking
with steam under atmospheric or pressurized conditions (Figure 2). Toasting is omitted if
the soy flour is to be used as a bleaching agent in bread where activity of the oxidative
enzymes is required. For some food uses, toasting improves the flavor and destroys anti-
nutritional factors. However, despite the advantages of toasting, intermediate degrees may
be desirable in order to retain adequate levels of functional properties since some of which
are destroyed progressively on toasting. Therefore, the particular potential uses of the
product determine the degree of toasting required.
Lecithinated soy flour
Lecithinated is flour whose normal lecithin content of 0.5 to 1.5% has been augmented to
15% in order to increase its emulsifying properties. It is obtained by spraying lecithin and
vegetable oil on 70 and 20 PDI soy flour resulting to a good emulsifier that can be used for
partial or total replacement of egg (Riaz, 2006).
Soy protein concentrate
Soy protein concentrate (SPC) is protein (70%) produced by extraction of sugars, soluble
carbohydrate material, mineral matter and other minor constituent from defatted soy flour
(US Soybean Export Council, 2008). The objective in producing SPCs is to remove strong-
flavour components and the flatulence sugars (stachyose and raffinose). At the same time
both the protein and dietary fibre contents are increased (Lucas and Riaz 1995). Three
processes may be used: (1) heating the white flakes resulting in denaturation of the protein
and they become water insoluble before the extraction process begins. The drawback is that
the protein has lost most of its functional properties; this method is no longer used today; (2)
extraction with water at isoelectric pH (4.5) where the soy protein has its lowest possible
solubility characteristics. The neutral pH can be restored after extraction by neutralization
and the protein regains its original solubility characteristics and functional properties. This
process results in the best tasting and most functional SPCs that have found applications in
the preparation of fat emulsions; (3) extraction with aqueous (70-90%) ethyl alcohol for the
extraction of the oligosaccharides. This is the most popular process because it results in the
most bland tasting and nutritionally most attractive SPCs. This process is based on the
(irreversible) alcoholic denaturation of the protein. Mild heat drying conditions are used to
retain high PDIs and NSIs (Lusas and Riaz 1995; Anon 2008a). A variety of granulations
(from grits to ultrafine flours) may be obtained if the SPC was made from white flakes,
extracted and dried with minimum breakage (Beery 1989).
Soy protein isolate
High PDI (70-90%) white flakes and flour milled to 200 mesh are used in making soy protein
isolates (SPIs) (Lusas and Riaz, 1995; US Soybean Export Council, 2010). The production
consists of an aqueous solubilization of protein and carbohydrates at neutral or alkaline pH
and the recovery of the solubized protein, separation and, optionally washing and
neutralization before drying (Moure et al., 2006). Three steps are involved in the process of

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Functional Properties of Soybean Food Ingredients in Food Systems 349

making SPIs. (1) the soy flakes or flour are slurried with water under alkaline conditions
(pH 6.8-10 at 27-66oC using sodium hydroxide and other alkaline substances approved for
food use) so that the protein as well as the oligosaccharides can go into solution. The protein
solution is then separated from the insoluble residue by centrifugation (Lusas and Riaz,
1995; Anon, 2008b); (2) the supernatant containing the protein and the sugars in solution is
acidified to pH 4.5 (isoelectric point of proteins where their solubility is minimal), by using
hydrochloric acid or phosphoric acid. This results in the precipitation of the protein as a
curd. Typical process includes several extractions of white flakes or flour and washing of the
curd; (3) The solubility of the precipitated protein is restored by neutralizing to alkaline pH
6.5-7.0 after re-dilution with fresh water or spray dried in its acidic form and packed in
multilayer paper bags (Anon 2008b; Lusas and Riaz, 1995).
Textured soy protein
Texturization means the development of a physical structure that will when eaten provide a
sensation of eating meat (Berk, 1992). Textured soy protein product is obtained either by
spinning in into a fibre and then combining the fibre in layers to achieve the desired texture,
or a thermoplastic extrusion process (US Soybean Export Council, 2010). Spun fibre is
obtained using soy protein isolate as starting material; extrusion or steam texturised
products from flour, concentrate or isolated protein (Berk, 1992). These products known as
textured vegetable protein can simulate meat fibre structures (Anon, 2008b). Another
possibility is the hydrolysed soya protein. The degree of hydrolyzation determines the
functionality of the end products. Low degree of hydrolyzation results in highly functional
foaming agents and high degree of hydrolyzation results in hydrolysed vegetable protein
(HVP) which are used in soups and sauces as flavor enhancers (Anon, 2008a).

