Department of the Environment Road Research Laboratory

ROAD NOTE 29
Third Edition

a guide to the
structural design of
pavements for new
roads

Her Majesty’s Stationery Office 1970 Price 28p net

Contents 7.2 Reinforced concrete roadbase 17

7.3 Reinforcement 17

7.4 Joints 18

7.5 Surfacing 18

8 Hard shoulders 18
Foreword 4
9 Design incorporation variations of thickness
1 Introduction 5 18
across the width of the carriageway
2 Selection of the type of pavement 5
9.1 Examples illustrating the method of
20
3 Estimation of traffic for design purposes 6 design for tapered cross sections

4 Design life of pavements 7 10 Design of pavements to carry specialized

21
traffic of known axle loading
5 Design of flexible pavements 7
10.1 Examples illustrating design of
5.1 Subgrade 7 pavements to carry specialized traffic 21
of known axle loading
5.2 Drainage and weather protection 8
11 References 23
5.3 Sub-base 8
12 Appendix 1. The frost susceptibility of soils
5.4 Road base 9 24
and road materials

5.5 Surfacing courses 9 12.1 Introduction 24

5.6 Example illustrating the design 12.2 Cohesive soils 24

10
procedure for flexible pavements
12.3 Non-cohesive soils 24
6 Design of concrete pavements 13
12.4 Chalks 24
6.1 Subgrade 13
12.5 Limestones 24
6.2 Drainage and weather protection 13
12.6 Granites 24
6.3 Sub-base 13 12.7 Burnt colliery shales 24
6.4 Concrete slabs 13 12.8 Slags 25

6.5 Reinforcement 14 12.9 Pulverized fuel ashes 25

6.6 Spacing of joints in reinforced 13 Appendix 2. Design of warping joint 25

14
concrete slabs
13.1 Introduction 25
6.7 Spacing of joints in unreinforced
14 13.2 Specification 25
concrete slabs

6.8 Details f joints in concrete slabs 15

6.9 Edge beams 15

6.10 Example illustrating the design

procedure for reinforced concrete 16
pavements

6.11 Example illustrating the design

procedure for unreinforced concrete 16
pavements

7 Design of pavements with continuously

reinforced concrete base and bituminous 17
surfacing

7.1 Traffic, subgrade, drainage and sub-

17
base
Road Research Laboratory

Department of the Environment

Road Note 29

A guide to the structural

design of pavements for new
roads
Foreword

Road Note no. 29 was first published in 1960 to provide a guide to the structural design of roads carrying
medium and heavy traffic. The 1965 revision widened the scope to include lightly trafficked roads, such as
those used in housing estates. Otherwise only relatively minor changes were made to the earlier edition.

Since 1960 the annual expenditure on the construction of new roads has increased fourfold. This alone
provides sufficient reason for a detailed re-examination of all the recommendations given in the last edition.
The growth rate of commercial traffic on many of the roads recently built has proved to be more than 4
percent per annum as compared to 10 years ago. This means that there are on some roads daily flows of
commercial traffic already exceeding the 6000 ~ 8000 vehicles that the original drafting committee had in
mind as a maximum after 20 years. The size of the commercial vehicles in use has also tended to increase
and this has resulted in a greater proportion of heavier axle loads.

This revision was drawn up by a Panel drawn principally from the Laboratory’s Committee on Design and
Construction. The Panel also included members of the County Surveyors’ Society, consulting engineers,
members of certain of the trade associations concerned with road pavings, and members of the staff of the
Laboratory, of the Highway Directorate of the Ministry of Transport, and of the Ministry if Housing and Local
Government. I am particularly grateful to Mr. J.V. Leigh, the County Surveyor of Hertordshire, for his able
chairmanship of the Panel.

A major task of the revision Panel has been to define traffic more realistically in terms of its damaging power
and to extend the design recommendations to cater for the heavy traffic conditions that must be expected
on many of the country’s major roads before the end of the present century.

The revised document gives the engineer freedom of choice in selecting the design life, and it enables him
to estimate the probable effect on pavement life of any modifications in design he may wish to consider.

The other principal changes made are reviewed in the introduction to the revised document. They include a
new section dealing with the design of factory roads intended to carry specialized traffic.

D.J. Lyons

Director of Road Research

ROAD RESERCH LABORATORY

1970
 5 The approach is also particular applicable to
A guide to the structural design of the design of industrial access roads, or
similar roads intended to carry specialized
pavement for new roads traffic. The accuracy of the designs will
depend very largely on the accuracy of the
traffic prediction over the chosen life.

1 Introduction 6 The principal changes that have been made,

apart from the metrication and the
introduction of the new method of traffic
1 Road Note No.29 was published originally in assessment, are:
1960, and the first major revision was issued
in 1965. As recently as 198 the (a) The additional thickness of sub-base
recommendations for unreinforced concrete previously recommended under dense
pavements were reviewed by a Panel of the coated macadam and asphalt bases in
Road Research Laboratory’s Research flexible pavements is no longer
Committee on Concrete and as an interim required.
measure prior to a further complete revision
of the Road Note, these were issued as RRL (b) Dense coated materials with tar binder
Report LR 192.1 and gravel aggregates for road bases
are included in the recommendations
The need to metricate has provided an for flexible pavements regardless of the
opportunity to bring the Road Note up to traffic to be carried. Gravel is also now
date and to reconsider the basic layout included in the aggregates that may be
originally adopted. used for rolled asphalt base courses
regardless of the traffic to be carried.
2 The present revision was drawn up within the
Ministry of Transport in close consultation (c) The recommendations for unreinforced
with a Panel set up by the Laboratory’s concrete pavements have been brought
Research Committee on Design and into line with RRL Report No. LR 1921
Construction. The Panel included county
surveyors and consulting engineers. (d) Provision is made for varying the
thickness of pavements across the
3 This note deals solely with the construction of width of carriageways carrying uni-
new roads and not with the resurfacing and directional traffic, so that the engineer
maintenance of existing road. can, if he wishes, take into account the
reduced commercial traffic flow on
4 In the earlier editions, the designs catered for middle and fast lanes.
a limited selection of traffic categories
defined in terms of the number of (e) A design procedure is included for
commercial vehicles per day to be carried by private roads intended to carry
the road 20 years after construction. The use specialized traffic.
of a growth rate for commercial traffic of 4
percent per annum was recommended. 7 For the benefit of engineers designing roads
to the Ministry of Transport Specification for
To render the document more versatile, road and bridge works,2 reference is made in
traffic is now defined in terms of the the text to the relevant clauses are subject to
cumulative equivalent number of 8,200kg amendment from time to time by Technical
(18,000lb) axles (to be called standard axles) Memoranda issued by the Department of the
to be carried during the design life of the Environment.
road. Simple means of estimating traffic on
this basis from normal census data are
provided. Using this approach the changes in
minimum design thickness are continuous
throughout the traffic range from residential 2 Selection Of The Type Of
roads to motorways. From the initial traffic Pavement
intensity and estimated growth rate, the
engineer can prepare designs suitable for any
‘life’ up to 40 years. 8 The recommendations allow the approximate
designs for flexible and concrete pavements
to be deduced for any subgrade and traffic

5
 conditions. The type of pavement selected There will be rare cases in which roads need
will then depend largely on economic to be designed for initial traffic greater than
considerations. 2500 commercial vehicles per day in each
direction, the maximum shown in Figs. 1 – 4.
Such roads are also likely to have an initial
growth rate greater than the national
average. The cumulative number of
3 Estimation Of Traffic For Design
commercial vehicles carried by each slow
Purposes lane on such roads can be estimated by
extrapolation from the curves given, but very
high values (in excess of the 90 million
9 The loads imposed by private cars do not
maximum shown in Figs. 1 – 4) may result
contribute significantly to the structural
for lives of more than 20 years. In practice it
damage caused to road pavements by traffic.
is most unlikely that a high growth rate
For purpose of structural design, therefore,
would be maintained throughout the design
only the numbers of commercial vehicles and
life of the pavement without the road
their axle loadings are considered. (The
becoming saturated. For this reason
commercial vehicle is defined here as goods
estimates made on this basis will be
or public service vehicle of unladen weight
unrealistic. It is suggested that where
exceeding 1,500kg.)
available traffic data lead to a cumulative
total of more than 90 million commercial
10 For two lane single carriageway roads the
vehicles to be carried by each slow lane
procedure described in this Road Note will be
during the design life, a design based on the
appropriate to each lane. On dual
90 million figure should be adopted.
carriageway roads with up to three lanes per
carriageway or on single carriageways with
13 Traffic census data are not generally
more than two traffic lanes, the procedure
available for residential roads. Table 1 shows
will provide designs applicable to the slaw
the initial traffic intensities that should be
traffic lanes. These designs will normally be
assumed for the design of various categories
used over the whole carriageway width but, if
of road in residential or associated
the engineer wishes, some reduction in
development areas where more accurate
thickness may be made on the other lanes of
assessments are not available. On the basis
dual carriageway roads in accordance with
of these initial intensities and an assumed
Section 9 of this Note.
growth rate of 4 percent, Fig. 5 relates the
cumulative number of commercial vehicles
11 The traffic information that will normally be
carried by each slow lane to the design life.
available from census data will enable an
estimate to be made of the traffic at the time
14 The average number of axles per commercial
of construction expressed in commercial
vehicle varies with the type of road. For
vehicles per day (either in each direction to
motorways and trunk roads it is currently 2.7;
the sum in both directions) and of a growth
for roads designed to carry between 250 and
rate. Where no growth rate can be made, an
1000 commercial vehicles per day, 2.4; and
average value of 4 percent per year should
for residential and all other public roads, 2.25
be taken. In this Note, traffic intensities are
(see Table 2). Using this factor, the
expressed in terms of commercial vehicles
cumulative number of commercial vehicles
per day in each direction unless otherwise
carried by each slow lane of a road during
state. (The traffic in each direction may be
the design life can be converted to a number
assumed to be half the sum in both directions
of axles.
when the latter only is known.)
15 The loads associated with individual axles
12 For various initial intensities of commercial
constituting the commercial traffic will not
traffic and a growth rate of 3 percent, Fig. 1
normally be known. Observation of axle loads
gives the cumulative number of commercial
have been made on typical roads and these,
vehicles carried by each slow lane for design
considered in conjunction with the axle-load
lives of up to 40 years. These curves take
equivalence factors derived from the AASHO
into account the transfer of commercial
Road Test,3 enable numbers of commercial
vehicles between the slow lanes and adjacent
axles to be expressed as equivalent numbers
lanes as the traffic intensity increases.
Figures 2, 3 and 4 give similar relations for
growth rates of 4, 5 and 6 per cent
respectively.

