African NDT Centre (Pty) Ltd

PO Box 68253 14 Pieter Street

Highveld Techno Park
Centurion Centurion
0169 Pretoria (Tshwane)
South Africa South Africa
Tel. No: +27 (0) 12 665 3248 Fax. No: +27 (0) 12 665 4749

INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

General (G)
Level 12

CONTACT PERSON(s) : Amanda Van Der Westhuizen Chief Operating

Officer
Harold Jansen NDT Manager
TEL. NO. : +27 (012) 665 3248
FAX. NO : +27 (012) 665 4749
E-MAIL ADDRESS : Amanda.vdwesthuizen@andtc.com
Harold.jansen@andtc.com
COMPILED BY : Harold Jansen
DATE :

CONTACT PERSON(s) : Harold Jansen NDT Manager Formatted Table

E-MAIL ADRESS : Harold.jansen@andtc.com

This document is the property of African NDT Centre; no part of it shall be reproduced or
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transmitted without prior written authorization of African NDT Centre, and it contents shall not be to: Page, Vertical: 3.06", Relative to
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disclosed.

COPYRIGHT OF THIS DOCUMENT IS RESERVED. NO PUBLICATION OR DISSEMINATION OF

ITS CONTENTS IS ALLOWED WITHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION.
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 DATE : December 2005 Formatted Table

AFRICAN NDT CENTRE ANDTC/RPT/G/C/1

REF NO.. :
2

Formatted Table

TITLE Industrial Radiographic Testing Level 12

FOREWORD Formatted Table

This document has been developed within the framework of training programs for Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.71", Hanging:
preparation of Non Destructive Testing (NDT) personnel in accordance with the 0.2"
requirements of the internationally certification bodies such as COFREND (French) and
PCN (United Kingdom).

The objective of the document is to provide the trainee with the basic industrial
radiographic theory, understanding and interpretation capabilities for application in the
field of Non Destructive Testing.

This document is suitable for general introduction into the field of industrial radiographic
testing with emphasis placed on the theoretical aspect and understanding of the
technique regardless of the industrial sector or product application.

Combined with the specific training course, which is sector and product specific, the
trainee should have the basic knowledge to apply the technique on specific parts. This
forms part of the trainee‟s qualification. Experience, as stipulated in governing standards
viz. ISO9712, EN4719, NAS410, etc., should however be gained prior to certification
application.

This document forms the training course foundation and should be used as part of a
training course program.

Although this document aims to include the latest progress in the inspection method, at
no stage does it imply that the latest theory or applications have been included.

SECTOR APPLICATION Formatted Table

WELDS

FORGINGS

IN SERVICE INSPECTIONS

CASTINGS

TUBES AND PIPES

RAILWAY

AVIATION
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DATE :
200510/10/2003
AFRICAN NDT CENTRE ANDTC/RT/12ANDTC
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REF NO.. :
/PT/G/C/2

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TITLE Industrial Radiographic Testing Level 12

INDEX
PAGE
1 General Knowledge & discontinuities 4
21. Introduction 19
32 General principles of industrial radiography 23
43 General principles of radiation 25
54 Sources of radiation - Isotopes 29
65 Sources of radiation – X Rays 33
76 Interaction between radiation and matter 48
87 Radiographic image forming 57
98 Radiographic film 68
109 Radiographic film processing 71
110 Viewing of radiographs 82
121 Radiographic image and image on film 96

13 Sensitrometry 111

14 Special Radiographic techniques 127

15 Set up and verification of equipment settings 133

16 Test conditions 138

17 Radiographic technique selection 142

18 Control checks 152

19 Terms and definitions 164

APPENDIX A: THEORETICAL REMINDERS Formatted Table

APPENDIX B: DEFINITIONS

APPENDIX C: NORMATIVE REFERENCES

APPENDIX D: REFERENCES

APPENDIX E: TECHNIQUE SHEET & REPORTING

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Non destructive testing (NDT): Formatted Table

Definition: Application of physical methods to determine the

condition of materials without damaging the materials
or products.

Objective: Assure the reliability of components and to prevent

premature failure of materials or components during their
intended service.

Application:
During manufacture, construction or in-service
Metals, non metals, plastics, composites and mixed materials
 Identify and sort materials.
 Identify of material properties
 Indication of proper material and suitable quality control
during processing
 Test to assure completeness, proper dimensions and
geometry.
 Identify initiation of possible failure before it actually occurs
 Root cause analysis.

Typical NDT Methods:

 electromagnetic induction (eddy current)
 electromagnetic wave interaction (radiography)
 mechanical waves (ultrasonic)
 magnetic saturation, flux leakage (magnetic particle)
 capillary action (liquid penetrant)
 heat generation and radiation (thermography)
 crack sound generation (acoustic emission)

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Material Failure
Definition: The item becoming unusable for the intended
purpose.
Types:
Fracture: Separation of an item into two or more parts
Permanent deformation: Change of item shape or position
Caused by:
 Static loads combined with presence of discontinuities,
poor dimensional control (Manufacture), Overloading, Poor
design
 Dynamic loads
 Service at high temperature: Creep, Material properties
change
 Stress above elastic limit caused by pressure
 Corrosion
 Stresses from vibration superimposed on other stresses
 Excess loading and abuse
 Improper application
 Improper maintenance
 Deterioration due to age

Discontinuities.
Describes any local variation in material continuity including
change in geometry, holes, cavities, cracks, composition or
properties. May be intentionally designed. Not always detrimental
and is sometimes required.

A discontinuity is a true indication that can be acceptable in

accordance with codes or specifications or has not been evaluated
in accordance with relevant codes or specifications.
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Structure
Three-dimensional atomic arrangement in which engineering
material exist.

Defects.
When any discontinuity, single or multiple, is of such size, shape,
type, and location that it creates a substantial chance of material
and failure in service. A defect is some characteristic which
renders a part or material unsuitable, unsafe or unusable for its
intended purpose

A defect is a discontinuity that is unacceptable in accordance with

relevant codes or specifications.

Discontinuities May Grow into defects.

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MECHANISMS OF FAILURE
Brittle fracture:
Occur when parts break with very little or no discernible plastic flow.

Ductile fracture:

Occur when the break is preceded by a very significant amount of

plastic flow.

Ductile failure or fracture is the result of excessive force on a metal

which becomes deformed permanently or plastically before the
material actually separates. The metal flows into the deformed
shape and ductile behaviour is associated with material toughness
and the ability to absorb energy.

The appearance of a metal which has suffered ductile failure is

characterized by the following:
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.74", Hanging:
 Gross permanent plastic deformation occurs in the region 0.47", Bulleted + Level: 2 + Aligned at: 1.25
+ Tab after: 1.5" + Indent at: 1.5", Tab
of the fracture. stops: Not at 1.5"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
 When ductile fracture occurs the shear stress applied
to the material has exceeded its shear strength before any
other fracture mode can occur. The appearance of the
surface does not offer clues as to the direction of the applied
stress.

 The gross visual appearance of the fracture surface is

dull.

 Classically the material is necked down, indicating

stretching of the material.
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 Diagonal ridges which are known as lüder's lines or 0.55"

stretcher strains are often seen on the necked-down Formatted Table

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material. These are characteristic but do not indicate the
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45° plane of the maximum shear stress.

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 Close examination of the dull fracture surface reveals 0.27", Bulleted + Level: 2 + Aligned at: 1.25
+ Tab after: 1.5" + Indent at: 1.5", Tab
a cup-and-cone effect. This is the result of numerous small stops: Not at 1.5"

internal fractures which are called microvoids. These form Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

near the centre of the fracture zone and gradually coalesce

to form gross defects, and the material eventually
separates.

Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture of materials is characterized by little or no
deformation before failure. The ductile/brittle behaviour of materials
is influenced by temperature viz. Iron and non-austenitic steel are
materials whose ductile/brittle behaviour is influenced very strongly
by temperature.

Three factors must be present at the same time for brittle fracture to
occur viz. stress concentration, tensile stress, and low temperature.
These are as follows:

The characteristics of a brittle fracture are:

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 No evidence of deformation in the immediate area around 0.4", Bulleted + Level: 2 + Aligned at: 1.25"
Tab after: 1.5" + Indent at: 1.5", Tab stops
the fracture. Not at 1.5"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
 The surface of the fracture is perpendicular to the direction
of the tensile stress.

