Potential use of RCA in SCC- Strategy for future use

The Indian Construction industry today is amongst the five largest in the World and at the
current rate of growth in the industry. The Natural resource of Aggregates production and supply
has also emerged as a problem in some of the metropolis & fast growing cities in the India. With
the Shortages as likely seen today the future seems to be in dark/ bans on the activates for the
construction industry sector. The requirements of natural aggregates are not only required to
fulfil the demand for the upcoming future & ongoing projects or infrastructure development in
India comparative to the global infrastructure developments. The major work is being done on
researches on various parameters of the Environment but a little attention is being given on
enforcement of the Environment Laws.

At present India has several market constraints and technical challenges exist when developing
markets for secondary products. The recycling of Construction and Demolition (C&D) Wastes
has long been accepted to have the possible to conserve natural resources and to decrease energy
used in production. In some nations it is a standard substitute for both construction and
maintenance, particularly where there is a scarcity of construction aggregate. which are required
to make recycled materials more attractive and economical.

In India the Current technology means that recovered concrete can be used as aggregate in new
concrete production but new cement is always needed and in most applications only a portion of
recycled aggregate content can be used (regulations often limit content as do physical parameters
, properties, particularly for structural applications of concrete in the present industry).

These sustainable concepts should be incorporated at the design time itself by the structural
engineers and it can be understood that the construction professionals play a key role for
implementing the Use of Recycled Concrete aggregate in concrete and It also enforces the
necessity of use of Recycled Coarse Aggregates (RCA) in concrete so as to reduce the emission
of CO2 gas towards sustainability of Construction Industry, as these professionals must get
involved in the design, construction and operation . Furthermore researches need to be carried
out on implementing this use of recycled coarse aggregates in self compacting concrete mixes so
as to make it more environmental friendly material.
 Many countries having understood the importance of sustainability, the sustainability has
now become paradigm in the field of engineering and has been a burning topic in which
many are doing researches which might carry out even for few more future decades.
Sustainability development is for setting up a vision for the economy to achieve the
major challenges such as social and economic development, environmental protection. In
the 21st century Sustainable development is the main criteria of any construction. Almost
all countries are concerned about the sustainability. The construction of tall/high rise
buildings as sustainable tall buildings is the main focus of many countries as these tall
buildings have grown in large numbers in the modern age. In this paper the concepts of
sustainability has been critically reviewed and all the sustainability materials that were
used for construction of tall buildings has been discussed. From this paper, it has been
understood that the role of construction professionals in implementing this sustainability
concepts in tall buildings has been identified as the crucial one.

Concrete is a strong, durable, low environmental

impact, building material. It is the cornerstone for building construction and infrastructure that
can put future generations on the road towards a sustainable future
. A sustainable concrete structure is one that is constructed so that the total environmental
impact during its entire life cycle, including during its use, is minimum. Concrete is a
sustainable material because it has a very low inherent energy requirement, is produced to order
as needed with very little waste, is made from some of the most plentiful resources on earth,
has very high thermal mass, can be made with recycled materials, and is completely
recyclable. Sustainable design and construction of structures have a small impact on the
environment. Use of “green” materials embodies low energy costs. Their use must have high
durability and low maintenance leading to sustainable construction materials

This report gives a strategy for the future use and guidance for producers, specifiers and users to
promote the wider use of SRA in SCC.

This intense research has laid to the rediscovery of implementing Self Compacting Concrete into
the construction. This Self Compacting Concrete is generally abbreviated as SCC is an old type
of approach which has its roots in the early 1980’s and has now become a useful type of
approach in the present days. By using this self-compacting concrete there can be a maximum
chance to eliminate the vibrator usage in concreting. This is the main reason for bringing up this
SCC into the main frame in the recent years. The main intention of researchers was to reduce the
noise pollution; along with this SCC has also proved to be more efficient in terms of durability
and workability which is an additional success. It has also been provided a smooth surface
finishes.