6
 of 8200kg (18,000 lb) axles, * referred to 19 For roads in residential and associated
throughout this Note as standard axles. developments, the use beyond 20 years,
without any significant change in layout, can
Table 2 gives for three classes of road the be regarded as certain. On multiple access
number of standard axles per commercial roads of this type, where levels are fixed by
axle and the multiplier that must be applied access points and drainage considerations, it
to the cumulative number of commercial is recommended that a 40 year design life
vehicles on each slow lane to derive the should be adopted for all roads in the first
cumulative number of standard axles to be two categories of Table 1. For road in the
catered for in the design. third and fourth categories of Table 1, the
engineer should choose a life in accordance
16 The procedure to be used for deducing the with the recommendations given in paras. 17
cumulative number of standard axles for and 18.
specialized traffic consisting of repetitions of
particular types of loaded vehicle (e.g. roads
in a refinery) is given is Section 10 of this
Note.
5 Design Of Flexible Pavements

20 In formulating the design, the traffic, the

4 Design Life Of Pavement design life, the subgrade, the sub-base, the
roadbase and the surfacing are each
considered in turn. From a consideration of
17 The design engineer must first decide the initial commercial traffic, growth rate and
structural life in years that he requires from design life, the cumulative number of
the pavement. The life chosen will be standard axles to be carried by each slow
influenced by the type of road, by its lane of the pavement is estimated using the
probable use after the end of the design method given in Section 3. The
period, and by whether a flexible or a recommended minimum thickness for the
concrete form of pavement is to be used. various layers of the pavement is obtained
from Figs. 6 ~ 10. The thickness of each
18 The design given in this Note caters for a individual layer is intended to be rounded
terminal pavement condition at which partial upwards to the next 10mm intercept.
reconstruction or a major overlay would be
necessary to extend the life of the pavement.
In view of the problems involved in achieving 5.1 Subgrade
a major extension of life of concrete road and
the comparatively modest increase in initial
21 It is essential that the subgrade, whether in
slab thickness necessary to ensure a long life,
cut or fill, is compacted and shaped as in the
it is suggested that such pavements should
requirements of the Ministry of Transport
normally be designed for a life of 40 years.
Specification2 (Clause 609, 610).
The same argument does not apply to
22 The strength of the subgrade is a principal
flexible pavements where it is more
factor in determining the thickness of the
economical to design for a shorter life and to
pavement, but deterioration due to frost
overlay rather earlier to increase the life and
action must also be taken into account. The
improve the riding quality. More knowledge is
strength of the subgrade is assessed on the
emerging on the relative performance of the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) scale.
different forms of flexible roadbase, but for
the time being it is suggested that a flexible 23 The CBR test is described in BS 1377
pavement should normally be designed for a (Methods of testing soils for civil engineering
life of 20 years. purposes).4 Experience has shown that on
wet cohesive soils commonly found in Britain,
reliable test results are difficult to obtain
because of the influence on them of the
1
method of sample preparation and
*
The 8200kg (18,000 lb) axle has been chosen for the standard as, in compaction. Table 3 shows a correlation
terms of number and damaging power combined, it represents the between CBR value and soil type based on
most damaging class of axle load in Great Britain. The equivalent British experience with wide variety of
number of standard axles is that number that has the same damaging
subgrades in their equilibrium moisture
power as the standard axle on the road.

7
 condition for high and low levels of water high water table condition referred to in
table, For most purposes this information will Table 3 should be used for design.
be sufficient to give the appropriate CBR
values. It is important to provide efficient permanent
drainage to remove water from the subgrade
24 Where the specialist equipment and and any other permeable layer of the road
experience is available, the CBR test may be both during construction and during the life
carried out on recompacted samples in of the road. Waterproofing of various layers
accordance with BS 1377:1967. The method during constructions, e.g. by sealing, may
of compaction used should preferably be that also be desirable (Clause 610,611). This is
referred to as Method 2 under paragraph dealt with more fully in Road Note 17.6
5.1.3.1 of the British Standard. The moisture
content and density condition used to the
test should reproduce as closely as possible 5.3 Sub-base
the conditions likely to apply under the road
after construction. To estimate the 27 The required thickness of sub-base is
appropriate density condition, it is suggested determined from the cumulative number of
that a preliminary test should be carried out standard axles to be carried and the CBR of
using the method specified in Test 13 of this the subgrade using Fig. 6. Where the CBR of
Standard but with the soil at the expected the subgrade as indicated in Table 3 is less
average moisture content after construction. than 2% (the lowest value considered on Fig.
The CBR test specimen should be compacted 6), and additional 150mm of sub-base, above
to a density corresponding to 95% of the the requirement for CBR 2%, should be used.
value obtained in the preliminary test. (This will not necessary cater for local soft
spots located during construction. These may
For cohesive soils in which the restraint effect need individual treatment at the discretion of
of the CBR mould and the influence of the engineer.)
surcharge is small, in-situ CBR measurements
may be used if desired as a guide for design 28 No material within 450mm of the road
purposes. However, it is important that the surface should be susceptible to frost action
content and dry density condition prevailing (see Appendix 1) except as allowed below for
at the time of test should approximate to roads designed to carry less than 2.0 million
those expected under the completed road. standard axles.
(Where possible the test should be made on
a freshly exposed soil surface at a depth When the subgrade is frost susceptible (see
below the zone likely to be affected by drying para. 25), the thickness of the sub-base must
or wetting from the surface. A depth of not be sufficient to give a total thickness of
less than 1 meter is recommended.) construction over the soil of not less than
450mm. After the design of the pavement
25 Whether or not the subgrade is likely to be has been prepared, this must be checked and
frost susceptible must be considered. The if necessary, the thickness of the sub-base
guidance given in RRL Report LR 90 (The increased to give a total pavement thickness
frost susceptibility of soils and road materials) of not less than 450mm.
will generally be sufficient to decide whether
a soil is likely to be frost susceptible. A On road designed to carry less than 2.0
summary of the conclusions reached in that million standard axles, the requirement of a
Report is given in Appendix 1 of this Note. In total thickness of 450mm over frost
cases of doubt the soil should be tested in susceptible soils may be relaxed where local
accordance with the procedure given in that experience during severe winters has shown
Report. this to be permissible.