 The fracture surface carries characteristic markings,

including inverted V-shapes and spirals. Close
examination of these markings shows the direction of the Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
tensile stress which helped to cause the fracture.
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Stress raisers
In service, fatigue, corrosion and creep are the three major enemies
of metal and other materials. Fatigue cracks, corrosion cracks and
even cracks associated with creep can be seen to arise from a single
point at the surface of the metal.
The origin may be a scratch or even a tool mark. The tension stress
across even such a small defect can be shown to be several times
greater than the normal average stress at the surface.

It may not be a scratch which acts as such a stress raiser. A simple

bolt hole will act in the same way. The average tension stress at a
hole can be three times the average for the surface. Stiffening
members added to strengthen a part may in fact act as stress
raisers, thus defeating their purpose.

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DEFECTS AND THEIR ORIGINS

There are a number of different ways in which discontinuities can be

classified. They depend on location, shape, processing or other
characteristics. It is useful to classify discontinuities into four broad
groups:
Formatted: Indent: Hanging: 0.73", Bullete
 produced during the initial cooling of the metal + Level: 2 + Aligned at: 1.25" + Tab after:
1.5" + Indent at: 1.5", Tab stops: Not at 1.
 primary processing Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 secondary processing

 service

Discontinuities produced during cooling

Discontinuities which are present in the metal as a result of the
solidification process include the following:
Pipe cavities
As a molten metal is poured into moulds, it cools first at the
bottom and then on the walls of the mould. Solidification
proceeds upwards and inwards.

Since the solid metal occupies less space than the liquid, there
is a progressive shrinkage.

As the metal at the top of the mould solidifies last, care must
be taken to ensure that there is enough molten metal left to
avoid a deep cavity at the top.
Different metal constituents solidify at different temperatures Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
and could therefore concentrate in the molten pool. Formatted Table
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Blowholes
Molten metals contain dissolved gases. As the metal cools,
these gases are released.

If this process is not controlled, bubbles form which remain

trapped as the metal freezes.

In a well-ordered procedure such bubbles will be almost

exclusively at the top and will be removed when the ingot is
cropped.

If the inside of the blowhole is contaminated, the surfaces will

not weld together and the blowholes could lead to the
formation of seams or laminations during primary processing.

If the cropping of the hot top does not remove the

discontinuities, when the ingot is further processed into slabs,
the remaining discontinuities will invariably change in size and
shape.
As a billet is rolled into bar stock any non-metallic inclusions
are squeezed out into longer and thinner discontinuities. These
are called stringers

Segregation
Since alloys are mixtures of different metals, there is a need to
consider the different behaviour of the elements during cooling.
Unless this is allowed for in the production process, elements
can segregate due to the differential solidification at different Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
temperatures. Formatted Table
Non-metallic inclusions Formatted: Font: Verdana
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Non Metallic material aggregate together and form lumps,
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stringers could be formed when material is rolled, leading to

possible stress raisers. This stress raiser could result in fatigue
cracking in vulnerable parts.

Internal fissures
As metals cool and shrink so stresses are set up. Such stresses
can lead to internal fissures which can be quite large. If the
surfaces become oxidized such fissures could lead to problems
later.

Scabs
The pouring of liquid metal could result in considerable
splashing against the cool walls of the mould. Such splashes
solidify rapidly and their surfaces become oxidized. As molten
metal rises in the mould, most of these splashes become
reabsorbed into the metal, but in some cases they will remain
as scabs of oxidized metal on the surface of the ingot.

Ingot cracks
Surface stresses result in surface cracks. A major difference is
that such surface cracks will certainly become exposed to air
and unless removed will roll out into long seams.

Primary processing discontinuities

Rolling and forging can introduce their own discontinuities. Primary
processing in this context includes the processes which work metals
into usable forms such as bars, rod, wire and forged shapes.

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Seams
Seams in rolled bar stock or drawn wire are normally
unacceptable. Severe seams may have their origin in the
original ingot and can be eliminated by proper preparation of
the ingots.

Seams can be introduced by the rolling or drawing processes.

Laps can occur if rolls are overfilled - fins form which, on

subsequent passes, become rolled over onto the bar or billet,
producing seams which open onto the surface of the bar at an
acute angle.

Seams can also be formed as a result of under filled passes -

these tend to be normal to the surface. Seams and die marks
can be introduced in the drawing process as a result of
defective dies.

Laminations
Laminations occur in rolled plate or strip when blowholes or
internal fissures fail to weld tight but become enlarged and
flattened into horizontal discontinuities.

Cupping
Cupping occurs when under extrusion or drawing the interior of
the metal does not flow as rapidly as the surface. Segregation
at the centre of the bar contributes to this. The result is a
series of severe internal defects.
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Cooling cracks Formatted Table
After rolling out, metal bars are left to cool. Uneven cooling Formatted: Font: Verdana
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leads to stresses which are frequently sufficient to cause
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cracking. Such cracks are often longitudinal, though not

necessarily straight, and vary in depth.

Flakes
Flakes are internal ruptures which can occur as a result of too
rapid cooling. They may be caused by release of dissolved
gases during cooling. Flakes are internal discontinuities which
can be exposed to the surface during secondary processing.

Forging bursts
Forging bursts can be caused by working metals at the wrong
temperature. Too rapid or too severe a reduction of section
can also cause bursts or cracks. Such bursts may be internal
or they may occur at the surface.
Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.75", L
spacing: single
Forging laps
As the name implies, forging laps or folds are formed when the
forging blank is not handled properly in the die and forms a lap
which becomes squeezed tight at a later stage. Since this is at
the surface it will not weld tight.

Burning
Overheating of forgings to the point of incipient fusion causes a
condition known as burning. Despite the name, oxidation is not
the source of the problem; it is the partial liquefaction of the
metal at grain boundaries.

Flash-line tears
Cracks or tears along the flash line of forgings are often caused
by improper trimming. When shallow they are easily machined
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off, but deep cracks or tears are normally a serious problem. 0.55"
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The process of casting can lead to a wide variety of

discontinuities. These include porosity, shrinkage cracks, hot
tears, non-metallic inclusions (sand from a mould), cold shuts
and cracks due to rough handling

Welding discontinuities
Many discontinuities arise during the welding process in either thin
or heavy section.

Lack of penetration, lack of fusion, undercutting, crater cracks,

cracks in the heat affected zone and cracks in the weld metal are
examples of discontinuities associated with welding.

Another type of defect associated with welding is the appearance

of non-metallic inclusions; these are also called `slag inclusions'.

Secondary processing or finishing discontinuities

It is possible for all methods of processing and finishing of metals to
produce discontinuities.

Machining tears
When metals drag under a tool which is not cutting cleanly,
machining tears appear. Softer more ductile metals are
more likely than hard metals to show this discontinuity.

Heat treatment cracks Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
When metals are heated and then quenched in order to Formatted Table
harden them, cracking can occur if the operation is not Formatted: Font: Verdana
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carried out in a way which suits the material. Quenching
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cracks are often found where the material changes section or

at fillets or notches. Too rapid heating can also produce this
problem.

Straightening cracks
Heat treatment can often cause warping or bending of parts
owing to uneven cooling. Traditionally such deformation is
corrected by straightening in a press. If the amount of
bending required is too great or the part is very hard and
brittle, cracking will occur.

Grinding cracks
Surface cracking of hardened parts owing to improper
grinding is a common problem. These are a special form of
thermal cracking and have noticeable relationship to
quenching cracks. They usually occur immediately, but
improper grinding can cause surface stresses and cracking
which may not appear for some time.

Etching and pickling cracks

Hardened surfaces which retain residual stresses may
become cracked when pickled in acid. Acid attack on the
surface allows the stress to become relieved by formation of
a crack.
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Plating cracks Formatted Table
Apart from the chance that pickling prior to plating can Formatted: Font: Verdana
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cause cracks the actual plating process can cause problems
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itself.