SCC was developed to overcome problems associated with sensitivity to labour quality and the
generation of noise and dust. High consistence (workability) is one of the main characteristics of SCC,
 which is mainly achieved through the use of high fines content (fine aggregate and powder) and
chemical admixtures. The ratio of coarse to fine aggregates in SCC tends to be much less than for
conventional concretes, indicating the greater potential for accommodating SRA fine aggregates in
SCC.
The concept of SCC or “vibration free concrete” was proposed at Tokyo University in 1986. The
principal was to design a dense, flowable concrete that could fill the formwork and flow around
congested reinforcement without the need for vibration. Development relied upon the advent of
superplasticers which are essential to achieve the required consistence. Other admixtures which may
be incorporated are viscosity modifying agents (VMA) to control segregation and impart stability, air
entraining agents (AEA) to provide freeze-thaw resistance and retarders to control the setting.
Much research and development took place in Japan in the 1990s which culminated in the publishing
of a State-of-the Art Report (Uno, 1998) in August 1998. In Europe, Sweden has been in the forefront
of the use of SCC and has carried out intensive research (Billberg, 1999). The first bridge outside
Japan cast entirely of SCC was constructed in Sweden in 1998. Interest has grown around the world
and RILEM started a Technical Committee (TC-174 SCC) to present the current state-of-the art
(2000) and harmonise test methods. The first RILEM symposium on Self-Compacting Concrete
(1999) was held in Stockholm in September 1999. Papers were presented on the rheology/workability,
properties, mix design, constituents materials and applications of SCC. Subsequently, in 2000, a
further RILEM Committee (TC-188 SCC) was formed to collect and disseminate information through
workshops and publications on casting SCC. EFNARC, the European federation dedicated to
specialist construction chemicals and concrete systems (www.efnarc.org), published specification and
guidelines for SCC in 2002. The Swedish Concrete Association gave recommendations for the use of
SCC in 2002.

IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH AND SAFETY:

The SCC has a positive impact on the environment and is it best in terms of health n safety
issues, as by this SCC the personal noise of loading the workers will be lowered by as much as
one tenth of the noise levels produced when traditional vibrated concreted is used. Using SCC
leads to an improved environment both for concrete workers and for the people in the
neighbourhood due to less noise.

A judicious use of natural resources, achieved by the use of by-products

and waste materials, and a lower environmental impact,
achieved through reduced carbon dioxide emission and
reduced natural aggregate extraction from quarries; represent two main
actions that meet the requirements of sustainable construction
development. Recycled- aggregate concrete containing large amounts of
CM is an example of construction material in harmony with this
concept, whereby sustainable construction development
is feasible with satisfactory
performance, in terms of both safety and
serviceability of structures, at lower costs and with environmental
advantages over ordinary concrete. Moreover, when
using recycled aggregates appropriately, some
important properties of the hardened concrete such as ductility and
durability can be better engineered [Moriconi 2005b].

Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA):

Recycled aggregates composed of original aggregates and adhered mortar. To obtain good
quality concrete using recycled aggregate it is necessary to follow the minimum requirements
defined by the respective Building Standards. Acceptable properties of aggregates are an
elemental base for concrete quality, however adequate mix proportions and concrete production
methods are highly important in concrete quality too.
The physical properties of recycled aggregates depend on both adhered mortar quality and the
amount of adhered mortar. The adhered mortar is a porous material; its porosity depends upon
the w/c ratio of the recycled concrete employed. Crushing concrete to produce coarse aggregate
for the production of new concrete is one common means for achieving a more environment-
friendly concrete. This reduces the consumption of the natural resources as well as the
consumption of the landfills required for waste concrete. The crushing procedure and the
dimension of the recycled aggregate have an influence on the amount of adhered mortar. The
density and absorption capacity of recycled aggregates are affected by adhered mortar and they
must be known prior to the utilization of recycled aggregates in concrete production in order to
control properties of fresh and hardened concrete.
The absorption capacity is one of the most significant properties that distinguish recycled
aggregate from raw aggregates, and it can have an influence both on fresh and hardened concrete
properties.

Recycled aggregates
In the current context of increasing waste production and growing public awareness of
environmental problems, recycled materials from demolished concrete or
masonry can be profitably used in different ways within the building industry. At present,
these materials are mainly used untreated as obtained from demolition for excavation filling,
roadbeds, or floor foundation. However, if suitably selected, ground, cleaned and sieved in
appropriate industrial crushing plants, the rubble from building demolition could become useful for
more ambitious applications.