29 For cumulative traffic of less than 0.5 million

5.2 Drainage and weather protection standard axles, the minimum CBR of the sub-
base should be 20%. For cumulative traffic in
26 Wherever practicable, the water table should excess of this figure, the minimum CBR of the
be prevented from rising to within 600mm of sub-base should be 30%. For natural gravels
the formation level. This may be done by and other sub-base material with less than
sub-soil drainage or by raising the formation 10% coarser than the 20.0mm BS test sieve
level by means of an embankment. Where size, the CBR test should be carried out in
neither of these measures is practicable, the accordance with BS 1377:1967 Test 15.4 The
method of compaction used should be similar
8
 to that described in paragraph 5.1.3.2. 33 Figures 7 ~ 10 gives the thicknesses required
Method 3 of British Standard, using the 10lb for each pf the roadbase material referred to
(4.5kg) rammer. The material should be in para.31, in terms of the cumulative
tested at its natural moisture content, and number of standard axles to be carried.
the dry density used should conform to that
likely to be achieved in the field. (Road 34 Soil cement roadbase should only be used
Research Technical Papers 17, 33, 45 and 53, when the cumulative number of standard
London, give guidance on this matter) (The axles is less than 1.5 millions. The required
number of blows of the rammer necessary on thickness is shown on Fig.9. Cement bound
each of the fie layers of material to give the granular roadbase may be used for
target density in the CBR mould must be cumulative number of standard axles less
determined by preliminary trials). The CBR than 5 millions, the required thickness of this
test is not applicable to material conforming material is also shown on Fig.9.
to the requirements of Type 1 sub-base
(Clause 803) or to Type 2 sub-base materials 35 When lean-concrete, wet mix or dry bound
(Clause 804) containing more than 10% macadam is used for the roadbase, the
retained on the 20.0mm BS test sieve. minimum thickness shown on Fig.9 or 10 will
Neither is it applicable to stabilized sub base be required. For cumulative traffic over 11
(Clause 805, 806). All such materials can be million standard axles, the minimum
assumed to fulfill the CBR requirements of thickness of wearing course plus base course
30% without test. Type 1 or stabilized is 100mm (see Table 4). For the additional
materials should be used for the top 150mm surfacing thickness over 100mm shown in
where the sub base is required to carry Fig. 9 or 10, any approved bituminous
construction traffic under winter conditions. roadbase or base course material included in
para.31 and in Table 4, Column 1, may be
30 If the CBR of the subgrade is in excess of the used to form a composite roadbase with the
minimum, requirement for the sub-base, no wet-mix, dry bound macadam or lean
sub-base is required. Where sub-base is concrete roadbase material.
required, the minimum thicknesses that
should be laid are 80mm where the
cumulative traffic is less than 0.5 million 5.5 Surfacing courses
standard axles and 150mm where the traffic
is in excess of that value (see Fig.6). 36 The recommended thickness of surfacing in
terms of the cumulative number of standard
axles to be carried is given in Fig. 7 ~ 10
5.4 Roadbase depending on the type of roadbase material
used. The materials recommended for the
31 Roadbase materials comprise lean concrete surfacing vary with the cumulative traffic to
(Clause 807), dense tarmacadam * (Clause be carried, and details are given in Table 4.
810), dense bitumen macadam (Clause 811),
rolled asphalt (Clause 812), wet mix 37 The surfacing is intended to be laid in two
macadam (Clause 808), dry-bound macadam courses, except where the cumulative traffic
(Clause 809), soil-cement (Clause 805) and is less than 0.5 million standard axles. The
cement-bound granular material (Clause recommended thicknesses of wearing course
806). are indicated on Table 4.

32 For roads designed to carry less then 2.5 38 On major roads delay in laying the wearing
million standard axles, roadbase materials course is likely to cause inconvenience to
other than those listed in para.31 may be traffic and may create surface water drainage
used where experience has proved their problems. On such works, close control of
stability under corresponding traffic materials and methods of construction should
conditions. Such materials must not be ensure that the roadbase and base course
susceptible to the action of frost. are well compacted so that little further
compaction occurs under traffic.

39 Where inconvenience to traffic is not a major

1 factor, it may be convenient to delay the
* Where gravel aggregate is used in dense roadbase with tar binder for laying of the wearing course until compaction
roads designed to carry more than 2.5 million standard axles, a tar of under traffic has occurred. The delay should
not less than 58 c.v.t. should be used for ? gravels or gravels be limited to 6 ~ 12 months.
containing ? and not less than 5? c.v.t. for all other gravels.

9
 Except in residential areas, delay in laying the sub-base of thickness 240mm, the minimum
wearing course is not recommended on roads CBR value of the sub-base being 30%.
with cemented road bases.
Roadbase and surfacing: For the traffic to be
40 If it is intended to delay the final wearing carried, Fig. 7 ~ 10 indicate the following
course, any temporary surfacing should be thickness of roadbase and surfacing (rounded
impervious or be rendered impervious by upwards to the next intercept):
surface dressing. The engineer should
consider the limits of surface irregularity and (a) Rolled asphalt roadbase
resistance to skidding acceptable for the
temporary surfacing, bearing in mind its life Figure 7 shows a roadbase thickness of
as a surfacing and the local conditions. 110mm, with a surfacing 90mm thick
using any combination of surfacing
41 On lightly trafficked residential roads, heavy materials given in Table 4, Column 2.
loads may need to be carried during the (On frost susceptible soils the sub-base
development stage. Where unbound or would therefore need to be increased to
coated macadam road bases are used, it is 250mm.)
advisable to delay laying the surfacing until
such loads have been carried. The roadbase (b) Dense macadam roadbase
should then be regulated as necessary before
the surfacing is laid. Unbound roadbase Figure 8 shows a roadbase thickness of
trafficked in this manner should be blinded 130mm, with surfacing 90mm thick
with granular fines material and surface- using any combination of surfacing
dressed prior to carrying traffic. materials given in Table 4, Column 2.

(c) Lean concrete roadbase

5.6 Example illustrating the design
Figure 9 shows a roadbase thickness of
procedure for flexible pavements
180mm, with a surfacing 100mm thick
using any combination of surfacing
42 A flexible design is required for a road materials given in Table 4, Column 2. As
intended to carry 1100 commercial vehicles the cumulative traffic is greater than 5
per day (sum in both directions) at the time million standard axles, soil-cement and
of construction with a growth rate of 3%. cement-bound granular material will not
The soil is a silty clay, with a liquid limit of be permitted.
50%, a plastic limit of 20%, and the water
table is more than 1.5m below final road (d) Wet-mix or dry bound macadam
level. The design life is to be 25 years. roadbase

Traffic: Figure 1 shows that for present traffic Figure 10 shows a roadbase thickness
of 550 commercial vehicles per day (in each of 200mm, with a surfacing 100mm
direction) and a growth rate of 3% each slow thick using any combination of surfacing
lane will carry 7.0 million commercial vehicles materials given in Table 4, Column 2.
during the design life of 25 years.

Table 2 gives for this type of road conversion

factor of 0.72 to obtain the cumulative
number of standard axles from the number of
commercial vehicles carried by each slow
lane. The number of standard axles carried
during the design life will therefore be 7.0 x
0.72 millions = 5.04 millions.

Subgrade: The soil has a plasticity index

(liquid limit minus plastic limit) of 50 – 20 =
30%, and the water table will be more than
600mm below final road level. Table 3
indicates a design CBR value of 5%.

Sub-base: For a CBR value of 5% and traffic

of 5 million standard axles, Fig.6 indicates a

10
Table 1 Commercial traffic flows recommended for use in the design of roads in residential and
associated developments when more accurate assessment are not available

Type of road Estimated traffic flow of commercial vehicles per

day (in each direction) at the time of construction

1 Cul-de-sacs and minor residential roads 10

2 Through roads and roads carrying regular bus routes involving up to 25 public service 75
vehicles per day in each direction

3 Major through roads carrying regular bus routes involving 25 ~ 50 public service 175
vehicles per day in each direction

4 Main shopping centre of large development carrying goods deliveries and main 350
through roads carrying more than 50 public service vehicles per day in each direction

Table 2 Conversion factors to be used to obtain the equivalent number of standard axles from the
number of commercial vehicles

Type of road Number of axles per Number of standard Number of standard

commercial vehicle axles per commercial axles per commercial
(see paragraph 14) axle vehicle

(a) (b) (a) x (b)

Motorways and trunk roads designed to carry over 1000 2.7 0.4 1.08
commercial vehicles per day in each direction at the time
of construction

Roads designed to carry between 250 and 1000 2.4 0.3 0.72
commercial vehicles per day in each direction at the time
of construction

All other public roads 2.25 0.2 0.45

Table 3 Estimated laboratory CBR values for British soils compacted at the natural moisture
content

Type of soil Plasticity index (%) CBR (%)

Depth of water table below formation level

More than 600mm 600mm or less

Heavy clay 70 2 1*
60 2 1.5*
50 2.5 2
40 3 2

Silty clay 30 5 3

Sandy clay 20 6 4
10 7 5

Silt - 2 1*

Sand (poorly graded) Non-plastic 20 10

Sand (well graded) Non-plastic 40 15

Well-graded sandy gravel Non-plastic 60 20

* see para. 27

11
Table 4 Recommended bituminous surfacings for newly constructed flexible pavements (see Note 1)

(in cumulative number of standard axles)

More than 11 millions 2.5 ~ 11 millions 0.5 ~ 2.5 millions Less than 0.5 million

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Wearing course (crushed rock or slag coarse aggregate only) Wearing course Two-course

Minimum thickness 40mm Minimum thickness 20mm (a) Wearing course

Rolled asphalt to BS 594 (pitch bitumen binder may be used) Rolled asphalt to BS 594 Minimum thickness 20mm
(Clause 907) (pitch bitumen binder may be Cold asphalt to BS 1690
used) (Clause 907) (Clause 910) (see Note 4)
Dense tar surfacing to BTIA Coated macadam to BS 802,
Specification (Clause 909) BS 1621, BS 1241 or BS 2040
Cold asphalt to BS 1690 (Clause 913,912 or 908) (see
(Clause 910) (See Note 4) Notes 2 & 4)