Service cracks
The fourth class of discontinuity includes those which are
produced during the working life of the part.

Fatigue cracks
Fatigue cracking is an ubiquitous and serious problem
particularly in metals which have to bear alternating
dynamic stress or varying static stresses above the critical
fatigue strength (far below the elastic strength). Fatigue
cracks are frequently initiated by very small discontinuities
at the surface

Pitting
When non-metallic inclusions remain in materials and the
material is used to make moving parts, such as roller
bearings, they can cause a special type of fatigue defect. In
the inclusions close to the surface, the action of the non
metallic material against the surrounding metal, sets up Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
stresses which eventually cause breaks to the surface which Formatted Table
are seen as pitting. These defects will grow and eventually Formatted: Font: Verdana
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cause breakdown or non-function of the component.
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Corrosion
Parts which are held in tension and exposed to a corrosive
environment in-service can be expected to develop surface
cracks which are termed stress corrosion cracks.

Overstressing
Parts, which in service are subject to stress above Formatted: Indent: Left: 1.58"

their design level, are very likely to crack.

Overstress can be caused by accident or unusual
load, perhaps because of the failure of another
member or component.
Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Left:
1.58"
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spacing: single

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SUMMARY OF INDICATIONS DETECTABLE WITH RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD

(RT)

PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

PROCESS DISCONTINUITY CAUSED BY LOCATION Formatted Table

Lack of fusion between two intercepting

Cold lap surfaces of metal as it flows into the Surface
mould.
Difference in cooling rates between thin
Hot Tear Mostly surface
sections and thick sections.
Lack of enough molten metal to fill the
Shrinkage cavity Subsurface
Casting space created by shrinkage.
Improperly designed mould causing
Micro shrinkage Subsurface
premature blockage
Surface or
Blow Holes Inability of eternal gases.
Subsurface
Surface or
Porosity Entrapped internal gases.
Subsurface
Folding of metal in a thin scarf on the
Lap Surface
surface.
Forging
Forging at improper temperature usually Surface or
Burst
too low or insufficient soak. Subsurface
Laminations and
Flattening and lengthening of
inclusions (Flat Subsurface
discontinuities occurring in cast ingot.
plate)
Rolling Stringers Flattening and lengthening of
Subsurface
(Bar stock) discontinuities occurring in cast ingot.
Seams Lengthening of surface cracks found in
Surface
(Bar stock) parent material.
Outcropping, Lack Surface (Inner or
Poor welding technique or control.
of fusion Outer)
Welded Pipe
Present in the parent material (Sheet or
Laminations Subsurface
plate material).
Seamless
Present in the parent material (Round bar
pipes and Seams Outer surface
stock).
tubes
Seamless Slugs Metal build up on piercing mandrel. Inner surface
pipes and
tubes Gouges Sizing mandrel dragging. Inner Surface

Seams Present in parent material. Surface

Surface or
Extrusions Porosity Present in parent material.
Subsurface
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Galling (Cracks) Improper metal flow through the die. Surface 0.55"
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MATERIAL FINISHING DISCONTINUITIES

PROCESS DISCONTINUITY CAUSED BY LOCATION Formatted Table

Excess localised heat created between

Grinding Cracks Surface
grinding wheel and material.
Heat Stresses build up by improper processing-
Stress cracks Surface
Treating Unequal heating or cooling, eg. Quenching
Explosive Extreme deformation over-stresses the
Cracks and Tears Surface or subsurface
Forming material.
Crater cracks
(Star, transverse Poor welding technique. Surface or subsurface
longitudinal)
Stresses built up by weld contraction (if
Stress cracks Surface
material is restrained).
Welding
Porosity Entrapped gases. Surface or subsurface
Incomplete cleaning of slag from the weld
Slag inclusions Surface or subsurface
between passes.
Tungsten Excessive current used during Tungsten-
Subsurface
Inclusions Arc welding.
Lack of penetration Improper welding technique. Surface or subsurface
Welding
Lack of fusion Improper welding technique. Subsurface
Undercut Improper welding technique. Surface
Welding
Overlapping Weld overlaps parent metal - not fused. Surface
Bending Cracks Overstress of material. Surface
Working with blunt tools or cutting too
Machining Tears Surface
deep.
Pickling and
Cracks Relief of internal stresses. Surface
Etching
Electro-
Cracks Relief of internal stresses. Surface
plating

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 INTRODUCTION
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RADIOGRAPHIC
TESTING LEVEL 2 –
GENERAL THEORY

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 INTRODUCTION
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Principle: Based on having a source of penetrating radiation source

(Xx- or Gamma radiation) on one side of a specimen and a
radiographic film on the other side.

Material: All material types

Detection: All types of discontinuities

Applications: Defect detection

Advantages:
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 Can be used with most materials 0.4", Bulleted + Level: 2 + Aligned at: 1.25"
Tab after: 1.5" + Indent at: 1.5", Tab stops
Not at 1.5"
 Capable of examining the entire component
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 Provides a permanent visual image

 Reveals the internal nature of the material

 Discloses fabrication errors

 Reveals structural discontinuities

Limitation or disadvantages
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 Safety considerations imposed by X- and gamma- 0.37", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3" +
Tab after: 3.25" + Indent at: 3.25", Tab
rays must be considered stops: Not at 3.25"
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 Impractical to use on specimen of complex
geometry

 The specimen must lend itself to two-side

accessibility

 Laminar type discontinuities are often undetected

by radiography

 It is a relatively expensive method of non-

destructive examination

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 INTRODUCTION
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Testing Practice
 Identify part to be inspected. Formatted: Indent: Left: 1.25", Hanging:
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 Determine type of indications/problems expected Tab after: 3.25" + Indent at: 3.25", Tab
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type of films
 Determine applicable codes or specifications including
acceptance criteria
 Determine exposure parameters
 Determine radiation area
 Pre-clean
 Set-up of system
 Exposure
 Develop films
 Interpretation
 Evaluation
 Final clean.

Important consideration
Radiation workers must be registered and be equipped with
personal dosimeters.
Radiographers and members of the public must be protected
against radiation at all times.

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 INTRODUCTION
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HISTORY OF RADIOGRAPHY

Shortly after the German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-

rays in 1895, he made a radiograph of a shotgun. This was
probably the first "Industrial Radiograph" and marked the
beginning of an inspection method that was later to prove of
inestimable value to the industry.

For many years the main uses of radiography were surgery,

medicine, and dentistry. It was not until 1913, when the Coolidge
Hot-Cathode-Tube was invented, that industrial radiography on a
reasonable scale became practicable.

The new tube enabled X-rays of higher intensity and a greater

penetrating power to be produced, and radiographic inspection
came into greater use as a check on technique and materials.

A Radiological Research Department; founded at the Royal Arsenal

in 1917, can be regarded as the real start of the development of
industrial radiography.

For many years the main uses of radiography were surgery,

medicine, and dentistry. It was not until 1913, when the Coolidge
Hot-Cathode-Tube was invented, that industrial radiography on a
reasonable scale became practicable. The new tube enabled X-rays
of higher intensity and a greater penetrating power to be produced,
and radiographic inspection came into greater use as a check on
technique and materials.

A Radiological Research Department; founded at the Royal Arsenal

in 1917, can be regarded as the real start of the development of
industrial radiography. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
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 INTRODUCTION
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Since then people have become involved with radiography the

world over and the number is growing each year. The properties of
ionising radiation, which make radiography such a valuable
industrial tool, also make it potentially dangerous to man. For
radiation in the industry to remain an effective tool, measures have
to be taken to protect industrial radiographers and the public from
its harmful effects.

You must be knowledgeable and safety conscious. This course will

assist you in gaining the knowledge you will need to be a safe
industrial radiographer.

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 INTRODUCTION
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 GENERAL PRINCIPLES - INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
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PRINCIPLES OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

In industrial radiography, the usual procedure for producing a
radiograph is to have a source of penetrating radiation (X-rays or
Gamma-rays) on one side of the specimen to be examined and a
detector (radiographic film) on the other side (as per fig. 1)
The detector is usually a sheet of radiographic film, held in a light-
tight envelope or cassette having a very thin front surface which
allows the radiation to pass through.