Leaching issues
A research was conducted in order to verify the possibility to use C&D debris as substitute for natural
aggregate in structural concrete production [Sani et al. 2005]. The results obtained demonstrated that
 such substitution modifies both structural and leaching behavior. In general, the use of recycled
aggregate as a total replacement for natural aggregate causes an increase of the total porosity and a
reduction in mechanical strength that can be attenuated by fly ash addition. Although the total porosity
increases, the ion leaching rate expressed for unit of specific surface area is lower and directly related
to the percentage of macro/meso-pores. The calcium, sodium, and potassium analyses indicate that
different processes are operating, but also suggest that the diffusion process is the most relevant
leaching mechanism. On the basis of these first observations, t h e u s e o f r e c y c l e d a g g r e g a t e
implies a reduction in the rate of calcium release, in spite of a greater porosity of the concrete
microstructure. This effect could be ascribed to the lower portlandite level, responsible for the
soluble calcium. From t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e r e c y c l e d aggregate, i f properly
e n g i n e e r e d , c o u l d h a v e a positive environmental effect and the recycled- aggregate
concrete may be suggested as more environmentally sustainable.

SUSTAINABILITY
Entire geographical regions are running out of limestone resource to produce cement.
Major metropolitan areas are running out of sources of aggregates for making concrete.
Sustainability requires that engineers consider a building’s “life- cycle” cost extended
over the useful lifetime. This includes the building construction, maintenance, demolition, and
recycling [ACI 2004, Coppola et al.
2004, Corinaldesi et al. 2002b, Corinaldesi & Moriconi 2004b, Moriconi 2003].
A sustainable concrete structure is one that is constructed so that the total societal impact
during its entire life cycle, including during its use, is minimum. Designing for
sustainability means accounting in the design the full short-term and long-term
consequences of the societal impact. Therefore, durability is the key issue [Moriconi
2003]. New generation of admixtures/additives are needed to improve durability.
To build in a sustainable manner and conduct
scheduled & appropriate building maintenance are the keys that represent the “new
construction ideology” of this millennium. In particular, to build in a sustainable manner means to
focus attention on physical, environmental, and technological resources, problems related to
human health, energy conservation of new and existing buildings, and control of construction
technologies and methods [Coppola et al. 2004, Corinaldesi & Moriconi 2004a,
2004b, Corinaldesi et al. 2005b].

INTRODUCTION:
For the construction industry the ‘sustainability’ has become a common word and is also a
mandatory concept that is being persisted by the client in the contract itself such has become its
importance. To by far the construction has also been one of the prime contributors for the
environmental pollution in many ways.
In this paper, a critical literature review has been conducted about the sustainability, its concepts
in a very elaborate manner. Further review has also been conducted on the possible reasons on
implementation of this sustainability on high rise buildings all over the world in the recent years
and how all countries are coping up with its sustainability strategy. It has also been discussed
about the sustainable materials used in tall buildings and also on the role of construction
professionals in achieving sustainability.
SUSTAINABILITY:
The word “sustainability” is the most predominant word that is being in use across the globe
since past decade. Not a professional is unaware of this word may be hypothetical but indeed it is
the sublime truth. The sustainability has now become paradigm in the field of engineering and
has been a burning topic in which many are doing researches which might carry out even for few
more future decades.
In general terms ‘sustainability’ means the ability to maintain as per the dictionary definition. It
may also be defined as ‘making use of natural resources without impacting the ecological
balance/environment.’As in the words of Hazel, from his observation he has been identified the
sustainability in three important aspects such as Environmental sustainability, Social
Sustainability and Economic Sustainability.

Fig1. The above figure represents the three fundamental aspects that define sustainability (Hazel,
2010).

 Environmental Sustainability:

Environmental sustainability is the one which is achieved by making practices in such a

way so as to make use the natural resources in prioritise basis and at the same time to
reduce the pollution by controlling the emissions of CO2 gases and constructional or any
other wastes generated that causes pollution.

 Social Sustainability:
 Social Sustainability is the one which is achieved by identifying the needs of all those
were interconnected with the project, the whole supply chain. The local communities and
the end used should also be handled.

 Economic Sustainability:

Economic Sustainability is the one which deals with effective implementation of

practicing the proper usage of available resources such as nature, human and energy.