3. Classification of functional properties of food ingredients

Functional properties may be classified according to the mechanism of action on three main
groups (Figure 4). These groups are (1) properties related with hydration (absorption of
water/oil, solubility, thickening, wettability); (2) properties related with the protein
structure and rheological characteristics (viscosity, elasticity, adhesiveness, aggregation and
gellying), and (3) properties related with the protein surface (emulsifying and foaming
activities, formation of protein-lipid films, whippability) (Kinsella, 1979; Moure et al. 2006).
These properties vary with pH, temperature, protein concentration, protein fraction, prior
treatment, ionic strength and dielectric constant of the medium as well as other treatments
such as interactions with other macromolecules in the medium, processing treatments and
modifications, physical, chemical and enzymatic methods (Kinsella, 1979).
Functional properties related with hydration mechanisms
Some functional properties can be interpreted as a result of the thermodynamically
favourable protein-water interactions (wettability, swelling, water retention, solubility) or
unfavourable (foaming, emulsification) (Moure et al., 2006). The interactions of protein with
water are important in relation to dispersibility, water absorption and binding, swelling,
viscosity, gelation and surfactant properties as these properties influence the important
functions of proteins in meat, bakery and beverage systems (Moure et al., 2006). Ease of
dispersibility or wettability is important in food formulations and is affected by surface
polarity, topography, texture and area, and by the size and microstructure of the protein
particles (Kinsella, 1979).

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350 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology

Bound water includes all hydration water and some water loosely associated with protein
molecules following centrifugation, ranging from 30 to 50 g per 100 g protein (Riaz, 2006).
Soy isolate having the highest protein content among soy protein products has the highest
water-binding capacity, approximately 35 g/ 100 g (Hettiarachchy and Kalapathy, 1998).
Soy concentrates contain polysaccharides, which absorb a significant amount of water.
Generally, processing conditions can affect the amount of water that can be absorbed; these
conditions can be varied to influence how tightly the water is bound by the protein in the
finished food product (Endres, 2001).
Water holding capacity is the ability to retain water against gravity, and includes bound water,
hydrodynamic water, capillary water and physically entrapped water (Moure et al., 2006). The
amount of water associated to proteins is closely related with its amino acids profile and
increases with the number of charged residues (Kuntz and Kauzmann, 1974), conformation,
hydrophobicity, pH, temperature, ionic strength and protein concentration (Damodaran, 1997;
Kinsella, 1979). Defatting increases the protein solubility and water and oil absorption
capacities of the meals. Germination, fermentation, soaking or thermal treatments
(toasting/autoclaving) significantly improves water absorption capacity (Moure et al, 2006).
Proteins swell as they absorb water and it is an important functional property in foods like
processed meat, doughs and custards where the proteins should imbibe and hold water
without dissolving and concurrently impart body, thickening and viscosity. Viscosity and
swelling are closely related important properties in processed meats (Kinsella, 1979). Factors
which affected swelling also influences viscosity; protein concentration, pH and
temperature positively affects swelling and viscosity whereas sodium chloride depresses
both (Kinsella, 1979).
Protein solubility is influenced by the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity balance, which
depends on the amino acid composition, particularly at the protein surface (Moure et al.,
2006). The presence of a low number of hydrophobic residues; the elevated charge and the
electrostatic repulsion and ionic hydration occurring at pH above and below the isoelectric
pH favour higher solubility. Protein solubility is also influenced by production method and
in particular by denaturation due to alterations in the hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity ratio
of the surface. A highly soluble protein is required in order to obtain optimum functionality
required in gelation, solubility, emulsifying acitivity, foaming and lipoxygenase activity
(Riaz, 2006). Soluble protein preparations are easier to incorporate in food systems, unlike
those with low solubility indices which have limited functional properties and more limited
food uses.
Functional properties related with protein structure and rheology
Solubility, hydrodynamic properties, hydrophobicity and microstructure of proteins have
been reported to play an important role in the rheological properties of proteins (Krause et
al., 2001; Krase et al., 2002). Apparent viscosity of soybean isolates depends on interaction
between soluble and insoluble proteins with water and between the hydrated particles
(Añón et al., 2001). Due to the increased interactions of hydrated proteins, the water
absorption and swelling, viscosity increases exponentially with protein concentration
(Kinsella, 1979). Knowledge of the viscosity and flow properties of protein dispersions are of
practical importance in product formulation, processing texture control and mouthfeel
properties and in clarifying protein-protein interactions and conditions affecting
conformational and hydrodynamic properties (Kinsella, 1979).