The source of radiation is chosen to be physically small (a few

millimetres in diameter) and as radiation travel in straight lines
from the source through the specimen to the film, a sharp image is
formed on the film of any discontinuities in the specimen.

Basic set-up for conventional radiography using a film

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The film in its cassette is normally placed close behind the

specimen and is exposed to the radiation (exposure time) after
which the film is removed and processed in a darkroom, i.e.
developed, fixed, washed and dried. The film is then placed on a
illuminated screen (viewer) for a visual inspection and evaluation in
accordance with appropriate codes and specifications.

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 GENERAL PRINCIPLES - RADIATION
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NATURE OF X- AND GAMMA RADIATION

Gamma and X-radiation form part of the electromagnetic spectrum
by nature, and is similar to radio or light waves, but of a much
shorter wavelength.

The table below shows the position of X-rays and gamma rays in
the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.

Types of electromagnetic radiation. The bars indicate the approximate

wavelength range of each type of radiation.

Since visible light and X- and gamma rays are members of the
electromagnetic spectrum, they have many things in common:

 Travel at the speed of light (3 X 108 m/s in a vacuum;

 Travel in straight lines;
 They are invisible
 They cannot be deflected by means of a lens or prism, although
their path can be bent (diffracted) by a crystalline grid;
 They are not affected by magnetic fields;
 They will expose photographic film;
 They pass through matter, and are partly absorbed in
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 GENERAL PRINCIPLES - RADIATION
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Wavelength (λ)
Wavelength is the measure of the length of a wave, from one peak
to the next (or one trough to next). Unit for λ = Angstrom

Frequency (Hz)
Frequency means the number of completed waves that pass a
given point in a certain amount of time. Frequency is measured in
cycles per second, a unit that is called Hertz (Hz).

Velocity (m/s)
Remember, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same velocity.
Wavelengths and frequency of electromagnetic waves are inversely
proportional, this means, when one increases the other decreases
by proportional amount (i.e. double one the other decrease by
half).

X- and gamma rays have the same amplitude or wave height, but
they can have different wavelengths and frequencies. The shorter
the wavelength the more penetrating ability the radiation wave will
have.

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Structure of the Atom.

All matter is composed of atoms. The atom is mostly empty space
with a central nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons (-). The
nucleus consists of protons (+) and neutrons.

Electrons
Nucleus:
 Protons
 Neutrons

PARTICLE ELECTRICAL
CHARGE

PROTON Positive +
NEUTRON No charge
ELECTRON Negative -

Proton and neutrons are packed in the centre of an atom called the
nucleus. A Helium atom has two protons and two neutrons in the
nucleus. Since neutrons have no charge, the nucleus has a plus 2
(+2) electrical charge. As an atom must be neutral, Helium has
two electrons with negative charge of 2 (-2) orbiting the nucleus.

A complete atom must have equal number of protons and electrons

but can have different numbers of neutrons as can be seen for
instance with beryllium.

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of protons in the nucleus and this is used to identify the elements. Formatted Table
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Beryllium has 4 protons and would have a “Z-number” of 4.
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 GENERAL PRINCIPLES - RADIATION
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Basic elements can also be identified by their weight (mass). Mass

number “A” is a combination of protons and neutrons. Beryllium
has an “A” number of 9 (4 protons and 5 neutrons)

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 SOURCES OF RADIATION - ISOTOPES
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Radioactive atoms (materials)

Elements with the same “Z” number and a different “A” number are
called “isotopes” of that element.

To identify isotopes from the basic elements, they are showed with
the “A” number after the name of the elements, i.e. Cobalt-60.

Many isotopes of the various elements occur in nature, but artificial

isotopes are now very commonly in use.

Artificial isotopes are created by bombarding an element with

excess neutrons. This is done in a nuclear reactor where the
atomic fission process gives off large numbers of free neutrons.
After being exposed in the nuclear reactor, the basic element
absorbs some of the free neutrons.

This is called activation. This activation increases the element‟s “A”

number, i.e. Cobalt-59 becomes an artificial isotope Cobalt-60 after
activation.

When these excess neutrons do not upset the balance of the

nucleus, then this new isotope is said to be “stable”. When these
excess neutrons do upset the balance of the nucleus, the isotope is
unstable and will disintegrate or decay into a more stable form.

Some radioactive isotopes are found in nature, such as Radium and

Uranium.

Artificial radioactive isotopes commonly used in industrial

radiography are:

 Iridium-92 (Ir92) - is an artificial isotope with a half -

life of 75 days;

 Cobalt-60 (Co60) - is an artificial isotope with a half -

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175
 Selenium-175 (Se ) is an artificial isotope with a half - Formatted Table

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 SOURCES OF RADIATION - ISOTOPES
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When an unstable isotope is decaying or disintegrating, tiny

particles travelling at high speed are emitted and/or energy in form
of waves is given off. All radiation comes from the nucleus of the
atom.

The following particles and energies are released from the unstable
radioactive atom:
 Alpha particles - largest radiation particles with 2
protons and 2 neutrons.
 Beta particles - very light high speed electrons
 Gamma ray - an energy wave and not a particle

A radioactive isotope can decay by any one of the following:

 Alpha emission only
 Beta emission only
 Alpha emission with associated gamma ray emission
 Beta emission with associated gamma ray emission

We are not concerned with alpha and beta particles, because alpha
particles can only travel a few centimetres in air and beta particles
only a few meters.

Only gamma rays are of use to the Industrial Radiographer.

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Half life of an isotope

Half life is the time taken for an isotope to decay to half the
intensity, i.e. it will take 74.5 days for an iridium 192 with an
intensity strength (activity) of 740 GBq (20 Ci) to decay to an
activity of 370 GBq (10 Ci).

Decay formula:

A=Ao e-(λt) where: A = activity of isotope after

decay time
Ao = known activity of isotope
λ = 2ln / HLV
HLV = half-life-value of isotope
t = time interval

Specific activity
The specific activity of a radioactive source is the activity of 1 gram
of this substance expressed as bequerels (Bq) or Curie per gram
(Ci/g) The number of atoms of the substance that disintegrate in a
given time gives the activity of a radioactive isotope.

Becquerel is the quantity of any radioactive substance in which the

number of disintegrations is 1 per second. (1 Bq = 1/s)
Curie is defined as that quantity of any radioactive substance in
which 3,7 X 1010 disintegrations per second are taking place.

Specific gamma-ray emission

A very useful unit in radiography is the radiation output per curie
measured at a fixed distance. For radioisotope sources the Rhm
(roentgen per hour at one meter) is usually used.
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 SOURCES OF RADIATION - ISOTOPES
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radioactive source, we talk in terms of average kilo-voltage

(kV).

Since isotopes are rated according to their average voltage

and X-rays are rated according to their peak voltage, the
power of an isotope is determined by how many peak keV or
MeV an X-ray machine would need to do the same job.
This is called the equivalent energy of the isotope.

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X-RAYS
Generation of X-rays
X-rays generated over a wide range of wavelengths by electronic
sources are successfully utilised in NDT of materials.
The extent to which they can be successfully utilised is largely
dependent on several factors including:
 intensity of X-rays generated
 their wavelengths
 the dimensions of the area from which they are
emitted
 the duration of their emission

X-Ray Sources

The classical X-ray tube consists of a glass envelope containing the

anode and cathode assemblies, evacuated to a very high vacuum.

The cathode comprises of a shaped metallic electrode, known as

a focusing cup, in which a straight or cylindrical tungsten
filament is placed.

The filament is the electron-emitting element. The filament is

brought to very high temperatures by means of a suitable electric
current (mA). The stream of electrons is concentrated in a beam
by the focusing cup in the direction of the anode. The focusing
cup acts as an electrostatic lens and determines the size of the
beam.

The anode consists of a metal electrode having high thermal

conductivity. The part facing the cathode contains a metal target
with a very high melting point and, in most cases is made of
tungsten.

