DOCUMENT ON ARC GIS

(SPATIAL ADJUSTMENT,
TOPOLOGY AND
GEOREFERENCING)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
NO
CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS 3

1.1 History of GIS 3

1.2 What is GIS? 4
1.3 Definition of GIS 4
1.4 GIS Functions 4
1.5 Components of GIS 5
1.6 GIS Capabilities 7
1.7 Advantages of GIS 8

CHAPTER 2 MAPS AND MAPPING CONCEPTS 10

2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Definition of Map 10
2.3 Geographic Information in a map 10
2.4 Map Characteristics 11
2.5 Map Scale 11
2.6 Map accuracy 11
2.7 Cadastral Maps 12
2.8 Map Projections 12

CHAPTER 3 IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS AND INTERPRETATION 17

3.1 Image Data 17

3.2 Image Data Formats 17
3.3 Elements of Image Data Interpretation 18
3.4 Spatial Data Formats 19
CHAPTER 4 SHAPE FILE AND GEOREFERENCE PROCESS 21

4.1 Shape File 21

4.2 Spatial Adjustment 27
4.3 Topology 29
4.4 Attribute Table 33
4.5 Georeferencing 37
4.6 KML Conversion 38

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 CHAPTER 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS

1.1 History of GIS

Early cave men drew pictures of the animals they hunted on the walls of their caves. Associated
with the animal drawings are track lines thought to depict migration routes. Though
simplistic in comparison to modern technologies, these early records mimic the two-element
structure of modern geographic information systems, an image associated with attribute
information.

The earliest use of geographic method probably was in 1854, when John Snow depicted the
locations
of cholera outbreak in London to study the distribution and source of the disease. While the basic

elements of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, the John Snow map was
unique,
using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to analyze clusters of geographically
dependent phenomena for the first time.

The early 20th century saw the development of "photozincography" where maps were separated
into layers such as one layer for vegetation, another for water bodies etc. Computer hardware
development spurred by nuclear weapon research would lead to general purpose computer
"mapping" applications by the early 1960s. The year 1967 saw the development of the world's first
true operational GIS in Ottawa, Ontario by the federal Department of Energy, Mines and
Resources. Developed by Roger Tomlinson, it was called "Canadian GIS" (CGIS) and was used to
store, analyse and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI) - an initiative to
determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping various information on soils, agriculture,
recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry, and land use at a scale of 1:250,000.

CGIS was an improvement over "computer mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for
overlay, measurement, digitizing/scanning and supported a national coordinate system that
spanned the continent, coded lines as "arcs" having a true embedded topology and stored the

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attribute and location information in separate files. As a result, its developer, Roger Tomlinson,
has come to be known as the "father of GIS."

By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had
been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to export

the concept of viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring data format and transfer standards.
More recently, a growing number of free, open-source GIS packages run on a range of operating
systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. Increasingly geospatial data and
mapping applications are being made available via the world wide web.

1.2 What is GIS?

GIS is an acronym meaning Geographic Information System. A Geographic Information System is

basically a computer based tool for mapping and analyzing geographic information. GIS can be

thought of as a map on a computer but it is more than just a map. It is possible to combine many
maps or "layers" of information and then analyze and manipulate them to create a new map.
These new maps are often used for making decisions about land use, resources, transportation,
real estate, retailing, etc.

This ability to incorporate spatial data, manage it, analyze it, and answer spatial questions is the
distinctive characteristic of a geographic information system. Map making and geographic analysis
is not new, but GIS makes it possible to do this type of work faster and more efficiently because
of the power and ease of using modern computers. It allows virtually anyone to create a map to
help explain historic events, plan for the future, and predict outcomes.

1.3 Definition of GIS

A GIS is "an organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel
designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of
geographically referenced information."

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1.4 GIS Functions

There are four basic functions of GIS: data capture, data management, spatial analysis and
presenting results.