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Functional Properties of Soybean Food Ingredients in Food Systems 351

Protein gels are three-dimensional matrices or networks of intertwined, partially associated

polypeptides with entrapped water; and are characterized by a relatively high viscosity,
plasticity and elasticity (Kinsella, 1979). The ability of protein to form gels and provide a
structural matrix for holding water, flavours, sugars and food ingredients is useful in food
applications, and in new product development and provides an added dimension to protein
functionality. Gelling property is important in comminuted sausage products and is the
basis of many Oriental textured food e.g. tofu. Factors known to affect gelation include pH,
ionic strength, reducing agents, urea, temperature, the presence of non-protein components
and the mechanical forces applied to the system (Sathe, 2002). Properties of the gel are
determined by the interactions between solvent and the molecular net resulting in
transparent or coagulant gels. Coagulant gels are formed by proteins containing non-polar
residues (Shimada and Matsushita, 1980), while those containing hydrophilic amino acids
form transparent ones (Moure et al., 2006). Soy flour and concentrates form soft, fragile gels,
whereas soy isolates form firm, hard, resilient gels. Protein gelation is concentration
dependent; a minimum of 8% protein concentration is necessary for soy isolates to form a
gel. The general procedure for producing soy protein gel involves heating the protein
solution at 80 to 90oC for 30 minutes followed by cooling at 4oC (Riaz, 2006). The ability of
the gel structure to provide a matrix to hold water, fat, flavour, sugar, and other food
additives is very useful in a variety of food products (Kinselle, 1979; Hettiarachchy and
Kalapathy, 1997).
Functional properties related to protein surface
Important properties of foods involve the interaction(s) of proteins and lipids, e.g.
emulsions, fat entrapment in meats, flavor absorption, lipoprotein complexes in egg yolk,
meats, milk, coffee whiteners, dough, and cake batters (Kinsella, 1979). Emulsions and
foams are two phase systems commonly found in food systems, whose formation is
significantly affected by protein surface activity (Moure et al., 2006; Kinsella, 1979).
Emulsions are generated by mixing two immiscible liquids e.g. oil and water. The liquids
are immiscible because of their relative polarities. When liquid of low polarity such as fat is
mixed with water a strong driving forces limits the contact between the two liquids
resulting to phase separation. Droplet size of emulsion significantly affects the stability of
emulsions; emulsions with precisely controlled droplet size exhibit better stability.
Reduction in droplet size also improves stability of an emulsion to separation due to gravity
(McClements, 1999). The goal in food processing is to stabilize the emulsion thereby giving
it a reasonable lifetime. The dispersed system can be stabilized against coalescence and
phase separation by adding a component that is partially soluble in both phases. Such
components are phospholipids (emulsifiers) which when mixed with lipid in an aqueous
environment; the fatty acid portion of the molecule is inserted into the oil phase, while the
phosphate ester head group remains in contact with the aqueous phase. The result is that
the two immiscible phases are not in contact with each other and the total energy of the
system is lower. Emulsifiers or foaming agents therefore reduce the interfacial tension and
help to stabilize the oil-water and air-water interfaces (Moure et al., 2006). In decreasing the
interfacial tension of emulsions low molecular weight surfactants (phospholipids, mono and
diglycerides or monoesterates) are more effective than high molecular weight ones (proteins
and hydrocolloids) (Damodaran, 1997). Despite the lower efficiency of proteins the
emulsions and foams formed with proteins are more stable, hence proteins are preferred