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 The cathode comprises a filament which, when

brought to incandescence by a current of a few
amperes, emits electrons
 Under the effect of the electrical tension set up between the
anode and cathode (the voltage of the tube) these electrons
from the cathode are attracted to the anode
 This stream of electrons is concentrated in a beam by a
"cylinder" or focusing cup
 The anode assembly consists of a target with high melting
point, recessed into the anode block The target is generally
made of tungsten, partly because of the high atomic
number of this element, and partly because of its high
melting point (approx.3400°C )
 The accelerated electrons from the heated filament produce
X-rays when they strike this target.
 The higher the atomic number of the element struck by
electrons,electrons and the higher the speed of the latter,
the greater will be the energy and penetrating power of the
X-rays produced.

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Cooling the Anode

The heat, which accompanies the production of X-radiation, is quite
considerable, so that the anode has to be cooled.

This can be done in a variety of ways:

 Cooling by Radiation
The anode, consisting of a block of tungsten cools itself by
radiating the heat

 Cooling by Convection
The heat is carried away by a copper extension of the anode
block. The end of this extension is immersed in oil or an
insulating fluid, and is cooled by natural or forced convection
currents. Convection will, however, give only a limited
degree of cooling, and the intensity of the electron flux
cannot be too high unless the tube is run only intermittently.

 Cooling by forced circulation of fluid

Here the heat is carried away by a liquid flowing on to the
back of the anode. Oil is preferred for cooling. The liquid
(oil or water) is usually circulated by means of a pump

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The Focal Spot

The area of the target, which is struck by the electrons, is called
the focal spot or focus. This area should be sufficiently large to
avoid overheating which might damage the anode and to allow
rapid dissipation of the heat, but from the radiographic point-of-
view, it needs to be as small as possible

Effective Focal Spot Size

The projection of the focal spot on a surface perpendicular to the
axis of the beam of X-rays is termed the "effective focal spot size"
or "focus size".
This focus has to be as small as possible in order to achieve
maximum sharpness in the radiographic image.

The dimensions of the focus are governed by:

1. The size of the focal spot, and
2. The value of target angle in the anode

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Production of x-rays
X-rays are emitted whenever matter is bombarded by a stream of
electrons. Transformation of Electron Energy into X-Rays. When
an electron with kinetic energy eV strikes the target of an X-ray
tube, the energy may be transformed in several ways. The
simplest transformation occurs when the electron interacts directly
with the nucleus of a target atom. The electron is stopped by the
nucleus which, due to its heavy mass, is not appreciably disturbed
and so gains no energy. Hence all the kinetic energy of the
electron is transformed into a quantum of radiation.

To produce X-rays, the anode is connected to the positive pole of

a high voltage generator, the cathode to its negative pole.

A suitable current is passed through the filament to attain high

temperatures, (± 2300 0 C).

When the temperature of the filament is high due to the effect of

the electrical tension set up between the anode and the cathode
(the voltage on the tube) these electrons from the cathode
(negative charge) are attracted to the anode (positive charge).

By controlling the filament current, and therefore its

temperature, it is possible to control the cathode electron
emission and the tube current. X-rays are produced when the
accelerated electrons strike the target.

When low current (mA) is applied to the cathode the filament will
glow (heat up) releasing electron. When high voltage (kV) is
applied to the anode. The released electrons are attracted across
the gap to the anode - due to potential difference between the
voltages on anode and X-ray energies are determined by the
voltage (kV) applied to the X-ray tube.
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With an X-ray machine a wide range of energies can be

produced. The energy of X- and gamma ray is measured in kilo
electron volts (keV) and mega electron volt (MeV). An electron
volt is an amount of energy equal, to the energy gained by one
electron when it is accelerated by one volt.

When X-rays are produced, there is a wide range of energies

(wavelengths). Not all electrons are accelerated to the
maximum voltage set on the X-ray machine.

X-ray intensity is determined by the current (mA) applied to the

X-ray tube filament. Also remember that the intensity of the X-
ray is related to the number of rays striking a unit in a given
length of time. Intensity of the X-ray beam can be changed
when either the voltage on the anode or the current on the
filament is changed.

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Summary
mA = current on filament.
= quantity of X-rays produced.
= double mA -exposure time will halve.
= halved mA - double exposure time.
= change intensity without changing
wavelength.
kV = voltage applied to anode.
= increase kV - increase penetrating power.
= increase kV - shorter wavelength rays.
= controls quality of X-rays.
X-rays = mixture of wavelength due to changes in
kV.
= penetrate light alloys easier.
= penetration of dense alloys (materials)
offer greater resistance.

X-Radiation types
X-ray radiate in all directions from the spot on the target where
the collision of electrons take place. They are created by the
mutual interaction of the high speed electrons and positively
charged nuclei belonging to the atoms of the target.

Characteristic X-radiation
Some of the impinging (colliding) electrons give up part of their
kinetic energy collide with and dislodge orbital electrons in the
target atoms.

Energy thus gained by the atom is lost as the ejected electron is

replaced, and is emitted as X-radiation consisting of discreet
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Only narrow bands of higher intensities are generated and have

much lower energy than continuous X-radiation, which can be a
source of unwanted scattered radiation.

Can also be called a monochromatic radiation band, thus X-ray tube

giving X-ray of one wavelength.

Continuous X-radiation
Most of the impinging (colliding) electrons interact with electrons
associated with the target atoms. Only a part of the energy of a
high-speed electron is required to remove an electron from an
atom.

When an impinging electron has lost some of its energy in this

way and then is suddenly stopped by an atomic nucleus, the
energy that is transformed into an X-ray photon is less than the
original kinetic energy, eV, of the electron.

The quantum of radiation produced in this manner has a

wavelength greater then 108 cm. In general, X-rays of many
wavelengths are emitted. The X-ray spectrum is continuous.

Some of the impinging (striking) electrons give up part of their

kinetic energy collide with and dislodge orbital electrons in the
target atoms.

Some of the impinging (striking) electrons as well as the electrons

ejected from target atoms give up kinetic energy as they strike the
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Only a part of the energy of a high-speed electron is required to

remove and electron from an atom. When an impinging electron
has lost some of its energy in this way and then is suddenly
stopped by an atomic nucleus, the energy that is transformed into
an X-ray photon is less than the original kinetic energy, eV, of the
electron.

In general, X-rays of many wavelengths are emitted. The X-ray

spectrum is continuous.

The wavelength of the emitted radiation depends upon the energy

given up by the electron.

Since the electrons have a wide range of velocities, the generated

x-rays have a continuous distribution of wavelengths.

This continuous spectrum of x-rays is the band of radiation most

used in industrial radiography.

X-ray tube types

Depending on the shape of the anode, x-ray tubes can
produce:
 A beam of radiation in one direction;
 A panoramic beam of radiation;
 A panoramic beam of radiation at right angles to the
tube axis.

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 SOURCES OF RADIATION – X-RAYS
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Directional X-ray tube

Panoramic X-ray tube

Other special types of x-ray tubes can be with a long hollow anode
– usually -- known as "rod anode" tubes, are available, in which the
anode end can be inserted into large diameter pipes or cylindrical
vessels.

These tubes usually produce a panoramic beam of x-rays over the

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full 360°, so enabling a complete circumferential weld to be 0.55"

radiographed in one exposure. Formatted Table

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 SOURCES OF RADIATION – X-RAYS
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Hollow Anode X-ray tube

High energy x-ray equipment

Conventional x-ray equipment is used to generate x-rays up to
about 450kV, but there are applications for x-rays of much higher
energy and penetrating power, in the range 1 MeV - 25 MeV, in
industrial radiography. For this, special forms of radiographic
equipment have been developed.

Betatrons
The betatron is an electron accelerator that can produc e X-
radiation in the 10 - 31 MeV energy ranges. The electrons are
emitted into an annular vacuum tube, the "donut', made from
glass or porcelain, at an initial energy of 10 - 20keV.

So as to have a reasonable output of X-rays, most betatrons

have been designed to operate in the 10 - 31M MeV energy
range.

Low energy transportable betatrons (2 - 6 MeV) have been

built, but generally have a very low output of X-rays which
limits their applications. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
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have very small sub-millimeter focal spots.
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 SOURCES OF RADIATION – X-RAYS
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A disadvantage is that with very high energies the X-ray beam

is usually narrow in width, and the coverage of large film sizes
is only possible by using larger values of source-to-film
distances, which increases the exposure time required, and this
can be a serious practical problem with betatrons.