Data Capture
Data used in GIS come from many sources, are of many types and are stored in different ways.
A GIS provides tools and methods for the integration of data into a format so that the data can
be compared and analyzed. Data sources include mainly manually digitized or scanned paper
maps, aerial photographs and existing digital data. Data collected using GPS and remote sensing
satellite imageries are also input data sources.

Data Management
After data are collected and integrated, a GIS provides facilities that can contain and maintain
data. Effective data management includes the following aspects: data security, data integrity,
data storage and retrieval, and data maintenance.

Spatial Analysis
Spatial analysis is the most important function of a GIS that makes it distinct from other
systems such as computer aided design (CAD). The spatial analysis provides functions such
as spatial interpolation, buffering and overlay operations.

Presenting Results
One of the most exciting aspects of GIS is the variety of ways in which information can be
presented once it has been processed. Traditional methods of tabulating and graphing data can
be supplemented by maps and three-dimensional images. Visual presentation is one of the
most remarkable capabilities of GIS that allows for effective communication of results.

1.5 Components of GIS

A geographic information system is the combination of skilled persons, spatial and descriptive
data, analytic methods, and computer software and hardware—all organized to automate,
manage, and deliver information through geographic presentation.

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 Hardware
Hardware comprises the equipment needed to support the many activities of GIS ranging from
data collection to data analysis. The central piece of equipment is the workstation, which runs
the GIS software and is the attachment point for ancillary equipment. Data collection efforts
can also require the use of a digitizer or scanner for conversion of hard copy data to digital data
and a GPS data logger to collect data in the field. The use of handheld field GIS technology is
also becoming an important data collection tool in GIS. With the advent of web-enabled GIS,
web servers have also become an important equipment for GIS.

Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools
needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic
information. Key software components are
o A database management system (DBMS)
o Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
o Tools/Functions to support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
o A user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to
tools

Data
Data is the core of any GIS. There are two primary types of data that are used in GIS. A
geographic database (geo-database) consists of data that are in some way referenced to locations
on the earth. Geo-databases are grouped into two different types: vector and raster. Coupled
with this data is attribute data which are defined as additional information, that are
tied to geographical (spatial) data. Documentation of GIS datasets is known as metadata.

People
The people are the component who actually makes the GIS work. A GIS cannot work merely
by software’s and hardware’s, but needs people who care capable of using them
appropriately, the experts who can understand the problem at hand, who knows what type
of analysis is to be applied, what are the input data required and what will be output of
analysis. They include a range of positions including GIS managers, database administrators,
application specialists, systems analysts, and programmers. They are responsible for

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 maintenance of the geographic database and provide technical support. People also need to be
educated to take decisions on what type of system to use. People associated with a GIS can
be categorized into: viewers, general users, and GIS specialists.

Methods
Methods include how the data will be retrieved, input into the system, stored, managed,
transformed, analyzed, and finally presented in a final output. The procedures are the steps
taken to answer the problem at hand. The ability of a GIS to perform spatial analysis and
answer these questions is what differentiates GIS from other information systems.

1.6 GIS Capabilities

Until very recently, most geographical information systems were set up for local applications, or
for work on a limited project area. There are now strong indications that many users, particularly
major government agencies are willing or have started to set up comprehensive countrywide
systems. The designer of a GIS should expect that a user will want to ask an almost unlimited
number of questions that need to be answered by using certain combinations of data retrieval and
transformation options. Although the range of actual questions will be unlimited, there are several
broad types of questions that need to be catered for. Some of these general questions are the
following:

Location: What is at …?
This question seeks to find what exists at a particular location. A location can be described in
many ways using, for example, a place name, post code, or geographic reference such as
longitude/latitude or x and y.

Condition: Where is it …?
This question is the converse of the first and requires spatial data to answer. Instead of
identifying what exists at a given location, one may wish to find locations where certain
conditions are satisfied (e.g., an non-forest area of at least 5000 m 2 within 200 meters of road
and with soils suitable for supporting buildings).

Trends: What has changed since …?

This question might involve both the first two and seeks to find the differences within an area

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 over time, eg, changes in forest cover or the extent of urbanisation over the last 30 years
at Sabarimala temple premises.