SUSTAINABILITY DEVELOPMENT:
According to Sakr and Haggar (2010), the UNEP United Nations Environment Programme) has
mentioned that UN Commission on Environment and Development is the first body to initiate
and develop a concept called “Sustainable Development” which later on evolved for the setting
up a conference by the UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development)
in the year 1987 which has been changed the understanding of all professionals across the globe.
The main agenda of this conference is the Sustainability in regarding to socio-economic and
environmental dimensions for developing a better world. According to Redclift (1987),
sustainable development is the “development which meets the needs of the existing ones without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. These sustainability
has three major areas to be looked (Suhaida Mohd Sood, 2011) they are:

 Firstly, the People who should have equal rights and justice to use of environmental
resources.
 Reduce or eliminate the Environmental degeneration.
 Reduce the impact of current actions on the future generations.

Sustainability development is for setting up a vision for the economy to achieve the major
challenges such as social and economic development, environmental protection. The OGC
(Office of Government Commerce, 2007) has defined as the sustainable development is planned
to represent better quality of life by making use of the available resources efficiently, which in
turn will bring about social progress, whilst maintains a decent economic growth and also
provide care towards the environment. It is also defined in a published research on Sustainability
Construction, by (DTI, 2004) that sustainability development is the one which strives to improve
the quality of life for all without increasing the consumption of natural resources beyond the
capacity which might affect the environment adversely. According to Wilkinson and Reed
(2007), sustainability development is just not only reducing the consumption of natural resources
but also to make sure that they manage more than the conservation of natural resources.

There are three elements that need to be maintained accordingly in order to contribute to the
development of sustainability such as society, economy and resources. By applying these three
aspects, Wilkinson and Reed (2007) have suggested a approach called ‘triple bottom line’, this
concept was intended to clearly rationalise the development which facilitates economic growth,
whilst maintain social inclusion and also guarantee the environment impact to minimum level.

Fig2. A concept of sustainable development Triple Bottom Line, Wilkinson and Reed (2007, p.7).

In the 21st century Sustainable development is the main criteria of any construction. Almost all
countries are concerned about the sustainability. Green building is the word that comes when we
think about sustainable design. Green building means constructing the building in safe
surrounding environment which will not create negative impact on the natural environment and
constructing the building by using the materials of friendly environment and locally available.
The notations “sustainable building”, “Green building” and “high performance buildings” are the
same which describes the development and building with much more responsibilities for better
growth of socio-economical development without affecting environment (Grace, 2006).The main
concept of this type is to reduce the pollution as much as possible.
SUSTAINABLE DESIGN:
Sustainability in general terms is to create an economic system with enhanced performance with
long term safety.Sustainability is the one which mainly focuses on the climate change, energy
conservation, protection of natural resources and environmental enhancement.
When it comes to sustainable tall buildings alongside with sustainable materials, the
constructions professionals must also strive hard to make a sustainable design such as bringing
the structural sustainability to the high rise buildings at the design stage itself and also to apply
these sustainable techniques and applications in concrete/cement industry which is one of the
lead contributor to the environmental pollution. The intent of new ideas are to be developed by
the architects and developers for sustainable design of ‘Bioclimatic Skyscrapers’ in which the
well designed tall buildings can be an energy efficient and eco friendly which offers a controlled
environment in whole life span of building.
With efficiencies in design and construction of these tall buildings there can be a significant
difference in both environmental and economical perspective. The structural engineers and other
professionals should try to reduce the usage of material by effective design and try to make the
best use of steel and concrete at foundation and structural levels wisely. In the present day there
are many software packages such as BIM (Building Information Modelling) where whole
building is taken into consideration and it shall run all the possibilities in terms of design, energy
efficiency, lighting and much more and even before at the time of inception itself a clear idea on
how this tall buildings can impact the environment can be understood (Salman, 2011).
According to Will prank, in his research, he stated that for tall buildings sustainability, there are
four important aspects that need to be taken into consideration they are climate changes, energy
consumption in offices, solid waste and sewage and energy use and ownership of building.
The UK government has also set up some certain important things that the construction industry
must take into account during the construction which can be adopted to all countries, they have
developed a strategy ‘Building a Better Quality of Life (DETR, 2000)’ which consists guidelines,
some of them are:
 Minimising Energy use