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Van de Graaff X-ray equipment

The van de GraaffF high voltage generator works on

electrostatic principles. This type of equipment is designed to
work at either 1 MeV or 2 MeV and the tube current varies
from a few μA to a several hundred μA.

The main advantages of the van de GraafF X-ray set are that it
can have a very small focal spot and it can operate in the 1 - 2
MeV energy regions with a reasonable output.

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 SOURCES OF RADIATION – X-RAYS
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Linear accelerators - Linacs

This equipment is now built for operation at various energies

between 1 MeV and 30 MeV, and has many inherent
advantages over both betatrons and van de Graaff equipment
and seems likely to replace most other types of high energy x -
ray equipment. The most usual energies of the linacs are
8MeV and 4MeV.

The advantages of the linac include:

 A very high output of radiation
 The very small dimensions of the focal spot (<2
mm)
 Relatively light weight
 Linacs can be built to operate at two or three
different energies, where most megavoltage x-ray
equipment is designed to operate at one specific
energy.

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Advantages of using gamma-rays for radiography, rather than X-

rays are:
 The cost of equipment and source is much less than that of x-
ray machine of comparable kV range;
 Isotope equipment is more easily transported than x-ray
equipment;
 Isotope source is small enough to pass through small
openings;
 No external power supply (electric power supply) is
necessary, permitting use in remote areas;
 Both panoramic and directional exposures can be made;
 The equipment is rugged and simple to operate;
 Their size is small, making them specially suited to
circumstances where a short source-to-film distance is
necessary;
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permitting radiography of very thick materials. Formatted Table
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 Some radioisotopes have a very high penetrating power,
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 SOURCES OF RADIATION – X-RAYS
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which makes it possible to obtain satisfactory radiographs of

very thick metal specimens.

Disadvantages of using gamma-rays for radiography, rather than

X-rays are:
 The radiation cannot be turned off and presents a greater
safety consideration than x-ray sources,
 Isotope radiographs generally have less contrast than those
exposed by X-ray;
 The penetrating ability is dependent upon the particular
isotope and cannot be changed or varied to accommodate
different thicknesses of material;
 If the isotope has a short half-life, there is an added cot of
replacing the source;
 The shielding necessary to properly handle an isotope may be
quite heavy.

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ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING

Penetrating quality of X-rays and gamma-rays:
The penetrating power of X-radiation increases with the X-ray energy,
except at ultra-high energies.

The relationship of energy and penetrating power is extremely

complex, due to various mechanisms which can cause X-ray
absorption, and it is usual to use the concept of an absorption
coefficient (μ), although this is strictly applicable only to mono-
energetic radiation.

When monochromatic X-radiation with an intensity Io passes through

a homogeneous material, the relative reduction in intensity (- ∆I) is
proportional to the thickness (∆x) of the material. The reduction is
given by the formula:

in which μ is the linear absorption coefficient of

the material through which the radiation passes. This linear
absorption coefficient (μ) is itself a function of the specific
weight of the material.

Integrating formula we get:

in which “e” = the Napier logarithms base

(2.718).

Writing the formula the logarithm form we get:

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Consequently, if you plot the logarithm of the intensity of the

residual radiation against the increasing thicknesses of the
material, we shall get a straight line as shown below:

Absorption of heterogeneous radiation

If we have an X-ray beam containing a range of radiation energies, a

similar graph to the above can be plotted experimentally; however,
we no longer get a straight line, but a curve as shown below whose
slope gradually becomes shallower (because of the selective
absorption) until it reaches the “point of homogeneity”.

After passing this point, the coefficient of absorption remains virtually

unchanged, as if the radiation had become monochromatic.

The position of the point of homogeneity varies with the material of

the absorber.
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NOTES

It should be noted the slope of the logarithmic absorption curve is

equal to the linear absorption coefficient.

Absorption and scattering

X-rays penetrate light material (i.e. aluminium) better than they
penetrate dense material (i.e. carbon steel). The heavier,
denser materials offer greater resistance to X-ray penetration.

X-rays or photons, are little packets of energy moving at the

speed of light.

During radiation the photon's energy does not disappear, it has

to be transformed in a process known as "ionisation".
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An "ion" is a charged atom, group of atoms, or atomic particle of

either negative or positive sign.

If you remove an electron from an atom, it has a "plus one"

charge, therefore a positive ion.

Ions occur when a photon (X-ray) collides with an electron in the

penetrated material. The photon knocks the electron out of its
atom and transfers some of its energy to the electron. This
results in ionisation and creates a positive and negative ion

Electrons produced by this ionisation absorb some of the energy

from the photon and move with different velocities in different
directions.

The reduction in intensity and consequently the value of μ (linear

attenuation coefficient) and the penetrating power of the
radiation, is determined by the following four types of reaction:
 Rayleigh scattering, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.52", First line: 0",
Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" + Tab
 Photoelectric effect; after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75"

 Compton effect;
 Pair production.

Rayleigh scattering
This process is only of importance at very low energies; the
photon is scattered by the electrons of the atom but without
releasing any electrons.

The X-ray photon is therefore deflected but does not change in

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Photoelectric effect
When X-rays of relatively low energy (10 keV to 500keV) pass
through a material and a photon collides with an atom of this
material, the total energy of this photon can be used to eject an
electron from the inner shells of the atom.

This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect.

The photoelectric effect involves complete absorption of the

photon; part of the energy is consumed in ejecting the electron
from its orbit and the remainder grants velocity to the electron.

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Compton effect
Upon increasing the photon energy (100 keV to 10MeV) the main
process contributing to absorption changes from the photoelectric
effect to the Compton effect.

This is not really true absorption, since part of the photon's

energy is not absorbed but merely redirected.

In the Compton effect a photon collides with an electron. Instead

of giving up all its energy to the electron as in the photoelectric
process, however, the photon only shares its energy with the
struck electron. The binding energy of the electron is usually
considered negligible compared with the photon's energy.

The energy of the scattered photon is always less than that of the
incident (primary) photon.

The scattered photon will go through several Compton effects

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NOTES

may even scatter backwards.

Radiation that is part of the original beam is called "primary

beam".

Scatter radiation is a general term referring to radiation resulting

from the primary beam, properly called "secondary radiation".

Compton scatter is a specific type of secondary radiation.

Pair production

The formation of ion pairs only occurs at very high energy levels
(1.02 MeV).

High energy photons can cause an interaction with the nucleus of

the atom involved in the collision. The energy of the photon is
here used to produce an electron (e -) and a positron (e).

The life of the positron is only very short and it rapidly disappears
because it collides with an electron, when both cease to exist as
such and together give their energy to form two 0,51 MeV
photons.

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Pair production is of particular importance when high energy

photons pass through materials of high atomic number.

The absorption of x-rays is therefore not a simple process in

which the primary x-ray energy changes to some other form of
energy and effectively disappears.

There is conversion to secondary x-ray energy of a different

wavelength and a different direction of travel, and there may be
liberation of secondary atomic particles.
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Some of the secondary (scatter) radiation does not contribute to
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quality.

Half-value layer

As an x-ray penetrates a material, the energy is absorbed by the

photoelectric and Compton effect.

At some place in the material there is a level at which the

number of rays (intensity) of the radiation is one half of the
intensity on the surface.

Definition: Half value layer (thickness) of a particular material

which reduces the intensity of a beam or radiation to half and
can be calculated from:

HVL = 2ln/μ

where: μ = linear coefficient.

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Variation of activity with time

Typical half-values

Isotope Typical Half Value Typical Half mSv/(h*GBq at 1 Half Life

Layer of Value m
steel(mm) Layer of
Lead(mm)
Co-60 20 11 0.365 5,3 yrs
Se-75 8 1.5 0.0548 120 days
Ir-192 13 5.5 0.1486 74.5 days
Cs-137 17.27 6.35 0.0865 31,7 yrs

The tenth-value layer is another standard that will reduce the

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radiation
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Iridium-192 has a half-life of 74 days. After 148 days (two half- Formatted: Line spacing: 1.5 lines

life) the strength of a 37 GBq source of Iridium-192 will be reduced

to 9.25 GBq, and after three half-life to 4.625 GBq, etc.