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352 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology

over low molecular weight surfactants for emulsification purposes in foods (Moure et al,
2006). Surface activity of proteins is related to their conformation and ability to unfold at
interfaces determined by molecular factors (flexibility, conformational stability, distribution
of hydrophilic and hydrophobic residues in the primary structure) and external factors (pH,
ionic strength, temperature, possible competitive adsorption of other proteins or lipids in
the interface) (Vliet et al., 2002). Highly insoluble proteins are not good emulsifiers as they
can generate coalescence (Kato and Nakai, 1980). Emulsion stability is not only influenced
by the presence of salts and pH (Tsaliki et al., 2004), but also by several physical
interdependent processes such as cream formation, flocculation or aggregation and
coalescence (Damodaran, 1997) resulting in phase separation.
Foams are gaseous droplets encapsulated by a liquid film containing soluble surfactant
protein resulting in reduced interfacial tension between gas and water. Capacity of proteins
to form stable foams with gas by forming impervious protein films, is an important property
in cakes (angel, sponge), soufflés, whipped toppings, fudges, etc (Kinsella, 1979). Properties
of good foaming proteins include (1) solubility in the aqueous phase and rapid adsorption
during shipping and bubbling; (2) concentrate at the air-water interface and unfolding to
form cohesive layers of protein around air droplets with reduction of surface tension; and
(3) possess sufficient viscosity and mechanical strength to prevent rupture and coalescence
(Kinsella, 1979; Hettiarachchy and Ziegler, 1994).
Functional properties related to organoleptic/kinesthetic
The contribution of proteins to food flavours is known as it affects the sensory properties
(appearance, colour, flavor, taste and texture) of foods. Proteins may modify flavor by
binding flavours and off-flavours to generate flavors on cooking and to release reactants
that may produce flavours, especially following hydrolysis or proteolysis (Kinsella, 1979).
These are important factors considered in fabricating foods from soy proteins.

4. Functional properties of soybean food ingredients in food systems

The food systems where soy protein products find application are outlined in Table 1. These
include (1) comminuted meat sausages, such as frankfurters and bologna; (2) low-viscosity
emulsions, such as milk, coffee whitener and liquid whipped topping; (3) high-viscosity
emulsions, such as mayonnaise or salad dressings; (4) Bakery, pasta and food bars; (5)
Confectionery and (6) Infant formulas.
Meat and dairy based systems
Solubility, water binding, swelling, viscosity, gelation and surfactant properties are
important functional properties of soy proteins in meat and dairy based systems.
Comminuted meats (sausage, bologna, luncheon meats) usually contain more fat than
normal meat, hence soy proteins are used to enhance and stabilize fat emulsion, improve
viscosity, impart texture upon gelation following cooking and improve moisture retention
and overall yields (Table 2). Heat-treated soy flour is commonly used as well as soy
concentrates. However, there use results in poor flavor and mouthfeel as well as poor
texture, dryness and flavour associated with flours and concentrates added above 10%
(Kinsella, 1979). This is resolved by using soy isolates in meat loaves, sausage-type products
for their emulsion-stabilizing effects, gelation, moisture retention and improved effects on
texture.

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Functional Properties of Soybean Food Ingredients in Food Systems 353