Patterns: What spatial patterns exist …?

This question is more sophisticated. It might be asked to determine whether landslides are
mostly occurring near streams or to find out at which traffic points in a National Highway
accidents are occurring most frequently. It might be just as important to know how many
anomalies there is that do not fit the pattern and where they are located.
Modeling: What if …?
This question is posed to find what happens if, for example, a new road is added to a network or
a toxic substance seeps into the local ground water supply. Answering this type of question
requires both geographic and other information (as well as specific models).
Many of these general questions are difficult to answer using conventional methods but
becomes easy through GIS analysis.

1.7 Advantages of GIS

The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and monitoring
of many projects of infrastructure, environmental and biodiversity conservation, resources
evaluation and management etc. The use of GIS has become so common and universal primarily
due to the following advantages:

i) Improved Project Efficiency and cost saving

Advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of a project having a large spatial
component, where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. New
thematic maps and utility maps useful in decision making can be generated by combination of more
than one base map. With the various functions within GIS it is possible to calculate areas,
distances, lengths, widths, volumes etc. which would have otherwise taken much time. Ultimately
it reduces the cost of the project.

ii) Better Decision Making

―Better information leads to better decisions" - is as true for GIS as it is for other information
systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system but a tool to query,
analyze, and map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has been used to

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assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping resolve territorial
disputes, and also in site selection, route/corridor selection, zoning, planning, conservation, natural
resource extraction, etc. People are beginning to realize that making the correct decision about a
location is strategic to the success of an organization.

iii) Improved communication.

GIS-based maps and visualizations greatly assist in understanding situations and explanations. They
are a new language that improves communication between, different teams, departments,
disciplines, professional fields, organizations, and the public.

iv) Better geographic information record-keeping.

Many organizations have a primary responsibility of maintaining authoritative records about the
status and change of geographical data, cultural, social and physical aspects. GIS provides a
strong framework for managing these types of systems with full transaction support and reporting
tools. These systems are conceptually similar to other information systems in that they deal
with data management and transactions, as well as standardized reporting (e.g., maps) of changing
information.

v) Higher Quality Analysis

GIS provides for advanced analytical techniques such as Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) or 3-D
modeling. Using DTM, landscape can be better visualized, leading to a better understanding of
certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant calculations, such as water volumes in water
bodies, soil erosion volume (Example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels,
dams, roads, embankments, land leveling) and hydrological modeling becomes easier.. GIS can be
a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze socioeconomic data such as population distribution,
market localization and other related features for studies such as Environmental Impact Assessment.

vi) Improving Organizational Integration

Many organizations that have implemented GIS, have found that one of its main benefits is
improved management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to
link data sets together by geography, it facilitates inter-departmental information sharing and
communication. By creating a shared database, one department can benefit from the work of
another.

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 CHAPTER 2

MAPS AND MAPPING CONCEPTS

2.1 Introduction

A map is a simplified representation of whole or part of the earth on a plane surface. Like written
and spoken languages, maps are means of communicating information and knowledge. Maps
depict objects in the real world such as communication lines, paths, settlements, physical and
natural features, cultural features etc in distinct symbols, patterns and colors. Modern
cartography has evolved diverse and inventive ways to characterize and portray the many
qualities of the real world on to a map. With the widespread adoption of computers and
development of GIS technology and digital cartography, maps are now printed documents
with which we are familiar, as well as interactive visual displays on computer screens. GIS
systems have enhanced the way people interact with maps and the manner in which information is
presented.

2.2 Definition of Map

A map is the graphical presentation of geographic data. In other words, it is a two-

dimensional depiction of the three-dimensional earth. As it is not possible to represent all
features of the earth in its true size and form, a map is drawn at a reduced scale. Besides, the
representation of different features is also simplified using symbols, shades, colors and patterns. A
map is therefore, defined as selective, symbolized and generalized representation of whole or part
of the earth’s surface on a plane surface at a reduced scale.