A = Aoe-μt

A = Original activity
Ao = Decayed (New) activity
e = Napierian logarithm base - 2.718 Formatted: English (U.S.)

μ = linear coefficient = 2ln/d Formatted: English (U.S.)

d = half life value of specific isotope

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NOTES

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMING

Always remember that X- and gamma-rays travel in straight lines.
The radiation produces the image of a specimen - just as a shadow
picture can be produced with a strong light and a screen as can be
seen below.

X- and gamma rays can expose radiographic film because of

their ability to ionise materials. When the radiation penetrates
the film, the film is exposed because the rays ionise the silver
bromide grains in the film emulsion.
The ionisation of the film's emulsion forms a "latent image"
which is developed during the developing (processing) of the
exposed film.

Another important factor for the image forming is the specimen Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
itself. Enough rays must penetrate the object (specimen) to
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When the film is developed, the exposed portion of the film will
turn black while the unexposed portion will be clear.

The formation of an image on the film depends upon the amount of

radiation received by different sections of the film.

A discontinuity such as a void (porosity) represents a thickness

difference in the specimen and will appear as a dark area on the
developed film.

The intensity of a beam of X-rays or gamma-rays undergoes local

attenuation as it passes through a specimen, due to absorption and
scattering of the radiation.

As a result, the beam emerging from the specimen contains, at the

surface of the film, areas of differing intensities which make up the
radiation image.

When the film is processed these variations are shown as varying

film densities - high radiation intensity produces a higher film
density, etc.

The quality of the radiograph can be severely affected by scattered

radiation, and it is important to keep its effects to a minimum.

When the primary X-ray beam is partly absorbed in the specimen

some radiation is scattered and so can reach points on the film by Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
an indirect path.
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NOTES

At any point on the film, therefore, the total radiation reaching that
point is made up of some transmitted primary radiation forming the
image of the defect - the "image-forming" or direct radiation and
some indirect, "non-image-forming", scattered radiation.

The ratio is called the build-up factor, and is of considerable

importance in studies of attainable radiographic sensitivity. It
usually has a value between 2 and 20, depending on the radiation
energy and the specimen thickness, and is much less with very
high energy radiation.

It must also be appreciated that every object in the neighbourhood

of the object being examined (table, walls, ground and so on)
which is struck by the gamma or X-rays will partially reflect these
rays in the form of back-scatter which is liable to fog the film.

The back scatter coming from nearby objects can be quite

substantial in relation to the radiation passing through the object
being radiographed.

Scatter is less penetrating than the primary radiation from which it

is derived and can be intercepted by a metallic filter before it
reaches the film.

Scattered radiation coming from objects under the film can be

intercepted by means of a protective sheet of lead, and the rear Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
face of metal film cassettes do in fact often incorporate a sheet of
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NOTES

Other scatter problems arise with cylindrical components, when

scatter from one component to the next can be eliminated with
lead strips between the components as shown in following figure.

The effects of scattered radiation can be reduced by:

 Keeping the size of the X-ray beam to a minimum, by the Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1" +
use of a diaphragm or localising collimator. Tab after: 1.25" + Indent at: 1.25"

 By using masks around the edges of the components.

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Filters
Radiographic filters can also be used to reduce the effects of
scattered radiation and the filter may be placed either close to the
X-ray tube (on the diaphragm) or between the specimen and the
film cassette.

The filter is usually a sheet of lead or copper of a thickness to

match the X-ray energy. In practice if a filter is to be close to the
film, a thick front lead intensifying screen is effectively a filter and
intensifying screen.

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Intensifying screens
The degree of photographic effect of the gamma or X-rays depends
upon the amount of radiation energy absorbed by the sensitised
coatings of the film; this is of the order of 1 % for radiation of
medium penetrating power.
The remaining radiation passes through the film and is consequently
not used. To overcome this, the film is sandwiched between two
intensifying screens.

Under the action of the gamma or X-rays these screens either

fluoresce (fluorescent intensifying screens - salt screens) or emit
electrons (lead screens), and the result is an extra photographic
effect upon the film emulsion layers. Close contact between the film
and the screens is essential in order to obtain sharp images

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Lead intensifying screens

These are made up from a thin sheet of lead foil (which is
especially uniform in structure) stuck on to a thin base such as a
sheet of paper or card.

Without lead screen With lead screens

Two lead screens are used; the thickness of the front screen must
be matched to the hardness of the radiation being used, so that it
will pass the primary radiation while stopping as much as possible
of the secondary radiation (which is less penetrating and has a
longer wavelength).

The screen is usually 0.02 to 0.15 mm thick. The back screen is

usually thicker (0.25 mm), but the thickness is not critical.
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0.55"

The metallic surface of lead screens is polished, to allow as close a Formatted Table
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contact as possible with the surface of the film.
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Flaws such as scratches or cracks on the surface of the metal will

be visible on the radiograph.
Lead screens emit a-particles (electrons) to which the film is
sensitive. With lead screens there is a partial absorption of primary
radiation by the front screen, and there is a greater absorption of all
"soft" radiation and scattered radiation; that is, the front intensifying
screen acts as a filter as well as an intensifying screen.

The overall effect of using lead or metal intensifying screens is

therefore that
 there is an improvement in the contrast of image detail, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
due to the reduction of scatter. Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: Not at 1.75"
 there is a decrease in the exposure-time when the
intensifying effect is greater than the attenuation
produced by the absorption in the front screen. The
intensification factor obtained with lead screens is seldom
greater than 5, and the intensifying action is only achieved
with X-rays above 120 kV.

There are sometimes cases, using X-rays below 120 kV, when the
filtering action of a front screen is useful even though there is no
intensifying effect. X-ray film is also market ed in paper envelopes
with built-in lead screens,

For certain radiations, lead is not the best material for metal
intensifying screens. With cobalt-60 gamma-rays, copper or steel
screens have been shown to produce better quality radiographs Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
than lead screens, but they require a longer exposure-time (x2). Formatted Table
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With mega voltage X-rays in the energy range 5-8 MeV, thick
copper screens produce better radiographs than lead screens of
any thickness, and in the 15-31 MeV range, tantalum and
tungsten screens are to be preferred, usually using a front screen
only, with no back screen.

Fluorescent intensifying screens (Salt Screens)

Fluorescent intensifying screens consist of a thin, flexible base
coated with a fluorescent layer made up from micro-crystals of a
suitable metallic salt, (usually calcium tungstate).

When subjected to X-rays the screen emits light to which the film is
sensitive. The light intensity is in direct proportion to the X-radiation
intensity and produces a very large screen intensification effect on
the film.

Because of the loss of image quality they cause, salt screens are
very rarely used in industrial radiography, although there has
recently been a resurgence of interest in them for a special
application (projected image radiography with a microfocus X-ray
tube)

Fluorometallic screens
Apart from fluorescent and lead intensifying screens, there are also
fluorometallic screens, which to a certain extent combine the
advantages of lead and fluorescent intensifying screens. These Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
screens are provided with a lead foil between the base and the
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NOTES

The amount of intensification achieved with these screens largely

depends on the spectral sensitivity of the X-ray film used to the light
emitted by the screens, on the exposure time, and on the
temperature.

To achieve satisfactory radiographs with fluorometallic screens,

these screens must be used with the appropriate radiographic film
(such as STRUCTURIX RCF film with RCF screens).

When used correctly, a reduction in exposure-time of up to x10 can

be obtained, compared with lead screens, but this is not a constant
increase in speed which is obtainable with all radiation energies and
all exposure-times.

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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
NOTES

THE RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

The use of X-ray films calls for an adequate knowledge of
sensitometry. This is the science which studies the photographic
properties of a film, and the methods enabling these to be measured.

The relationship existing between the photographic densities on the

film (after development under carefully-defined conditions) and the
exposures which have produced them is represented in sensitometry
by a graph known as the “characteristic curve".

It is necessary at this stage to describe the structure of the X-ray film

and to define some of the terms used in sensitometry.