 Preserving and enhancing biodiversity

 Conserving water resources

By proper application of these sustainable designs during construction may bring wider
environmental and social benefits.
SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS MATERIALS AND APLLICATIONS:
By constructing sustainable buildings the use of natural resources in limited means like using
water saving faucets and plumbing elements, energy efficient lighting units and passive solar
design and by using environment friendly materials in the construction of walls, floors, ceilings,
etc. All these materials keep the building sustainable for all types of weather and by constructing
such buildings we can reduce the carbon monoxide footprint of the building on environment and
even it provides the direct cost savings to the building owners. There are many materials that
were used in construction of green buildings; some of them are explained below:
USE OF METAL:
Use of ‘Metal’ as it is environmental friendly because these are recyclable and long lasting
building material which also offers excellent solar reflective benefits. It is energy efficient choice
for roofing and wall panels when constructing a building envelope. The energy generation
systems are the most expensive materials of green building. The initial cost of construction of
green building is high but it is worthable and justified when these attain the energy savings for
the building on long term basis.

USE OF NANO MATERIALS:

Nano- Materials are the one, the materials with size less than 100 nanometers. In general terms it
can be defined as the materials which are 10,000 times smaller than the diameter of human hair
are termed as Nano- materials. The advent of nanotechnology has made the existence of these
nano materials; these have changed the entire ideology of materials sizes, its properties. These
nano materials have a unusual mechanical, magnetic, electrical and optical properties unlike
other general materials. The use of nano materials is being predominant in many of the industries
such as electronic, medical, and engineering and many more. In general, these can be found in
our general items such as cosmetics, electronic parts, paints, textiles etc.
The nano materials is one the most sustainable materials and is being used much frequently in
the construction industry mostly in tall buildings. In many of tall buildings construction these
materials were used across the globe. In California, a architect named peter has designed a 40
storey buildings in a such a way that no steel material is used in it, instead he suggested a design
consisting cross fibre which is made up of carbon fibre which are nano materials by which the
strength of building has been much stronger than steel by hundred times. The buildings is called
as “Woven building’/’Carbon Tower’. By applying hydrophobic nano coating to the exterior
windows of tall buildings, the dirt and water can be repelled automatically; the manual cleaning
of high rise building exterior windows may be reduced to maximum extent.
The most important application of these nano materials for tall buildings is use of ‘Nano Paint’,
by applying this nano paint to tall buildings, they act a environmental controlling agent, they act
as air purifiers and reduce the effect of pollution and also does not allow UV rays to enter the
building. The ‘solar nano technology’ which is also suitable sustainable application, the nano
crystal present in the solar panel which is ultra thin converts organic and inorganic solar cells
into electricity at a fraction of time and these are of very light weight and can be installed very
easily. In the near future, these nano materials may be used much more extensively for
betterment of construction industry and more sustainability in terms of effecting the
environment.

RETROFIT OF EXISTING BUILDINGS:

Herbert Girardet has explained in his research on tall buildings that it would to the wise decision
to start the concept of sustainability for new buildings, but it is also important on how the tall
buildings which were already constructed without any sustainable concepts in design as these tall
buildings generally have a life span of about 30 yrs or more, so for making these existing tall
buildings a sustainable ones is the prime task.
Renovating the existing building would be a tedious task. The main aim of energy efficiency is
to reduce the energy consumption considerably by 30-40%. Some of the energy efficient aspects
that needs to considered during retrofitting are:
 Retrofit complete building with energy efficiency light bulbs, room sensors, etc.
 Adoption of solar panel technology
 Removal of extremely hazardous asbestos by applying insulation.
 Providing efficient window seals to prevent cold air/hot air leaving from building.
 Make sure that these retrofit buildings get a silver rating from LEED Green Building
Council (GBC).

Here the buildings needs are to be understood initially and accordingly the changes such as
changing from commercial to residential type or either ways should be explored fro
sustainability and check the environmental aspects such as the buildings can be refurbished
without a change in usage. It has made to reuse the buildings structure and over-cladding which
tends to improve the energy efficiency of towers and the facade changes might benefits the
thermal properties of building.
The design methods changes from country to country depending upon the environmental
conditions such as structural engineers in California, Hong Kong they need to cope up with
earthquake and in cities like London and UAE its is the winds that needs to be taken into
consideration. The efficiency of building frame is the one which impacts more on embodied
energy of tall building.
There are many Sustainable materials that can be made use of Tall buildings such as adding
sustainable concepts to Steel by effective design, trying different compositions in concrete by
utilising waste materials like Basic oxygen steel slag, Ash released from burnt coal thermal
power plants and incinerator ash, the use of Recycled Concrete Aggregate(RCA) instead of
normal concrete can exhibit similar compressive strength and bearing (Noriega, 2011).