2.3 Geographic Information in a map

Geographic features are located at or near the surface of the earth. They can be natural

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features (rivers, vegetation, hills, valleys and peaks), man-made features (roads, pipelines and
buildings) and subdivisions of land (counties, land parcels and political divisions).
Many geographic features have distinct shapes that can be portrayed by points, lines, polygons or
surfaces.

Points represent geographic features too small to be depicted as lines or areas, such as
well locations, telephone poles, and buildings. Points can also represent locations that
have no area, such as mountain peaks.
Lines represent geographic features too narrow to be depicted as areas, such as streets
and streams or slices through a surface, such as elevation contours.
Polygons are closed figures that represent the shape and location of homogeneous
features, such as states, counties, parcels, soil types or differing land-use zones.

2.4 Map Characteristics

In addition to feature locations and their attributes, other technical characteristics that define maps
and their use include map scale, map resolution, map accuracy, map projection, map extend and
database extend.

2.5 Map Scale

To show a portion of the Earth‘s surface on a map, the area must be reduced. Map scale, or the
extent of reduction, is expressed as a ratio. The number to the left indicates distance on the map;
the number to the right indicates distance on the ground. The following three statements show the
same scale:

Equation: 1 cm = 500m
Ratio: 1: 50,000
Fraction: 1/50000
Graphic scale shows the above scale graphically.

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2.6 Map Accuracy

Many factors besides resolution influence the accuracy of depicted features, including quality of

source data, map scale, drafting skills and width of lines used to represent features. While drafting

map features at a scale of 1: 50,000 (i.e., one cm on map represents half km on ground.), a
fine drafting pen can draw a line of 0.25 mm in width, which represents a corridor on the
ground of almost 20m width. In addition, human drafting errors will occur and can be
compounded by the quality of the source maps and materials. Even though no maps are entirely
accurate, they are still useful for decision-making and analysis. However, it is important to
consider map accuracy to ensure that the data is not used inappropriately. Any number of factors
can cause error. These include those linked to map projection, datum information, cartographic
interpretation, drafting error, digitization error, and distortion of the map media, registration error
and other unknown errors. All these sources can have a cumulative effect.

2.7 Cadastral Maps

These maps are drawn to show the ownership of landed property by demarcating field
boundaries of agricultural land and the plan of individual houses in urban areas. The cadastral
maps are prepared by the government agencies to realize revenue and taxes, along with keeping
a record of ownership. These maps are drawn on a very large scale, such as the cadastral maps of
villages at 1 : 4,000 scale and the city plans at a scale of 1: 2,000 and larger.

2.8 Map Projections

2.8.1 What is Map Projection?

Maps are flat, but the surfaces they represent are curved. Transforming three-dimensional space
onto a two-dimensional map is called projection. Projection formulae are mathematical
expressions which convert data from a geographical location (latitude and longitude) on a sphere
or spheroid to a representative location on a flat surface.

2.8.2. Types of Projections

Note: ARC/INFO supports over forty-six projections.

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Types on the basis of projection properties

Projections can be classified on the basis of projection properties and projection surfaces. On the
basis of projection properties, projections are classified into conformal, equal area, equidistance
and true direction projections.

Conformal Projections
Conformal projections preserve local shape. Graticule lines on the globe are perpendicular.
To preserve individual angles describing spatial relationships, a conformal projection must also
present graticule lines intersecting at 90-degree angles on the map. This is accomplished by
maintaining all angles, including those between intersections of arcs. The drawback is that the
area enclosed by a series of arcs may be greatly distorted in the process. No map projection can
preserve shapes of larger regions.

Equal-area Projections
Equal-area projections preserve the area of displayed features. To do this, the properties of
shape, angle, scale, or any combination of these are distorted. In equal-area projections, the
meridians and parallels may not intersect at right angles. In some instances, especially maps of
smaller regions, shapes are not obviously distorted, and distinguishing an equal-area projection
from a conformal projection may prove difficult unless documented or measured.