Textured protein products in use both in the meat and vegetarian meat analog industry
include texture soy flours, textured soy protein concentrates, and textured soy protein
materials comprised of various blends of isolated soy protein, soy protein concentrate, soy
flour, wheat flour, vital wheat gluten, rice flour, soy fibre, assorted starches etc. Textured
soy flours are less functional with regard to water-holding capabilities compared to other
textured vegetable protein ingredients (Riaz, 2006).
Texturized soy protein products are used as meat extenders in comminuted meat products
such as patties, fillings, meat sauces, meat balls, etc. As much as 30% of the meat can be
replaced by hydrated texturized soy products without loss of eating quality. In addition to
offering economic savings, textured soy products offer certain product improvement- water
and fat absorption resulting in increased product juiciness and use of meat with higher fat
content (Berk, 1992).
Low-viscosity systems
In a low-viscosity, low fat emulsion, creaming is the usual form of breakdown and the
contribution of protein to the whitening effect of the emulsion is important (Puski, 1976).
Solubility is the most important criterion of soy protein product for beverages (Kinsella,
1976). Other requirements of the soy protein product include: formation of a clear or
translucent solution that is bland, low viscosity, stability over pH range, ionic strength and
temperature conditions and storage in liquid, concentrate or powder form. Solubility of the
protein in acidic range is necessary in carbonated beverages. This is achieved by using
protein hydrolysates (Kinsella, 1976), although the presence of bitter peptides is a problem
with hydrolysate.
Beverages containing soy protein can be classified according to their position in the
marketplace (Table 3). Soy protein products in ready-to-drink beverages affect sensory
attributes in diverse ways. That is the type of protein is related to certain functionality
characteristics in beverages. In general, soy proteins with good solubility will produce better
beverage mouthfeel and suspension stability. The relationship between protein physical
properties and beverage functional attribute are detailed in Table 4 (Riaz, 2006).
Physical properties of soy protein products differ from each other as a result of differences
in component composition (protein, fat and fibre content), preparation, and processing. In
addition, the physical properties differ within the same group to a great extent. Good
functional proteins in beverage system are those with high solubility, high emulsification,
and proper viscosity for the targeted market (Riaz, 2006). Proteins with high foaming and
high gelling properties would have a negative impact on beverage quality.
High viscosity systems
The role of soy proteins in high-viscosity products includes emulsification and colloidal
stability to heat. Soy isolates show a greater (6-fold) emulsifying capacity compared to soy
protein concentrate (Kinsella, 1979) often depending on method of preparation. There is a
close relationship between emulsifying properties and solubility of soy protein products
especially in low viscosity emulsions (milk, salad dressing, coffee whitener). However, this
is less important in viscous emulsions for example in comminuted meats where soy proteins
with 50% solubility can ensure adequate emulsifying capacity and the thermal stability in
preventing fat separation. Creaming is less important in high viscosity emulsions. However,
coalescence and inversion into water-in-oil emulsions are the most likely breakdown
problems.

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354 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology

Bakery, pasta and food bars

Soy ingredients that have unique functional applications in bakery products include soy
flours, soy grits, soy protein concentrates, soy protein isolates, textured soy protein, soy
brans, and soy germs (Riaz, 2006). Soy bran is obtained by toasting and grinding the seed
coat portion of the soy bean (US Soybean Export Council, 2008; Dubois, 1980). Soy germ
comprises 2% of the total soybean and is used in baked and extruded products as well as in
cereal-based products as adjunct to other soy ingredients to increase isoflavone levels.
Inclusion rates are usually 1 to 2% of the total formulation of the product because of its high
isoflavones content (Riaz, 2006).
Soy protein ingredients are important in determining the quality of the product as well as
facilitating such processing requirements as in improving machinability of cookie dough for
instance. The extent of heat treatment during processing determines the use of soy proteins
in bakery products (Table 5).
Soy proteins are rapidly insolubilized by heat, moist heat in particular during processing.
However, heat is necessary during soy protein production as it is needed to desolventize,
inactivate anti-nutrient compounds and to improve soy flour flavors. On the other hand,
non-heated soy flours have bitter, beany flavour and limited applications while containing
high lipoxygenase activity. To balance enzyme activity, flavor quality and solubility
requirements, defatted soy flours with a range of solubilities as well as concentrates and
isolates from minimally heat-treated flours possessing good solubility are produced (Riaz,
2006). Protein solubility is a measure of the percentage of total protein that is soluble in
water under controlled conditions and is a measure of the degree of heat treatment to which
the soy flour has been subjected (Riaz 2006). Soy flours with high NSI or PDI are used in
bakery and cereal products and are added directly to the dough (Endres, 2001). Enzyme-
active soy flour has a minimum water solubility of 70% (Schryver, 2002). Soy flours
subjected to minimal heat treatment (PDI 80) show high lipoxygenase activity and are used
at 0.5% to bleach flour and improve the flavour of bread. Flours with a PDI of
approximately 60 are commonly used for improving water-binding capacity (1 to 2% in
bread, 10% in waffles and pancakes). Some functional properties of soy protein products in
baked goods are detailed in Table 6.
Soy protein ingredients are used to aid formation and stabilization of emulsion for many
food products including cake batters. Generally, the emulsifying capacity of soy protein
products increases with increasing solubility and interfacial tension is progressively reduced
as concentration is increased (Riaz, 2006).
The capacity of proteins to form stable foams with gas by forming impervious protein films,
is an important property in some food applications including angel and sponge cakes (Riaz,
2006). Soy protein products differ in their foaming ability, with soy isolates being superior to
soy flour and concentrates. Soy protein foaming ability is closely correlated to its solubility.
Soy proteins addition to wheat flour dilutes the gluten proteins and starch while exhibiting
a strong water-binding power that provides some resistance to dough expansion, the effect
being proportional to quantity of soy flour. The water-binding power of soy flour is related
to its high water absorption capacity, 110% by weight in defatted product. That is defatted
soy flour will absorb an amount of water equal to its weight when mixed with wheat flour
to normal dough consistency. However, with full-fat flour, no measureable increase in
dough absorption results from normal use levels of the soy product (US Soybean Export
Council, 2008). Water holding capacity of protein is very important as it affects the texture,
juiciness, and taste of food products and in particular the shelf-life of bakery products. All