Medium textured tarmacadam (b) Base Course

to BS 802 (Clause 913) (to be Coated macadam to BS 802,
surface-dressed immediately BS 1621, BS 1241 or BS 2040
or as soon as possible - see (Clause 906 or 905) (see Note
Note 4) 2)

Dense bitumen macadam to Single Course

BS1621 (Clause 908) (see Rolled asphalt to BS 594
Note 4) (pitch bitumen binder may be
Open textured bitumen used)
macadam to BS 1621 (Clause Dense tar surfacing to BTIA
912) (see Note 4) Specification (Clause 909)
Base course Base course Base course Medium textured tarmacadam
Minimum thickness 60mm Rolled asphalt to BS 594 Rolled asphalt to BS 594 to BS 802 (Clause 913) ( to be
Rolled asphalt to BS 594 (Clause 902) (see Note 2) (Clause 902) (see Note 2) surface dressed immediately
(Clause 902) (see Note 2) or as soon as possible – see
Dense bitumen macadam or Dense bitumen macadam or
Note 4
Dense bitumen macadam or dense tarmacadam (Clause dense tarmacadam (Clause
dense tarmacadam (crushed 903 or 904) (see Note 3) 903 or 904) Dense bitumen macadam to
rock or slag coarse aggregate BS 1621 (Clause 908) (see
Single course tarmacadam to
only) (Clause 903 or 904) (see Note 4)
BS 802 (Clause 906) or BS
Note 4) 1241 (see Notes 2 & 5) 60mm or single-course
tarmacadam to BS 802
Single course bitumen
(Clause 906) or BS 1241 ( to
macadam to BS 1621 (Clause
be surface dressed
905) or BS 2040 (see Notes 2
immediately or as soon as
& 5)
possible – see Note 4)

60mm of single-course
bitumen macadam to BS 1621
(Clause 905) or BS 2040 (see
Note 4)

Notes:
1. The thicknesses of all layers of bituminous surfacings should be consistent with the appropriate Bristish Standard.
2. When gravel other than limestone, is used, 2% of Portland cement should be added to the mix and the percentage of fine aggregate
reduced accordingly.
3. Gravel tarmacadam is not recommended as a base course for roads designed to carry more than 2.5 million standard axles.
4. When the wearing course is neither rolled asphalt nor dense tar surfacing and where it is not intended to apply a surface-dressing
immediately onto the wearing course, it is essential to seal the construction against the ingress of water by applying a surface dressing
either to the roadbase or to the base course.
5. Under a wearing course of rolled asphalt or dense tar surfacing the base course should consist of rolled asphalt to BS 594 (Clause 902) or
of dense coated macadam (Clause 903 or 904)

12
 Where heavy construction vehicles (e.g.
loaded trucks) have to be operated over the
prepared sub base laid on ‘ weak’ or ‘ normal’
6 Design Of Concrete Pavement subgrades, and the design the considers that
this will entail a risk of damage, the sub base
43 The following sections deal with both should be strengthened. With subgrades with
reinforced and unreinforced concrete CBR of 4% or less an additional 150mm of
pavements. The design of continuously sub-base is considered sufficient. On other
reinforced concrete slabs with bituminous ‘normal’ subgrades an additional 80mm
surfacings is dealt with in Section 7. should suffice. Type 1 Sub base Material
(Clause 803), lean concrete (Clause 807) or
In formulating the design for concrete cement stabilized material (Clause 805, 806)
pavements the traffic, the design life, the will be required for the top 150mm, unless
subgrade, the sub-base and the concrete slab construction is limited to the summer months
are each considered in turn. From a when Type 2 sub base material (Clause
consideration of initial commercial traffic, 8004) may also be used.
growth rate and design life, the cumulative
number of standard axles to be carried by the Some regulation of sub base may be required
slow lane of the pavement is estimated using before concrete slabs are laid where sub base
the method given in Section 3. has been used by heavy construction traffic.
It may be economical on dual carriageway
roads to confine construction traffic to
6.1 Subgrade carriageway only.

48 No material within 450mm of the road

44 It is essential that the subgrade, whether in
surface should be susceptible to frost action (
cut or fill, is compacted and shaped as in the
see Appendix 1), except as allowed below.
requirements of the Ministry of Transport
When the subgrade is frost susceptible (see
Specifications2 (Clause 609 and 610).
para.5). The thickness of the sub base must
be sufficient to give a total thickness of
45 In the design of concrete roads, three
construction over the soil of not less than
qualities of subgrade are considered as
450mm. After the design of the pavement
defined in Table 5.
has been prepared this must be checked and,
if necessary, the thickness of the sub-base
6.2 Drainage and weather protection increased to give a total pavement thickness
of not less than 450mm.

46 Wherever practicable the water table should On roads designed to carry less than 2.0
be prevented from rising to within 600mm of millions standard axles the requirements of
the deformation level. This may be done by the total thickness of 450mm ver frost
sub soil drainage, or by raising the formation susceptible soils may be relaxed where local
level by means of an embankment. experience during severe winter has shown
this to be permissible.
It is important to provide efficient Permanent
Drainage to remove Water from the subgrade
and sub base, both during construction and 6.4 Concrete slabs
during the life of the road. Waterproofing The
subgrade or sub base during construction,
49 Figure 11 gives the thicknesses required for
e.g. by sealing may also be desirable ( Clause
reinforce and unreinforced concrete slabs in
610, 611). This is dealt with more fully in
terms of the cumulative number of standard
Road Note No. 17.6
axles to be carried for the three types of
subgrade considered in Table 5. The
6.3 Sub base thicknesses are intended to be rounded
upwards to the next 10mm intercept.

47 The minimum thickness of sub base 50 The designs given in this notes are base on a
recommended for the three types of minimum crushing strength for concrete of
subgrade is given in Table 5. These 28 MN/m2 at 28 days using ordinary Portland
thicknesses are suitable for road where no cement or Portland blast furnace cement. If
construction traffic is required to use is sub the indirect tensile test is used, an equivalent
base . value should be taken. Air-entrained concrete
13
 should be used either for the full depth of the either side of the longitudinal joints
slab or for at least the top 50mm (Clause (para.56).
1001-1004).
54 Where three carriageway is constructed in
51 On residential roads and on similar roads two widths, transverse reinforcement
built for light traffic, the pavement may be consisting of 8mm diameter wires at 200mm
required to carry comparatively heavy loads centers, which may be incorporated in special
associated with the construction of the mats, should be used in slabs wider than
surrounding development. The possibility of 4.5m. The length of this transverse
this must be considered at the design stage. reinforcement should be 600mm longer than
With unreinforced concrete, if the roads will a third of the slab width and should be placed
be required to carry the construction traffic centrally.
for 100 or more houses or buildings of
equivalent accommodation, the alternative
design thicknesses shown in Fig. 11 should 6.6 Spacing of joints in reinforced
be used. These alternative designs should concrete slabs
also be used for factory roads required to
carry the construction traffic for large factory
55 The recommended maximum spacing of
development schemes.
reinforcement in relation to the way the
reinforcement is shown in Fig. 13. The
6.5 Reinforcement maximum joints spacing used in the design
should correspond to the actual weight of
reinforcement used (see para. 52) and not
52 For reinforced concrete the minimum weight necessarily to the minimum weight required
of reinforcement required in relation to the from Fig. 12. Every third joint should be an
cumulative number of standard axles to be expansion joint, the remainder being
carried is given in Fig. 12 in terms of weight contraction joints, With the proviso that
of long mesh reinforcement and an area of expansion joints may be at the discretion of
steel per unit width of pavement. the engineer, be replaced by contraction
Reinforcement fabric should be in accordance joints in concrete roads constructed during
with BS 4483. Deformed bar reinforcement the summer months (between 21 April and
should be in accordance with BS 4449 or BS 21 October) provided fixed structures by a
4461. The reinforcement should have 60mm short length of flexible construction or by
cover from the surface except for slabs less other means.
150mm thick where 50mm cover should be
provided. The reinforcements should When any lane or lanes of a multi-lane
terminate at least 40mm and not more than carriageway are to be constructed during the
80mm from the edge pf the slab and from all winter, expansion joints should not be
joints except longitudinal joints covered by replaced by contraction joints on any of the
para. 53. lanes as permitted for summer construction.