Equidistant Projections
Equidistant maps preserve the distances between certain points. Scale is not maintained correctly
by any projection throughout an entire map; however, there are, in most cases, one or more lines
on a map along which scale are maintained correctly. Most projections have one or more lines for
which the length of the line on a map is the same length (at map scale) as the line it references on
the globe, regardless of whether it is a great or a small circle, straight or curved. Such distances
are said to be true. No projection is equidistant to and from all points on a map.

True-direction Projections
The shortest route between two points on a curved surface such as the Earth is along the
spherical equivalent of a straight line on a flat surface. That is the great circle on which the two
points lie. True direction or azimuthal projections maintain some of the great-circle arcs, giving

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the directions or azimuths of all points on the map correctly with respect to the centre. Some true-
direction projections are also conformal, or equal-area, or equidistant.

Projection Types Based on Projection Surface

Because maps are flat, some of the simplest projections are made onto geometric shapes that can
be flattened without stretching their surfaces. Common examples are cones, cylinders, and
planes. Actually, cylinders and planes are limiting forms of a cone. The first step in projecting
from one surface to another is to create one or more points or lines of contact. Each contact is
called a point (or line) of tangency. For example, a planar projection is tangential to the globe at
one point only while cones and cylinders contact the globe along a line. If the projection surface
intersects the globe instead of merely touching its surface, the resulting projection is called a
secant rather than a tangent case. Whether the contact is tangent or secant, the contact point or
lines are significant because they define the point or lines of zero distortion. Lines of true scale
are often referred to as standard lines. In general, projection distortion increases with distance
from the point of contact.

On the basis of projection surface used, map projections may be grouped into conic, cylindrical
and planar. In each category there are several types of projections developed. ARC/INFO
supports over forty-six projections.

Conic Projections
The simplest conic projection is tangent to the globe along a line of latitude. This line is called the

standard parallel. The meridians are projected onto the conical surface, meeting at the apex of
the cone. Parallel lines of latitude are projected onto the cone as rings. The cone is then cut along
any meridian to produce the final conic projection, which has straight converging meridians
and concentric circular arcs for parallels. The meridian opposite the cut line becomes the central
meridian.

Cylindrical Projections
Cylindrical projections may also have one line of tangency or two lines of secancy on the globe.

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The Mercator projection is one of the most common cylindrical projections, and the Equator is
usually its line of tangency. Meridians are geometrically projected onto the cylindrical surface,
and latitude parallels are mathematically projected, producing graticular angles of 90 degrees. The
cylinder is cut along any meridian to produce the final cylindrical projection. The meridians are
equally spaced, while the spacing between parallel lines of latitude increases toward the poles.
This projection is conformal and displays true direction along straight lines. Rhumb lines, lines of
constant bearing, but not most great circles, are straight lines.

For more complex cylindrical projections the cylinder is rotated, thus changing the tangent or
secant lines. Transverse cylindrical projections such as the Transverse Mercator use meridians
as their tangential contact, or lines parallel to meridians as lines of secancy. The lines of tangency
then run north and south, along which the scale is true. Oblique cylinders are rotated around a
great-circle line located anywhere between the Equator and the meridians. In these more complex
projections, most meridians and the lines of latitude are no longer straight. In all cylindrical
projections, the line of tangency or lines of secancy have no distortion and thus are lines of
equidistance. Other geographical properties vary according to the specific projection.

Universal Transverse Mercator Projection (UTM) is a transverse cylindrical projection which

defines 60 zones of 6 degrees each to cover the entire globe , each zone being projected with
the cylinder tangent to a central meridian and covering 3 degrees each on either side. Each
UTM zone has a number and is projected only upto 42 degrees north and south latitudes. This
projection is conformal and suitable for base maps and thematic maps.

Planar Projections
Planar projections project map data onto a flat surface touching the globe. A planar projection is

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also known as an azimuthal projection or a zenithal projection. This type of projection is usually
tangent to the globe at one point, but may be secant in which case the plane surface touches the
globe in a circle. The point of contact may be the North Pole, the South Pole, a point along the
Equator, or any point in between. This point specifies the aspect used and functions as the focus of
the projection. The focus is identified by a central longitude and central latitude; and possible
aspects are polar, equatorial, and oblique.