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Functional Properties of Soybean Food Ingredients in Food Systems 355

SPCs, irrespective of the processing method, have certain fat and water- holding
characteristics (Endres, 2001). There is no reason for using SPC in bakery products, unless
higher protein fortification levels are necessary. Soy flour does the same job of nutritional
and functional improvement more economically (Berk, 1992).
Food bars are combinations of ingredients that provide food in a solid, low-moisture form
and are consumed as a source of nutrients, as opposed to confectionery bars, which are
consumed as sweet products (Raiz, 2006). The basic formulations of food bars are outlined
in Table 7. All food bars use similar combinations of ingredients but their positioning varies
widely as well as the nutrient profile. The largest proportion of soy protein in bars is in the
form of isolates. Two main functional types are used in food bars. The first type has high gel
strength, with its solution having high viscosity forming rigid, themostable gels at moderate
concentrations. The highly gelling soy isolate makes firmer bars with a drying mouthfeel,
with shorter texture, similar to that of a cookie. The second forms solutions with much lower
viscosities and will not form gels at any concentration. The low viscosity soy proteins
produce much softer, chewier nutritional bars. Water-holding capacity, viscosity and
wettability all play a role in determining the texture of the end product (Riaz, 2006).
Confectionery
Lecithinated soy flour improves the dispersion of the flour and other ingredients in
confections and cold beverage products as well as improving water retention in baked
goods and extending their shelf lives (Riaz, 2006). Paritally hydrolysed soy proteins possess
good foam stability properties and can be used as whipping agents in combination with egg
albumen or whole eggs in confectionery products and deserts (Berk, 1992).
Infant formula
Soy protein isolate is the preferred ingredient in infant formulas where milk solids are
replaced. This is because of its bland taste, absence of flatus-producing sugars and negligible
fibre content (Berk, 1992).

5. Effect of sprouting on functional properties of soybean food ingredients

Sprouting is the practise of soaking, draining, and leaving seeds or grains until they
germinate or sprout. The increasing interest in functional and healthy food products has
promoted the use of germinated soya bean flour in the manufacture of foods for human
consumption (Farrera-Rebollo & Calderon-Dominguez, 2007). It is known that germination
induces increase in free limiting amino acids and available vitamins with modified
functional properties of seed components (Akpapunam, 1996; Jideani and Onwubali, 2009).
The nutrient composition of soy bean sprout is affected by sprouting conditions such as
times and temperatures, presence or absence of light during the sprouting process, the
composition of the soaking and rinsing water as well as post-sprouting handling. Sprouts in
general are high moisture and low calorie products and good sources of protein and other
nutrients (Jideani and Onwubali, 2009). On the basis of mineral bioavailability, the
significant reduction of phytic acid during sprouting makes sprouts nutritionally more
attractive than their non-sprouted seed.
Jideani and Onwubali (2009) reported that sprouted soy bean flour resulted in increased loaf
volume, a firmer, spongy and more elastic loaf in wheat bread. A combination of yeast
(2.4%) and sprouted soy bean flour (10.6%) produced an optimal loaf.