At the transverse overlap of reinforcing mats Where limestone aggregate is used

the first transverse wire of one mat should lie throughout the depths of the slab, the
within the last complete mesh of the previous maximum joint spacing may be increased by
mat and the overlap should be not less than 20 percent.
450mm. No overlap will be needed
longitudinally between mats. When deformed Reinforcement must be discontinuous at both
bar reinforcement is used the overlap of the contraction and expansion joints.
bars should not be less than 40 bar
diameters. 56 Longitudinal joints should be provided so that
the slabs are not more than 4.5m wide,
53 Where a two or three lane carriageway width except where special reinforcement is used
is constructed in one operation, reinforcing as given in para. 54
mats having transverse wires of 8mm
diameter at 200mm centers may be used to
span the longitudinal joints in the place of tie 6.7 Spacing of joints in unreinforced
bars (para. 65). The longitudinal concrete slabs
reinforcement in all mats should be as
required by para. 52. The 8mm wires must
57 The maximum spacing of expansion joints
be long enough to span in at least 500mm in
recommended is 60m for slabs of 200mm or

14
 greater thickness and 40m for slabs of lesser As a alternative to pouring sealing
thickness, with intermediate contraction compound, a preformed Neoprene
joints at 5m intervals where aggregates other compression sealing strip may be used. The
than limestone are used, where limestone is width of the groove for this method of
used throughout the depth of the slab, the sealing should be chosen in relation to the
maximum expansion joint spacing may be length of the slab and the recommendations
increased to 72m and 48m respectively with of the manufacturers of the sealing strip to
intermediate contraction joints at 6m be used, special care is required in forming
intervals. the groove.

Expansion joints may at the discretion of the For residential and other lightly trafficked
engineer be replaced by contraction joints in roads, soft wood may be used as a combined
concrete rose constructed in the summer joint filler and seal.
months ( Between 21 April and 21 October),
provided fixed structures are isolated with a 62 To ensure complete formation of contraction
short length of flexible construction or by and longitudinal joints, the combined depth
other means. of the groove and fillet should be one-quarter
to one-third of the thickness of the slab.
When any lane or lanes of a multi-lane
carriageway are to be constructed during 63 Adequate means of load transference should
winter, expansion joints should not be be provided at all joints in concrete
replaced by contraction joints on any of the pavements of 150mm or greater thickness
lanes as permitted for summer construction. except for roads designed to carry less than
0.15 million standard axles during the design
58 Tied warping joints may be substituted for life, when they may be omitted if desired.
some at the sliding contraction joints, But not
more than three such warping joints should 64 All expansion and contraction joints except
be used in succession. (Details of warping those excluded by para. 63 should have
joints are given in Appendix 2.) Distribution sliding dowel bars conforming to the
of contraction and expansion joints may be requirements of Table 7. The dowel should
amended to take advantage of this. be placed at 300mm centers and half the
length of the bars should be coated with a
59 Longitudinal joint should be provided so that bond-breaking compound. The bars in
the slabs are not more than 4.5m wide. expansion joints only should be provided with
a cap at the debonded end, containing the
thickness of 25mm of compressible materials
6.8 Details of joints in concrete slabs to allow the joints to open and close

60 Expansion joints spaced in accordance with 65 Longitudinal joints should have tie bars
the requirements of para. 55 or 57 should be 12mm in diameter by 1m long at 600mm
provided with a joint filler 25mm thick. centers except in the case of roads designed
to carry less than 0.15 million standard axles,
61 All joints, however made, should be provided when the spacing may be increased to
with a groove to accommodate a sealing 700mm.
material the most important function of which
is to keep out grit. Where the compound is of
6.9 Edge beams
the type complying with Clause 2619 of the
Ministry of Transport Specification2, the
dimensions of the sealing material should 66 Where edge beams are use they should be
conform to a Table 6, the groove being filled reinforced with the weight of steel equivalent
with sealing compound to 5mm below the to that in the main slab ( No reinforcement
surface of the concrete. If the grooves are will be required the slabs out unreinforced).
made deeper than is required for the sealing
material, they should be caulked to an 67 Joints in accordance with para. 60 and 61
appropriate depth with a compressible should be provided to the edge beams and
sealing material considered suitable by the the positions where joints occur in the
joint sealing compound supplier. Where tied adjacent slabs.
wrapping joints are substituted for some of
the contraction joints, the size of the groove 68 Dowel bars should be provided to give
for the contraction joints will depend on the adequate means of load transference at
spacing between sliding joints. joints in accordance with the

15
 recommendations of para. 64. At the Reinforcement: Figure 12 gives the minimum
longitudinal joint with the slab, tie bars weight of reinforcement required for the
consisting of 12mm diameter bars at 600mm traffic to be carried as 3.8kg/m2.
centers or 6mm diameter wires at 150mm
centers (or wires giving equivalent sectional Joint Spacing: The next standard weight of
area should be used.) reinforcement fabrics above the minimum of
3.8 kg/m2 is 4.34 kg/m2 and the joint spacing
appropriate to this weight, from Fig. 13, is
6.10 Example illustrating the 27.5m. From para. 55, expansion joints will
design procedure for reinforced be used at 82.5m spacing with two
concrete pavements contraction joints in between at 27.5m
spacing. In accordance with para. 55
expansion joints may be omitted and
69 A reinforced concrete design is required for a contraction joints spaced every 27.5m if the
road to carried 2,200 commercial vehicles per road is constructed during the summer.
day (sum in both directions) at the time of
construction with and growth rate of 5%. The The total thickness of construction will be 300
soil is a clay with liquid limit of 65%, plastic + 250mm, i.e. 550mm. Since this exceeds
and limit of 25% and the water table 500mm the value of 450mm specified in para. 48, the
below the finished road level Traffic frost susceptible of the subgrade need not be
construction traffic will require to use the considered.
base. The design life is to be 20 years.

Traffic: Figure 3 shows that for present traffic 6.11 Example illustrating the
of 1,100 commercial vehicles per day in each design procedure for unreinforced
direction and a growth rate of 5%, each slow
concrete pavements
lane will carry 12.5 million commercial
vehicles during the design life of 20 years.
70 A design is required for an unreinforced
Table 2 gives for this type of road a concrete pavement to be constructed with
conversion factor of 1.08 to obtain the gravel aggregates, suitable for minor through
number of standard axles from the number of traffic in the residential area. The road width
commercial vehicles carried by each slow is 7m and is to carry no public service
lane. The number of standard axles carried vehicles. The soil is sandy clay with a liquid
during the design life will therefore be 12.5 x limit of 35%, plastic limit of 20%, and
1.08 millions = 13.5 millions. construction the water table of 3m below
final road level. The pavement is intended to
Subgrade: The soil has a plasticity index be used by traffic bringing in materials for
(liquid limit minus plastic limit) of 40% with the construction of an estate of several
the water table less than 600mm below hundred houses. The design should cater for
formation level. Table 3 indicates the a life of 40 years.
estimated CBR value of 2% and, in
accordance with Table 5, the subgrade will Traffic: Reference to Table 1 and Figure 5
be classified as ‘weak’. which relates to residential and associated
development roads, shows that the number
Sub-base: The minimal requirement for sub of commercial vehicles on each lane will be
based thickness is given in Table 5 as 0.4 million during the design life of 40 years.
150mm, but, in accordance with para. 47,
this thickness may need to be increased by Table 2 gives for this type of road a
150mm to allow the passage of heavy conversion factor of 0.45 to obtain the
construction vehicles. This additional material numbers of standard axles from the
would need to conform to the requirements cumulative number of vehicles carried by
of Type 1 sub base or be stabilized with each lane. The corresponding number of
cement. The lower 150mm could be of Type standard axles will therefore be 0.4 x 0.45
2 sub base material. million = 0.18 million.

Slab thickness: Figure 11 shows that on a Subgrade: The soil has a plasticity index
weak subgrade, a slab thickness of 250mm (liquid limit minus plastic limit) of 15%, with
would be required for traffic corresponding to the water table more than 600mm below
13.5 million standard axles. (i.e. 222, 225, formation level. Table 3 indicates a probable
247, rounded upwards to 250mm). CBR value of 6% - 7% and, in accordance

16
 with Table 5, is subgrade would be classified 72 The recommended thickness for the concrete
as ‘normal’. slab and the surfacing are obtained from Fig
14. The thickness of slab is intended to be
Sub base: The minimum requirement for sub rounded upwards to the next 10mm
base thickness is given in Table 5 as 80mm intercept. The thickness of sub base is
and, on road of this type where heavy obtained from Table 5.
construction plant would not require to use
the sub base, this thickness would be
structurally satisfactory. Type 2 sub base 7.1 Traffic, subgrade, drainage and sub
material would satisfy the requirements of base
para. 47.

73 The design of continuously reinforced

Slab thickness: Figure 11 shows that on a
concrete pavements follows closely that of
normal subgrade a slab thickness of 160mm
normal reinforced and unreinforced concrete
would normally be required, but because of
pavements, and para. 43 - 48 inclusive,
the initial use of pavement by heavy traffic
dealing with traffic, subgrade, drainage and
concerned with the surrounding
sub base apply equally to this form of
development, it would be desirable to
construction.
increase the thickness to 180mm.