Other Projections
The projections discussed thus far can be conceptually created by projecting from one
geometric shape (a sphere) onto another (a cone, cylinder, or plane). Many projections are not
related as easily to one of these three surfaces.

Modified projections are modified versions of another projection (e.g., the Space Oblique
Mercator is a modification of the Mercator projection). These modifications are made to reduce
distortion, often by including additional standard lines or a different pattern of distortion.

Pseudo projections have only some of the characteristics of another class of projection. For
example the Sinusoidal is called a pseudo-cylindrical projection because all lines of latitude are
straight and parallel, and all meridians are equally spaced. However, it is not truly a cylindrical
projection because all meridians except the central meridian are curved. This results in the Earth
appearing oval instead of rectangular. Other projections are assigned to special groups, such as
circular, star, and so on.

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 CHAPTER 3

IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS AND INTERPRETATION

3.1 Image Data

Image data is most often used to represent graphic or pictorial data. The term image inherently reflects
a graphic representation, and in the GIS world, differs significantly from raster data. Most often, image
data is used to store remotely sensed imagery, e.g. satellite scenes or orthophotos, or ancillary graphics
such as photographs, scanned plan documents, etc. Image data is typically used in GIS systems as
background display data (if the image has been rectified and georeferenced); or as a graphic attribute.
Remote sensing software makes use of image data for image classification and processing. Typically,
this data must be converted into a raster format to be used analytically with the GIS.

Image data is typically stored in a variety of de facto industry standard proprietary formats. These often
reflect the most popular image processing systems. Other graphic image formats, such as TIFF, GIF,
PCX, etc., are used to store ancillary image data. Most GIS software will read such formats and allow
you to display this data.

Image data is most often used for remotely sensed imagery such as satellite imagery or digital
orthophotos.

A photograph could also be represented and displayed in a digital format by subdividing the image into
small equal – sized and shaped areas, called picture elements or pixels, and representing the brightness
of each area with a numeric value or digital number. Instead, that is exactly what has been done to the

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above. In fact, using the definitions we have just discussed, this is actually a digital image of the
original photograph! The photograph was scanned and subdivided into pixels with which pixel assigned
a digital number representing its relative brightness. The computer displays each digital value as
different brightness levels.

3.2 Image Data Formats

GRID: Grid is a raster geo processing program distributed by environmental systems research instate,
the name grid is taken from the raster data format of presenting information in a grid of cells.
JEIF (JPEG): JPEG is a set of compression techniques established by the joint photographic export
group (JPEG). The most commonly used form if JPEG involves discrete cosine transformation (DCT).
There is a lossless form of JPEG compression that uses DCT followed non lossy encoding, but it is not
frequently used since it only yields an appropriate compression ratio of 2:1 ERDAS image only
handles the lossy form of JPEG. While JPEG compression is used by other file formats, including
TIFF, the JPEG file inter change format JIEF is standard file format used to store JPEG compressed
imagery.

Geo TIFF: According to the geo TIF format specification, revision 1.0, “the geo TIFF spec defines a
set of TIFF tags provide to describe all cartographic information associated with TIFF imagery that
originates from satellite imaging systems, scanned aerial photography, scanned maps digital elevation
models, or as a result of geographic analysis” The geo TIFF format separates cartographic information
into two parts: Geo referencing and geo coding.

(TIFF = Tagged Image File Format)

AutoCAD (DXF): Autodesk is a vector software package distributed by Autodesk. This software
enables the user to draw two or three dimensional models. This software is frequently used in
architecture, engineering, urban planning, and many other applications.

3.3 Elements of Image Interpretation

Recognizing targets is the key to interpretation and information extraction. Observing the differences
between targets and their backgrounds involves comparing different targets based on any, or all, of the
visual elements of tone, shape, size, pattern, texture, shadow, and association.