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356 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology

In our research we observed that sprouting of soybeans seeds at 25oC resulted in maximum
values of vitamin C and lipase at 48 h; amylase activity 36 h. Equal mixtures of the flour
obtained at these times were studied for its functional properties. The flour possessed a
higher emulsification capacity compared to whole egg powder. There was no significant
difference between the whole egg powder and the sprouted flour in oil absorption. Hence,
sprouted soybean flour could find use in fried foods and food systems where egg is required
to minimize oil absorption (Murevanhema, 2009). Soy bean are rich source of phenolic
antioxidants, which occur naturally bound to carbohydrates (McCue and Shetty, 2004). Free
phenolic antioxidants have higher antioxidant activity than their carbohydrate-bound
forms. McCue and Shetty (2004) reported that water extracts of dark-sprouted soybean
contained high levels of free phenolics and antioxidant activity, alpha-Amylase being the
major enzyme responsible for driving carbohydrate metabolism to phenolic synthesis in
dark-sprouted soybean. Therefore, sprouted soybean flour in addition to having improved
functionality may have important antioxidant effects in stabilizing lipids in formulated
foods.

Fig. 1. Categories of soy food products (Adapted from US Soybean Export Council, 2008)

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Functional Properties of Soybean Food Ingredients in Food Systems 357

Fig. 2. Flour products from soybeans

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358 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology

Clean whole
Clean whole
soybeans
soybeans

Cracking
Cracking

Dehulling
Dehulling

Flaking

Hexane extraction

Toasting (Optional) Toasting (Optional)

Drying Drying

Cooling Cooling

Milling
Milling Fine Coarse

Full-fat flour Defatted flour Defatted grits

Fig. 3. Conventional processes for producing full-fat and defatted soybean flour/grits
(Mutakas, 1971).

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Functional Properties of Soybean Food Ingredients in Food Systems 359

Fig. 4. Functional properties of food ingredients in food systems (Adapted from Moure et al.
2006; Kinsella, 1979)

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360 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology

Food system Functional property for all products Soy ingredients1

1. Meat and dairy
Water absorption, binding,
Meat, sausages, bologna elasticity, cohesion-adhesion, F, C, I
emulsification, fat adsorption
Simulated meats Flavour-binding C, I,H
Cheese, curds Gelation C, I

2. Low viscosity
Beverages Solubility, emulsifying, gelation F, C, I, H
Whipped toppings, frozen
Foaming, emulsifying, dispersibility I, W, H
desserts
Imitation dairy Emulsifying, colloidal stability

3. High-viscosity
Retortable sauces Emulsifying, colloid stability to heat
Mayonnaise and salad
dressing

Solubility, emulsifying, gelation,

4. Bakery and pasta F, C, I
colour control, cohesion-adhesion

5. Confectionery Foaming, solubility I, W

Nutrition, solubility, emulsification,

6. Infant formula
colloidal stability to heat
1 F, C, I, H, W are soy flour, concentrate, isolate, hydrolysate and soy whey, respectively.
Table 1. Functional properties of soy protein products in food systems

Improves uniform emulsion formation and stabilisation.

Reduces cooking shrinkage and drop by entrapping-binding fats ans water.
Prevents fat separation.
Enhances binding of meat particles without stickiness.
Improves moisture holding and mouthfeel.
Gelation improves firmness, pliability and texture.
Facilitates cleaner, smoother slicing.
May impart antioxidant effects.
Improves nutritional value.

Source: Kinsella (1979)

Table 2. Functions of soy protein in meat-based product

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Functional Properties of Soybean Food Ingredients in Food Systems 361

Ready-to-drink product Description Market

Contain cow’s milk plus soy
Milk-plus Mainstream consumer
protein.

Contain either no diary

ingredients or at least no
Lactose-intolerant
Milk alternatives lactos, are possess
consumers
approximate composition of
cow’s milk.