Joint spacing: In accordance with para. 57

7.2 Reinforced concrete roadbase
for gravel aggregates the spacing of
contraction joints would be 5m and the
spacing of expansion joints for winter 74 Figure 14 gives the thickness of continuously
construction would be 40m. reinforced concrete roadbase required in
terms of the cumulative number of standard
(The omission of expansion joints would axles to be carried for the three types of
probably not be practicable unless the road subgrade considered in Table 5.
butted against flexible construction.)
75 The designs given in this Note are based on
Since the total thickness of construction the minimum crushing strain strength of
would be 80 + 180 = 260mm, i.e. concrete of 28MN/m2 at 28 days using
considerably less than the thickness required ordinary Portland cement of Portland blast
by para. 48 over frost susceptible soils, the furnace cement. If the indirect tensile test is
frost susceptible of the subgrade would need used and equivalent value should be taken.
to be considered in the light of local The mix need not be air-entrained.
experience.

7.3 Reinforcement

7 Design of pavements with a 76 The reinforcement should be of long mesh

not lighter than 5.5 kg/m2 or longitudinal
continuously reinforced concrete deformed bars reinforcement of cross
base and bituminous surfacing sectional area not less than 650mm2 per
meter width of road. The relatives heavy
reinforcement is recommended in view of the
71 In some cases, notably in city streets, a absence of transverse joints. Reinforcement
combination of continuously reinforced fabrics should conform to BS 4483 and
concrete and bituminous surfacing may be deformed bars to BS 4449 or BS 4461. The
justified in view of its trouble free reinforcement should have 60mm cover from
performance, especially on subgrades of the surface, and terminate at least 40mm
doubtful quality or those extensively and not more than 80mm from the edges of
disturbed by excavation or where there are the slab and longitudinal joints except for
shallow service trenches. This form of those covered by para. 77.
construction also minimizes the risk of
uneven settlement in areas formerly occupied The transverse joint between reinforcing
by buildings. Because of its initial cost it is mats, the first transverse wire of one mat
not anticipated that this form of construction should lie within the last complete mesh of
will be used for pavements designed to carry the previous mat and the overlap should not
less than 2.5 million standard axles during be less than 450mm. No overlap will be
the design life. needed at the longitudinal joint between

17
 mats. When deformed bar reinforcement is 8 Hard shoulders
used, the overlap of the bars should not be
less than 40 bar diameters.
82 The design of hard shoulders is not
77 Where a two or three lane carriageway is considered in detail in this Note. Each length
constructed in one operation, reinforcing of shoulder, under normal conditions, is used
mats having transverse wires of 8mm by less than one disabled commercial vehicles
diameter and 200mm centers may be used to per day, and for such traffic the design
span joints in place of tie bars (para. 80). methods described in the preceding sections
The longitudinal reinforcement in all mats would indicate a very light form of
should be as required by para. 76. The 8mm construction. However, conditions of
wires must be long enough to span at least abnormal use must also be taken into
500mm either side of the longitudinal joints account. Maintenance work on the
(para. 80). carriageway is likely to require the temporary
use of the full width shoulder as the slow
78 When three lane carriageway is constructed traffic lane. The probable periods of such use
in two widths, transverse reinforcement could be estimated and the design methods
consisting of 8 diameter wires at 200mm used to revise the thickness requirements.
centers, which may be incorporated in special For this traffic the construction needed for
mats, should be used in slabs wider than structural reasons will still be comparatively
4.5m. The length of this transverse light.
reinforcement should be 600mm longer than
one third of the slab width and should be Consideration must also be given in any
placed centrally. particular case to whether the shoulder may
at some time be incorporated into this
carriageway as part of the widening scheme.
7.4 Joints In such a case it would eventually need to
fulfil the functions of the slow lane and the
79 It is recommended that no transverse joints economics of a strong initial design will need
should be introduced accept for unavoidable to be evaluated.
construction joints. At a transverse
Further, as part of the construction process,
construction joint the reinforcement should
it is advantages, to carry the sub base
be allowed to project at least 700mm beyond
materials and some roadbase materials
the end of the day’s work, and when work is
across the full with of the carriageway and
resumed the reinforcement should be
shoulder. This imposes a design thickness for
overlapped by at least 700mm in order to
the shoulder similar to that used in
minimize the possibility of movement of
carriageway, although less expensive
occurring at that joint.
materials can often be used for the upper
80 Longitudinal joints should be provided so that part of the roadbase and for the surfacing of
the slabs are not more than 4.5m wide the shoulder.
except where extra transverse reinforcement
All of these factors need to be considered in
is used as mentioned in para.77. Tie bars as
formulating the shoulder design.
described in para. 65 should be used in all
longitudinal joints except where additional
transverse steel is used as described in para.
77/.
9 Design incorporating variations
7.5 Surfacing of thickness across the width of
the carriageways
81 The surfacing should be of two courses with
total thickness not less than 90mm. Materials 83 The designs considered in the previous
conforming to the requirements given in Sections of this Note. When used for dual-
Column 1 or 2 of Table 4 as appropriate, carriageway roads, are based on the
should be used for the wearing course and commercial traffic using the slow lane. In
base course. general, these designs will be carried over
the full width of the carriageways resulting in
some measure of over design for lanes other
than the slow lanes. Some economy may be

18
 effected for a two pr three lane carriageway 88 Using the procedure a given in Section 3 of
by graduating the thickness of construction this Note Fig. 15 can be used to estimate the
across the width to take some account of the cumulative number of standard axles to be
different loading conditions on the lanes. The carried by the middle lane or fast lane (in the
method which could be adopted for designing case of two lane duals). The design of these
such a pavement is outlined in this Section. lanes can then be formulated in the same
manner as for the slow lane.
84 When such a design is contemplated,
preliminary consideration must be given to 89 Discontinuities across the width of a
ensure that there is an overall economic carriageway are not recommended and it is
advantage and that a practical design results. suggested that tapered thicknesses should be
In certain cases, for example on a right hand adopted, the calculated design thickness for
bend, the change in formation and sub base each lane being used for It’s not
levels across the carriageway owing to recommended that the thickness of surfacing
tapered construction may, in combination of flexible pavements should be tapered
with the superelevation, aggravate drainage across the width of the carriage ways. Any
difficulties during construction. reduction in thickness should be confined to
the south bay’s and roadbase. in the case of
85 As traffic intensities increase is a progressive lean concrete and when mixed rules space,
transfer of commercial vehicles from the slow however, the surfacing thickness obtained
lane. The economic advantage in using from figure nine all figured ten includes the
tapered construction is therefore likely to be additional bituminous material needed the
greatest on two lane dual carriageways center of that lane. (The design of the fast
carrying the highest commercial traffic for lane on a three lane dual carriageway, which
which each such road. Fig. 15 shows the should carry no more commercial traffic, will
cumulative number of commercial vehicles to thus be determined by the commercial traffic
be carried on each carriage way by Ling’s flow on the other two lanes.) Typical cross
descend to the slow lane for various sections for two and three lane dual
intensities of commercial traffic. The growth carriageways are given in Fig. 16.
rate assumes is four percent s likely to be
designed. Where traffic is very heavy the 90 It is not recommended that the thickness of
economic advantage will probably be small. the surfacing of flexible pavements should be
tapered across the width of the carriageway.
86 Figure 15 shows the cumulative number of Any reduction in thickness should be confined
commercial vehicles to be carried on each to the sub base and roadbase. In the case of
carriageway by lanes adjacent to the slow lean concrete and wet mix roadbase,
lane for various intensities of commercial however, the surfacing thickness obtained
traffic. The growth rates assumed is 4%, and from Fig. 9 or Fig. 10 includes the additional
Fig. 15 is therefore complimentary to Fig. 2 bituminous material needed to form a
which gives this information for slow lane. composite roadbase (see para. 35). In these
For growth rates other than 4%, the cases it would be permissible to taper the
cumulative number of commercial vehicles surfacing provided that the surfacing
given by Fig. 15 should be multiplied by the thickness at the edge adjacent to the central
following factors: reserve is not less than 100mm. Any such
tapering should be done only in the lower
3% - multiply by 0.7 course of surfacing. The reduction of
thicknesses of sub base must be within the
5% - multiply by 1.35 limits permitted by the use of the sub base
for construction traffic, if this is envisaged. In
6% - multiply by 1.75 addition, the total thickness of the pavement
must not be reduced at any point to a level
87 Under present regulations relating to the use
where frost would be permitted to enter a
of traffic lanes by commercial vehicles, Fig 15
frost susceptible subgrade (see para. 28).
will apply to the middle lanes of three lane
motorways and the last lanes of two-lane 91 Any reduction of thickness of a concrete
dual carriageways. It will not applied to urban pavement should be confined to the concrete
dual-carriageway roads with four or more slab, and the thickness of the sub base
lanes per carriageway of three lane dual should be maintained constant over the
carriageway roads not covered by current carriageway width. The only practicable
regulations. alteration in slab design across the
carriageway is the thickness; all other aspect
19
 of the design, such as weight of For three lane dual carriageway road, this
reinforcement, joints spacing, etc., should be would reduce the sub base requirement by
the same as that used for the slow lane. For 4%. The corresponding reductions in
ease of construction, dowel bars assemblies roadbase requirements would be 17% (rolled
should be positioned so that the line of the asphalt) or 7% (lean concrete with a
dowel bars across the carriageway is parallel minimum surfacing thickness of 100mm at
to the bottom of the slab. Reinforcements the central reserve.)
should be positioned at a constant depth
from the top of the slab in accordance with Concrete construction. Figure 11 gives the
para. 52. following thicknesses of concrete slab
required on the normal subgrade:

9.1 Examples illustrating the method Slow lane 260mm

of design for tapered cross sections Adjacent lane 240mm

For three lane dual carriageway this would

92 The following examples illustrate the method
reduce the quantity of concrete required by
of design for tapered cross sections and
7%. On frost susceptible soils, however, the
indicate the order of economies in materials
thickness of sub base require would be
likely to accrue from its used:
240mm (i.e. 450mm total pavement
thickness at the central reserve), instead of
Example 1
190mm for slow lane design with uniform
A three lane dual carriageway road is cross section.
required to carried 2,500 commercial vehicles
per day (in the each direction) at the time of
Example 2
construction with a growth rate of 4%. The
A two lane dual carriageway road is required
soil has a CBR value of 3% and the design
to carry 1,500 commercial vehicles per day
life is to be 30 years. Suitable tapered cross
(in each direction) at the time of construction
sections are required.
with the growth rate of 4%. The soil has a
CBR value of 3% and the design life is to be
Figure 2 shows that during the design life the
30 years. Suitable tapered cross sections are
slow lanes will carry 39 million commercial
require.
vehicles, and Figure 15 shows that the lanes
adjacent to the slow lanes will carry 21
Figure 2 shows that during the design life the
million commercial vehicles.
slow lanes will carry 26.4 million commercial
vehicles, and Figure 15 shows that the fast
Using the conversion factor of 1.08 from
lanes will carry 8.2 million commercial
Table 2 for this class of road, the number of
vehicles.
standard axle carried will be 42 millions on
each slow lane and 22 millions on each
Using the conversion factor of 1.08 from
adjacent lane.
Table 2, the number of standard axle carried
will be 28 millions on each slow lane and 9
Flexible construction. Figure 6, 7 and 9
millions on each fast lane.
indicate the following thicknesses of sub base
and roadbase:
Flexible construction. Figure 6, 8 and 10
Sub- Roadbase
indicate the following thicknesses of sub base
base and roadbase:
Rolled Lean
Sub- Roadbase
asphalt concrete
base
Slow lane 450mm 180mm 210mm +
Dense Wet mix
70mm*
macadam
Adjacent 430mm 150mm 210mm +
Slow 440mm 200mm 250mm +
lane 50mm*
lane 60mm*

* Dense bituminous roadbase to form composite

Fast 390mm 140mm 220mm +
construction. 20mm*
lane
Figure 16 (a) gives a cross section of the * Dense bituminous roadbase to form composite
rolled asphalt roadbase. construction.

20
 Figure 16 (a) gives a cross section of the wet Table 8 Equivalence factors and
mix roadbase.
damaging power of
For two lane dual carriageway this would different axle loads
reduce the sub base requirement by 6%. The
Axle load Equivalence factor
corresponding reductions in roadbase
requirements would be 15% (dense kg (lbs)
macadam) or 11% (wet mix).
910 ( 2000) 0.0002
Concrete construction. Figure 11 gives the 1810 ( 4000) 0.0025
following thicknesses of concrete slab
required on the normal subgrade: 2720 ( 6000) 0.01

3630 ( 8000) 0.03

Slow lane 250mm
4540 (10000) 0.09
Fast lane 220mm
5440 (12000) 0.19
For a two lane dual carriageway this would
reduce the quantity of concrete required by 6350 (14000) 0.35
6%. On frost susceptible soils, however, the 7260 (16000) 0.61
thickness of sub base require would be
250mm instead of 200mm for slow lane 8160 (18000) 1.0
design with uniform cross-section. 9070 (20000) 1.5

9980 (22000) 2.3

10890 (24000) 3.2

10 Design of pavements to carry 11790 (26000) 4.4
specialized traffic of known axle 12700 (28000) 5.8
loading 13610 (30000) 7.6

14520 (32000) 9.7

93 Most private industrial roads are required to
carry repeated passages of a limited number 15420 (34000) 12.1
of types of loaded commercial vehicles.
16320 (36000) 15.0
Because of this, the axle loads constituting
the traffic would generally follow very 17230 (38000) 18.6
different pattern to the mixed traffic using
18140 (40000) 22.8
public roads, but the magnitude of the
various axle loads and the frequency would
be known with comparatively to the
accuracy. 95 If the loads on the various axles using the
road are known, together with an estimate of
Under these circumstances it is possible to the numbers of each to be carried during the
use the equivalence factor developed from design life of the pavement, the equivalence
the AASHO road tests3 to convert each axle factors given in Table 8 are used as multiplier
load to an equivalent number of passages of to obtain the equivalent number of standard
a standard (8,200kg) axle, and then to use axles to be catered for in the design. The
the design curves discussed in the earlier procedure is illustrated in detail by the two
Sections of this Note. examples given below.

94 Equivalence factors suitable for the use for 96 If it is required to take into account and
flexible and concrete pavements are given in growth rate for any or all of the axle loads,
Table 8. (The factors deduced from the the following formula may be used:
AASHO road tests showed variation related to
the types of pavement and its thickness. The A = P(1+r)x
variations were, however, very small and for
simplicity average values are quoted in the where
Table.)
A = number of axles/day for a particular
year

21
 P = number of axles/day at the time of and 2,700kg on the front axle. In addition,
construction there will be 200 passages in each direction
of three axle vehicles with loads of 9,000kg
r = annual growth rate; this is generally on the rear axles and 1,800kg on the front
taken as 0.04 (i.e. 4%) in the absence axle, and 100 passages (in each direction) of
of information to the contrary two-axle vehicles with 8,200kg on the rear
axle and 2,700kg on the front axle. A flexible
x = number of years from the year of design is required for a soil with the CBR
construction to the year for which the value of 4% and the design life of 20 years.
number of axles per day is required
In each directions, the traffic consists of six
To obtain the cumulative number of axles of hundred 9,000kg axles; one hundred 8,200kg
any one category during the design life, the axles; one hundred 7,300kg axles; two
number of axles per day for each year, from hundred 2,700kg axles and two hundred
the time of construction to the last year of 1,800kg axles. The numbers of axles to be
life must be computed using the above carried in each direction during the design life
formula. The number of axles per day ( are therefore as follows:
multiplied by 365) for each year of life is
summed to give the cumulative number of Axle Number Equivalence Number
axles over the design life. To simplify this load during factor of
calculation for growth rates between 3 and design life standard
(kg)
6%, the number of axles per day may be axles
multiplied by a factor in given in Table 9 for
(millions)
the appropriate life and growth rate, and by
365 to give the cumulative number of axles 9000 600x365x20 1.5 6.57
over the design life (see Example 2 below).
8200 100x365x20 1.0 0.73
Table 9 Factors for obtaining 7300 100x365x20 0.61 0.45
cumulative axles during the
2700 200x365x20 0.01 0.015
design life at a constant
1800 200x365x20 0.0025 0.004
growth rate
Total 7.77
Life Growth rate (r) - %

(x) 3 4 5 6
(years) For this traffic, reference to Fig. 6, 7, 8, 9
10 11.8 12.5 13.2 14.0 and 10 gives the following flexible design:

15 19.2 20.8 22.7 24.7 Sub-base 310mm

20 27.7 31.0 34.7 39.0 Roadbase:

25 37.6 43.3 50.1 58.1 Rolled asphalt 120mm

30 49.0 58.3 69.8 83.8 Dense coated macadam 140mm

35 69.3 76.6 94.9 118 Lean concrete 190mm

40 77.7 98.8 127 164 Wet-mix 210mm

Surfacing: (Two course bituminous

material as Table 4)

10.1 Examples illustrating the With rolled asphalt or 100mm

design of pavements to carry dense macadam roadbase

specialized traffic With lean concrete or wet- 110mm

mix roadbase

97 Example 1

The daily traffic on a refinery road is to In such a case as this the width of the road
consists of 100 passages (in each direction) would also need to be considered. If the
of four-axle vehicles with loads of 9,000kg on carriageway was so narrow that the vehicles
the two rear axles, 7,300kg on the second moving in the two directions follow

22
 essentially the same tracks, the design would The number of axle loads for the other
need to cater for double the above traffic, categories will be the same.
assuming that the vehicles were equally
loaded in the two directions. Axle load Number Equivalence Number
during factor of
(kg)
98 Example 2 design standard
life axles
A side-loading stacking truck is required to
(millions)
operate on loading lanes in the transit/
storage area. The machine has two axles 17,000 1.4x106 17.7 24.8
carrying the following loads:
15,000 1.4x106 11.0 15.4
Axle 1 Axle 2 13,000 1.4x106 6.4 9.0
(kg) (kg) 11,000 1.4x106 3.3 4.6
Loaded 17,000 15,000 Total 53.8
Unloaded 13,000 11,000