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Tone
Tone refers to the relative brightness or color of the objects in an image. Generally, tone is the
fundamental element for distinguishing between different targets or features

Shape
Shape refers to the general form, structure, or outline of individual objects. Shape can be a very
distinctive clue for interpretation.

Size
Size of objects in an image is a function of scale. It is important to assess the size of a target relative to
other objects in a scene, as well as the absolute size, to aid in the interpretation of the target.

Pattern
Pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of visibly discernible objects.

Texture
Texture refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular areas of an image.
Rough textures would consist of a mottled tone where the grey levels change abruptly in a small area,
whereas smooth textures would have very little tonal variation.

Shadow
Shadow is also helpful in interpretation as it may provide an idea of the profile and relative height of a
target or targets which may make identification easier. Shadow is also useful for identifying or
enhancing topography and landforms, particularly in radar imagery.

Association
Association takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects or features in
proximity to the target of interest.

3.4 Spatial data formats

GIS data represents real world objects with digital data. Real world objects can be divided into two
abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and continuous fields (rain fall amount or elevation). There are

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two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for abstractions: Raster and Vector.

Raster

Raster data type consists of rows and columns of cells where in each cell is stored in a single
value. Raster data can be images with each pixel containing a color value.

Vector
In a GIS, geographical features are often expressed as vectors, by considering those features as
geometrical shapes. Different geographical features are best expressed by different types of
geometry:

Points: Points are used for geographical features that can best be expressed by a single grid
reference.
Polygons: Polygons are used for geographical features that cover a particular area of the earth’s
surface.
Lines: Lines are used for features such as a river.

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 CHAPTER 4
SHAPE FILE AND GEOREFERENCE PROCESS

4.1 Shape File

Shape File is a standard non topographical data format used in ESRI products. Although the
shape file treats a point as a pair of x, y coordinates, a line as a series of points, and polygon as a
series of lines, no files describe the spatial relationships between these geometric objects. Shape
file polygons actually have duplicate arcs for the shared boundaries and can overlap one another.
Rather than having multiple files as for an ArcInfo coverage, the geometry of a shape file is
stored in two basic files: *.shp file stores the feature geometry, and *.shx file maintain the spatial
index of the feature geometry.

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Procedure to create a shape file :

Polyline to Polygon conversion-

1. Open ArcGIS software by right click on the ArcMap 10.1

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2. Right click on layers and click on add data

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3. Click on Folder connections and add *.dxf file

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 4. And add *.tiff (jpg) file

2. To create Shape file (*.shp)

 click on Arc Tool Box
 select Data Management Tools

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 select Features
 click on feature to polygon
 give the details -- Input features: select the *.dxf file
Output Feature Class :”villagename_poly”

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 6. click on save and next click OK

4.2 Spatial Adjustment

1. Click on Editor and select Start Editing

2. Click on Spatial Adjustment and Set Adjust Data

3. Click on All Features in these layers

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4. Next tick the village_poly
5. Next click OK

6. Select the New Displacement Link Tool

7. Next take 1 point on polygon shape file and clock on same point on .tiff file
8. In the same way select 4 points from each corner
9. Next click on Spatial Adjustment select Adjust
10. Click on Save Edits in Editor tool box

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4.3 Topology
Click on Catalog tool box:
1. Click on Folder connections and select village file
2. Next give right click on that village file
3. Click on New and select Personal Geodatabase, personal geodatabase created
4. Right click on Personal geodatabase and click on New then select Feature Dataset
5. Give the name as DATA and click on next
6. Select WGS1984 from Geographic Coordinate Systems and click on next

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7. And again click on next and next click Finish
8. Now give right click on DATA and click on Import and select the Feature Class
(single)
9. Dialogue box will appear on the name of Feature class to Feature class
10. In that give the details
Input fearures: select the polygon file (village_poly)
Output features: copy the name in input feature and paste here
11. Click on OK and next close and Give right click on DATA and click New option

12. Select the Topology and click on next

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13. Add rules to topology such as Must not overlap, Must not have gaps ..etc