SUSTAINABLE PROCESS:

A sustainable process is the combination of all the above mentioned ones, for the better
sustainable process, according to the Office of Government Commerce (OGC, 2007), the best
practices identified are:

 The contribution which the planning system can make for mainstreaming best
practice
 Promotion of long term planning for dynamic improvement
  Role of Government incentives for innovation
 Promotion & adoption of best practice, including potential for the use of voluntary
agreements
 Best means of sharing experience between designers, builders and utilities

According to UK-GBC (UK-Green Building Council, 2007a), the following deliverables can be
accomplished, if sustainable construction is practiced effectively

 Collaborative team work: This

mode of working will increase the construction industry value, whilst exploits the
expertise of the supply chains, which will indeed lead to the development of the aspired,
whole life value products.

 Environmentally acclaimed designs:

Environmentally friendly design is synonymous with the sustainable construction.
Apparently, there would not be any case where in, a building, infrastructure, or a public
place can be considered as a sustainably well designed project, if the project is not in line
with its contribution to - the triple bottom line (environmental, social and economic
sustainability).

 Drive towards innovation: The

effort towards the practicing of the sustainable construction drives towards new
innovations and will impose some inherent changes, which will drive towards the
continual improvement of the construction industry.
 10 CONCLUSIONS
Generally, large volumes of by-product materials are disposed in landfills Because of stricter
environmental regulations, disposal cost is escalating. Recycling not only helps in reducing disposal
costs, but also helps to conserve natural resources, providing technical and economic benefits. This is
sustainability. Eliminate waste and take life cycle responsibility/ownership. Think Ecology, Energy,
Equity, and Economy.

Self-consolidating concrete is an exciting technology that has found many successful

applications. Although the concept has been aroundfor a few decades, new products are still
emerging and better mix proportioning strategies are yet still in development. Many researchers
are finding different aspects in which SCC can be used and how the properties of SCC can be
changed by admixtures is also been observed. The used of RCA has been a now a research aspect
to look into and many research scholars are looking forward to use this RCA in the SCC mixes
which could be a research scope in the upcoming years so as to try to reduce the impact of CO 2
emissions and make more environmental friendly materials. SCC which has no set definition, for
now the concrete construction industry generally follows certain methods of measuring mix
properties to define an SCC. The absence of an established industrial standard for SCC allows
more creativity in tailoring a mix to specific job requirements. At the same time, the lack of
standards means devising a successful mix depends on the expertise of the producer and
contractor. Therefore, it is clear that educating manufacturers and contractors is the crucial first
step in expanding the use of SCC’s extremely promising technology.
The construction industry has become one of the main contributors to the environmental
pollution as the emission of carbon monoxide and other pollutants are the bi-products of many
construction materials and equipments and construction process. From the literature review it has
been about the sustainability and its origin, the role of sustainability in tall buildings. It has also
been discussed about the possible sustainable process that can be implemented in construction of
tall buildings.

From many researchers on sustainable materials and sustainable designs, some of them are
discussed in this paper. From this information on sustainable development in tall buildings it can
be understood that there are many efficient ways in implementing the sustainable concepts to the
tall/high-rise buildings. These sustainable concepts should be incorporated at the design time
itself by the structural engineers and it can be understood that the role of construction
professionals is the key ones for implementing the sustainability in tall buildings as these
professionals must have an idea to design, construct and operate a sustainable building.From this
it can be understood that there is necessity to further investigate the role of construction
professionals and their view on sustainable tall buildings in the future years to come.

REFERENCES

Sani, D., Moriconi, G., Fava, G., & Corinaldesi, V. 2005. Leaching and mechanical behaviour of
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Corinaldesi, V., Orlandi, G., & Moriconi, G. 2002c Self-compacting concrete incorporating recycled
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Corinaldesi, V., Moriconi, G., & Tittarelli, F. 2005b. SCC: A way to sustainable
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