A soil with a CBR value of 3% represents a

It is estimated that the vehicles will make normal subgrade, and Figs. 11, 12, 13, and
400 movements per day along the lanes, 200 Table 5 shows that a concrete slab 270m
loaded and 200 unloaded. It is anticipated thick would be required on an 80mm sub
that the number of movements will increase base. Reinforcement would be of not less
at a rate of 3% per year. A reinforced than 5kg/m2. The next standard long mesh
concrete design is required to give a design reinforcement of 5.55kg/m2 and the
life of 15 years on the clay soil with the CBR contraction joint spacing should therefore be
value of 3%. not more than 35m. The frost susceptibilty of
the subgrade would need to be considered
Since only one machine is operating, it can (see para. 48).
be assumed that the lanes will be narrow and
the movement in the two directions will
follow the same wheel tracks. The daily
traffic with thus consists of: 11 References
200 17,000kg axles;
1 ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. Design
200 15,000kg axles; recommendations for unreinforced concrete pavements.
200 13,000kg axles and Ministry of Transport, RRL Report LR 192. Crowthourne,
1968 (Road Research Laboratory).
200 11,000kg axles.
2 MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT. Specification for road and
The number of axles to be carried during the bridge works. London, 1969 (HMSO) 4th Edition.
design life will be 17,000kg:
3 SHOOK, J.F., L.J. PAINTER, and T.Y. LEPP. Use of
st loadometer data in designing pavements for mixed
1 year 200(1+0.03)x365 = 206x365
traffic. Highway Research Record, 1963 (HMSO) 4th
nd 2
2 year 200(1+0.03) x365 = 212x365 Edition.

…… 4 BRITISH STANDARD INSTITUTION. British Standard

1377:1967. Method of testing soils for civil engineering
15th year 200(1+0.03)15x365 = 312x365
purposes. London, 1967 (British Standards Institution).
Cumulative axles (15 years) = 3840x365 5 CRONEY, D. and J.C. JACOBS. The frost susceptibility of
= 6
1.4 x 10 soils and road materials. Ministry of Transport, RRL
Report LR 90. Crowthrorne, 1968 (Road Research
Laboratory).

6 Road research Laboratory. The protection of subgrades

Alternatively, the factor for 15 years at 3%
and sub base and bases. Ministry of transport, Road note
per year growth is 19.2 from Table 9. The
No. 17. London, 1968 (HMSO).
cumulative number of axles is therefore
200x19.2x365 = 1.4 x 106. 7 WILLIAMS. F.H.P. and D.J. MACLEAN. The compaction of
soil: a study of the performance of plant. Department of

23
 Scientific and Industrial Research, Road Research (a) Non cohesive soils (other than
Technical Paper No. 17. London, 1950 (HMSO). limestone gravels) can be regarded as
8 LEWIS, W.A. Further studies in the compaction of soil non frost susceptible if the percentage
and the performance of compacted plant. Department of of material passing the 75µm BS test
Scientific and Industrial Research, Road Research sieve is 10% or less.
Technical Paper No. 33. London, 1954 (HMSO).
(b) The state of compaction of non
9 LEWIS, W.A> Investigation of the performance of cohesive soils does not significantly
pneumatic tyred rollers in the compaction of soil. affect their liability to frost heave.
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road
Research Technical Paper No. 45. London, 1959 (HMSO). (c) Limestone gravels are likely to be frost
10 LEWIS, W.A. and A.W. PARSONS. The performance of susceptible of the average saturation
compaction plant in the compaction of two types of moisture content of the limestone
granular base material. Department of Scientific and aggregate exceeds 2%.
Industrial Research, Road Research Technical Paper No.
53. London, 1961 (HMSO).
12.4 Chalks

All crushed chalks are frost susceptible. The

12 Appendix 1 magnitude of frost heave increases linearly
with the saturation moisture content of the
chalk aggregate.

The frost susceptibility of soils and

road materials 12.5 Limestones

(a) All oolitic and magnesian limetsones

12.1 Introduction
with an average saturation moisture
content within the aggregate greater
Tests for frost susceptibility have been than 3% must be regarded as frost
carried out by the Road Research Laboratory susceptible. The percentage passing the
on the variety of materials the Dow opens on 75µm BS test sieve has little influence
fed up on the general used as subgrades, sub on the heave likely to occur in these
bases, and road bases both in research and materials.
during routine testing for motorway and
trunk road projects. Details of these tests and (b) All limestones with less than 2% of
other aspects of frost susceptibility are average saturation moisture content
contained in RRL Report LR 906, together within the aggregates and with 10% or
with a description of the Road Research less of particles passing the 75µm BS
Laboratory Frost Test. The conclusions test sieve can be regarded as non frost
reached relating to the frost susceptibility of susceptible.
soils and granular sub base and roadbase
materials of summarized below. These
conclusions will generally remove the need 12.6 Granites
for testing, but in cases of doubt the test
procedure given in LR 90 should be followed. Crushed granite with 10% or less of particles
passing the 75µm BS test sieve can be
regarded as non frost susceptible.
12.2 Cohesive soils

Cohesive soils can be regarded as non frost 12.7 Burnt colliery shales
susceptible when the plasticity indexe is
greater than 15% for well-drained soils, or Burnt colliery shales are very liable to frost
20% for poorly drained soils (i.e. water table heave. The degree of heaving, which seems
within 600mm of the formation level). to be associated with the extent of burning,
cannot be related either to the particle size
distribution or to the saturation moisture
12.3 Non-cohesive soils content of the aggregate. Test on
representative samples are regarded as

24
 essential before the material is used in the The discontinuity in the slab is obtained by
top 450mm of the road structure. Inducing a crack by a combination of top
sealing groove and middle or bottom fillet.
The load transfer effect in unreinforced
12.8 Slags concrete is obtained from aggregate
interlock, and tie bars are necessary to
Crushed, graded slags are not liable to frost prevent the crack from opening to such an
heave if the percentage of material passing extent as to render this ineffective, i.e. to
the 75µm BS test sieve is 10% or less. perform a function similar to that of the steel
in reinforced concrete slabs. The seal is
obtained by a conventional sealing groove
12.9 Pulverized fuel ashes filled with a sealing material.

(a) Coarse fuel ashes with less than 40% of 13.2 Specification
particles passing the 75µm BS test sieve
are unlikely to be frost susceptible.
Reinforcement for warping joints shall consist
(b) Fine ashes may be frost susceptible and of fabricated welded mesh with 12mm
frost susceptibility tests should be diameter longitudinal bars at least 1.4m long
carried out before such materials are at the spacing given in Table 10, a minimum
used in the top 450mm of the road of three wires of 6mm diameter shall be used
construction. transversely as 700mm centers. The number
of transverse wires maybe increased for
handling purposes, if required. At least every
third longitudinal bar shall be longer than
1.4m and shall be bent in order that a 1.4m
effective length of longitudinal reinforcement
shall lie at half depth of the slab with the
13 Appendix 2
assembly on feet supported on the base, the
feet being formed from the extension of the
longitudinal bars in the manner shown in Fig.
Design of warping joint 17. The effective length of the bars shall be
parallel to the line within the limits of ±20mm
in 1m. The center 200mm of each 1.4m
13.1 Introduction effective length of bar shall be painted with
bond-breaking compound (Clause 2605).
Transverse joints are needed in unreinforced
concrete slabs to relieve stresses of restraint Table 10 Spacing of longitudinal
due to both warping moments and bars
longitudinal contraction in order to prevent
cracking. Vertical temperatures gradients in Slab thickness (mm) Spacing (mm)
the slab produced the warping moments, and
300 180
theory suggests that the stresses caused by
these moments are greater than those due to 280 200
contraction in the longitudinal directions for
260 220
normal slab lengths. Thus some of the
contraction joints in unreinforced concrete 240 240
can be replaced by hinged or warping joints.
220 270
The requirements for warping joint, in 200 300
accordance with general requirements for
joint, are: 180 360

(a) a discontinuity in the slab to provide

release of warping moments
Where several reinforcement assemblies are
use in one joint (to facilitate handling) they
(b) a load transfer device
may be independent of each other, but all of
(c) a seal against water and girt the assemblies in one joint shall be You truly
aligned to an accuracy of ±5mm.

25
The reinforcement assemblies shall be fixed
to the base, one method being to use mortar
pads round the horizontal portion of the feet.
The mortar shall consist of one part by
weight of Portland cement to three parts by
weight of sand and shall be placed within one
hour of mixing.

A crack inducer shall be provided at the base

and the sealing groove at the top of the slab
so that the combined depth of discontinuity is
at least one-third of the depth of the slab and
so that difference in the depth of
discontinuity at the top and bottom is not
greater than 12mm. The crack inducer shall
be fixed the base along the center line of the
joint to within 5mm by nailing or other
approved method. The sealing groove located
with its centreline vertically above the crack
inducer within a tolerance of ±12mm, shall
conform with the requirements of para. 61
and Table 6.

26