14. Click on finish

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15. New topology will be created – “would you like to validate it now”
16. Click on Yes

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17. Open blank map , add poly file and data_topology file

18. Check for any errors using error inspector tool.

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4.4 Attribute Table
1. Open blank map , add poly file
2. Right click on polygon file and open Attribute Table

3. Click on table options and select Add Field

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5. Name : like PARCEL_NUM, V_NAME, DMV_CODE..etc
6. Type: Text select OK
7. Select start editing from Editor tool box
8. Click on Field Calculator in Attribute Table and enter data in “” (for example
“GACHIBOWLI”)
9. Save Edits in Editor tool box and click on OK

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4.5 Geo referencing
1. Open Google Earth Pro and search for village to be Geo Referenced using village
name
2. Zoom out to an extent such that side villages are visible according to TIFF
3. Save the google image without Tilt in maximum resolution
4. Open Arc Map and add village_polygon
5. Right click on village_polygon and select properties
6. Click on Labels and Tick label features in this layer
7. Select suitable color and other features which is to be visible on the Tiff
8. Add Google Earth image by using Add Data option
9. Click on “Add Control points” in Geo Referencing Tool Box
10. Select any Topo detail (like tree) and note the coordinates (latitude & longitude) in
Google Earth
11. Select same feature on Google Image inserted in Arc Map and input the coordinates
obtained from google earth
12. In the same way add coordinates in 4 corners of the Google Image
13. Click on rectify in Geo Referencing Tool Box
14. Give the path to save the rectified google image
15. Open blank map
16. Add TIFF & Rectified Google Image
17. Select TIFF file in Geo Referencing Tool Box
18. Click on “Add Control points” in Geo Referencing Tool Box
19. By identifying same topo details in both TIFF and Rectified Google Image, Geo
reference TIFF onto rectified google image by giving two control points
20. Right click on TIFF and select properties
21. Select source and set transparency to 60% for better visibility
22. Adjust the TIFF onto rectified Google Image and rectify the TIFF by providing
suitable path
23. Open blank map
24. Add the rectified TIFF and village_poly
25. Click on Start Editing
26. Using Spatial Adjustment procedure adjust polygon onto TIFF
27. Click on save edits and then stop editing

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4.5 Geo referencing
28. Open Google Earth Pro and search for village to be Geo Referenced using village
name
29. Zoom out to an extent such that side villages are visible according to TIFF
30. Save the google image without Tilt in maximum resolution
31. Open Arc Map and add village_polygon
32. Right click on village_polygon and select properties
33. Click on Labels and Tick label features in this layer
34. Select suitable color and other features which is to be visible on the Tiff
35. Add Google Earth image by using Add Data option
36. Click on “Add Control points” in Geo Referencing Tool Box
37. Select any Topo detail (like tree) and note the coordinates (latitude & longitude) in
Google Earth
38. Select same feature on Google Image inserted in Arc Map and input the coordinates
obtained from google earth
39. In the same way add coordinates in 4 corners of the Google Image
40. Click on rectify in Geo Referencing Tool Box
41. Give the path to save the rectified google image
42. Open blank map
43. Add TIFF & Rectified Google Image
44. Select TIFF file in Geo Referencing Tool Box
45. Click on “Add Control points” in Geo Referencing Tool Box
46. By identifying same topo details in both TIFF and Rectified Google Image, Geo
reference TIFF onto rectified google image by giving two control points
47. Right click on TIFF and select properties
48. Select source and set transparency to 60% for better visibility
49. Adjust the TIFF onto rectified Google Image and rectify the TIFF by providing
suitable path
50. Open blank map
51. Add the rectified TIFF and village_poly
52. Click on Start Editing
53. Using Spatial Adjustment procedure adjust polygon onto TIFF
54. Click on save edits and then stop editing

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4.6 KML conversion
1. Open Arc Map
2. Add village_poly
3. Select Conversion Tools in Arc Tool Box

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1. Click on Layer to KML
2. Give path to save the KML file and click OK

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