Ethnic and religious

groups, vegetarians, and
Based on all-vegetable
health conscious
Soymilks/Soy beverages ingredients, with soy as the
consumers, have become
sole protein source.
a widening part of the
mainstream consumer.

Scientifically formulated and

clinically tested for specific
human diseases or
Sold via medical referral
Pharmaceutical/nutritional developmental statese.g. infant
within pharmacies
formula, adult nutritional
supplements, and enteral
feeding formula.

Provide balanced nutrition as Weigh conscious or

Meal replacers/weight loss
par to an overall diet plan. obese consumers

e.g coffee whiteners and Religious, ethnic, and

whipped toppings dairy-like dietary needs demanding
Cream alternatives
cream alternatives without replacement of casein in
casein. toppings.

Fruit-flavoured drink with soy

Children, women, and
Fortified juice protein included (<1.5%) for
helath-conscious adults
nutrient fortification.

Fruit-type drink with a higher

Health conscious and
protein addition (1.5 to 3%).
active adults seeking
Two subsets: semblance of
Fruit smoothies added nergy and more
drinkable yogurts; blended
nutrition in tasty, fruity
fruit shakes popular at
flavours.
smoothie bars.
Adapted from Riaz (2006).

Table 3. Beverages containing soy protein products

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362 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology

Physical property Beverage functional attribute

Solubility Appearance, mouthfeel, sediment, suspension stability
Emulsification Suspension stability, mouthfeel, appearance, colour
Viscosity Mouthfeel, stability, flavour
Flavour binding Flavour
Particle size Mouthfeel, colour and appearance
Heat stability Colour, suspension
Source: Riaz (2006)

Table 4. Relationship between physical properties of proteins and beverage attributes

Application Protein dispersibility index (PDI)

Emulsifying, foaming >90
Lipoxygenase bleaching of flour and bread >85
Water absorption in bakery products 60
Waffles 30
Crackers, cereals 15
Source: Riaz (2006).

Table 5. Soy protein solubility requirement for selected bakery applications

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Functional Properties of Soybean Food Ingredients in Food Systems 363

Functional property Mode of action Baking system Protein form

Emulsification
Formation and
Flour, concentrates,
Formation stabilization of fat Breads, cakes
isolates
emulsions

Fat Adsorption
Doughnuts,
Prevention Binding of free fat Flour, concentrates
pancakes

Water Absorption
and Binding
Hydrogen bonding
Uptake of water, entrapment Breads, cakes Flour, concentrates
of water, no drip
Hydrogen bonding
Retention of water, entrapment Breads, cakes Flour, concentrates
of water, no drip

Flour, concentrates,
Dough formation - Breads, cakes
isolates

Protein acts as Flour, concentrates,

Cohesion-adhesion Breads, cakes
adhesive material isolates

Disulphide links in Flour, concentrates,

Elasticity Breads, cakes
deformable gels isolates

Adsorption, Concentrates,
Flavour-binding Breads, cakes
entrapment, release isolates, hydrolyzes

Whipped
Forms stable films to toppings, chiffon Isolates, soy whey,
Foaming
trap gas desserts, angel hydrol
cakes

Colour control
Bleaching of
Bleaching Breads
lipoxygenase
Maillard, Breads, pancakes,
Browning
caramelization waffles

Source: Riaz (2006).

Table 6. Selected functional characteristics of soy protein in baking systems

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364 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology

Category Description
1. Athletic bars Includes energy bars.

Includes the 40:30:30 concept of balanced

2. Lifestyle or wellness bars calorie intake from carbohydrates, protein and
fat)

Includes meal replacement bars and high-

3. Diet bars
protein, low-carbohydrate bars

4. Carbohydrate energy Used by backpackers, climbers, cyclists, etc.

endurance bars for an energy boost.
Adapted from Riaz (2006)
Table 7. Basic formulations of food bars

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 Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology
Edited by Prof. Tzi-Bun Ng

ISBN 978-953-307-219-7
Hard cover, 642 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 26, April, 2011
Published in print edition April, 2011

Soybean is an agricultural crop of tremendous economic importance. Soybean and food items derived from it
form dietary components of numerous people, especially those living in the Orient. The health benefits of
soybean have attracted the attention of nutritionists as well as common people.

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