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Structure of an X-ray film

An X-ray film is made up of seven layers (See Fig.):
 a cellulose triacetate or polyester base, (d) Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
1.25", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
 on both sides of this base are applied: Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at 1.75" + 2"
 a layer of hardened gelatine to protect the emulsion, (a)
 a layer of emulsion, (b), composed mainly of silver halide
crystals suspended in gelatine, and
 a very thin layer called the substratum, (c), which ensures
that the emulsion layer adheres to the base.

The normal X-ray film therefore has two coatings of emulsion,

resulting in higher speed and more contrasting images.

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NOTES

Latent image
The silver bromide grains when exposed to radiation would
become visible and turn the film black to form an image.
However, the image is "latent" and no visible change in film would
be noticeable until after development.

A latent image is formed on the film when some of the silver

bromide grains are ionised by the X- or gamma ray.

The latent image is made visible by developing the film where the
ionised silver bromide grains are reduced to black metallic silver.
Each individual grain that has been exposed then helps form the
image on the film.

There is no partial exposure of a silver grain.

The difference in radiographic films (i.e. slower and faster films) is

mainly due to the various grain sizes (even the largest of which
are microscopic).
The larger grained film (faster) expose more silver to the rays per
grain, therefore, the image is exposed more quickly.

The image less sharp and the detail is lacking compared to the
fine grained film (slower).

During developing process of the film, the exposed grains will

turn black and the unexposed grains will be removed during
developing process by the fixer solution. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
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NOTES

DEVELOPING PROCESS
In order to make it visible, the latent image should undergo a
chemical process. The exposed grains must be separated from
those which have not been exposed.
The development process consists of several steps:
1 developer Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", First line: 0",
Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" + Tab
2 stop bath after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab stops: Not
at 1.75"
3 fixer
4 rinsing
5 wetting agent
6 drying

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Developer
The developer is an alkaline solution (combination of chemicals),
each of which serves a vital function.

One of the chemicals is an accelerator that makes the solution

alkaline. This chemical removes the protective layer and swells the
emulsion, thus allowing the developing agent to interact with the
exposed grains.

Another chemical in the developer is the reducer which reduces the

exposed silver bromide grains to black metallic silver.

The entire film does not turn black because the reducer can
distinguish between exposed and unexposed grains.

Time and temperature are important factors in the developing stage.

As the temperature of the solution increases, the speed at which the

alkali penetrates the emulsion also increases, causing the reducer to
reduce even unexposed silver grains to black metallic silver, thus
increasing the film density (degree of blackness of the film).

Developing time is usually 5 minutes at a temperature of 20°C.

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Stop bath (acid)

When a film is removed from the developer, a small quantity of
alkaline solution remains on the film. The chemical used in a stop
bath is usually glacial acetic acid.

The stop bath serves two functions

1 Stops developing action by neutralising the alkaline Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.32", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
developer. Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: Not at 1.75"
2 Extending the fixer life by neutralising the alkaline developer
before the film is put into the fixer.
3 The film is usually placed in the stop bath for plus minus 10
seconds.

Fixer
The fixer permanently fixes the image on the film. In the developer,
the silver bromide grains were reduced to black metallic silver.

However the unexposed silver bromide grains are still in the

emulsion and appear cloudy (milky-yellow) on the film.
The fixer removes all unexposed silver grains from the film.
There are two separate stages in the fixing process:
 Clearing time - This removes all unexposed silver grains from Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.34", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
the film and the film starts to appear clear. Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: Not at 1.75"
 Hardening - the fixer also hardens the emulsion gelatine
which helps prevent scratching during handling.

The total time in the fixer should be double the time it takes to clear
the film.
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Rinsing - Final wash

Rinsing eliminates any trace of chemical product which could go on
reacting with the film.

Rinsing should be carried out carefully in a container with running

water.

The water temperature is not essential and should be between 16ºC

and 24ºC. Rinsing period should be between 20 and 30 minutes.

If rinsing has been carried out correctly, it will improve the

preservation time of the film.

Wetting agent
The film is dipped into a container of water added with wetting agent.
This bath will prevent water droplets from forming while drying and,
therefore, any other water marks remaining on the film.

Drying
Drying may be done at ambient (room) temperature, but drying time
is very long.

Drying in a temperature controlled room with upward air circulation

ensures the film drying in about 30 minutes.

Film drying is achieved when the areas of the film touching the film
hangers are fully dry. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
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PROCESSING FACILITIES
The location, design, and construction of the film processing
facilities are major factors in the installation of adequate
radiographic services.

The facilities may be a single room or a series of rooms f or

individual activities, depending on the amount and character
of the work performed.

Because of the special importance of these rooms for the

handling, processing, and storing of radiography films, both
their general and detailed features should be mo st
thoughtfully worked out.

The flow of radiography films from the radiographic room,

through the processing facilities, and to the viewing room
should be a simple yet smooth operation requiring the fewest
possible steps or unnecessary motions.
The routine may be expedited by planning the location
properly within the department of the room or rooms
devoted to processing and by efficiently arranging the
equipment.

Processing Area.
The volume of films to be handled in the department will
determine the layout. If the work load is small or
intermittent, a single room containing all the facilities may
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0.55"
be employed.
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However, if the volume is relatively high, production can be

expedited by dividing the operations among three areas:
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.52", Hanging:
1. a room for loading and unloading cassettes; 0.5", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3.5" +
Tab after: 3.75" + Indent at: 3.75", Tab
2. a processing room with a through-the-wall tank; and stops: Not at 3.75"

3. a washing and drying room.

A continued high volume of films may require the use of

automatic-processing equipment, with necessary
modifications in floor space layout.

In such instances the equipment manufacturer should be

consulted concerning layout problems.

In general the processing room should be large enough to

hold all the necessary equipment without crowding. There is
no advantage in having excessive floor space, howeve r,
although need for future expansion should be anticipated.

It is most efficient to have the processing area adjoining to

the exposure room.

In departments where highly-penetrating radiation is used,

however, the amount of radiation protection needed to
protect personnel and film may be prohibitively expensive, in
which case the processing room must be located at a safe
distance. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
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NOTES

Entrances
Three general types of entrances are used for the processing
room:
1. the single door, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", First line: 0",
Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.75" + Tab
2. the light-lock (double or revolving doors), and after: 2" + Indent at: 2"

3. the labyrinth or maze.

The one best suited to a particular installation is determined

largely by the number of people who must use the
processing room and by the amount of floor space available.

The single door equipped with an inside bolt or lock is most

economical of floor space and is practical where one
employee handles the processing.

However, in most instances a labyrinth, or a vestibule with

two interlocking doors, is generally employed.

Loading Bench
Basically, operations performed in the processing areas
should be separated into parts - the "dry" and the "wet"
film-handling areas.

The dry activities, such as the handling of unprocessed film,

loading and unloading of cassettes and exposure holders,
and the loading of processing hangers are all done at the Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
loading bench.
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NOTES

room or in a separate adjacent room.

Where a cassette-transfer cabinet is used, it should open

onto the loading bench, which should contain facilities for
storage of processing hangers and other items, and a light -
tight film bin.

Processing Tanks.
Processing of films, which involves the "wet" activities of
developing, stopping, fixing, and washing should be carried
out in an area separate from the loading bench.

This arrangement is designed to avoid splashing solutions on

screens, films, and loading areas, and in general to prevent
interference with loading-bench operations.

The tanks must be constructed of a corrosion -resistant

material. Special techniques must be employed in the
fabrication of these tanks.

Film Capacity
The film capacity of the entire processing area is determined
by the size of the insert tanks.

Based on a 5-min. development time, a developer tank must

be capable to handle 40 films an hour, with four hangers
being handled simultaneously, and allowing for the time Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
during which hangers are removed and inserted in the stop
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The capacity of the stop-bath tank should equal that of the

developer tank.
The washing tank should hold at least four times the number
of hangers accommodated in the developer tank.

Film Dryers
One of the important considerations in designing the
processing area is the film dryer.

It should be fast-acting, without overheating the films.

A removable drip pan underneath each film compartment or

drawer is useful as an aid in keeping the dryer clean.

As a precaution, the heating elements should be connected

in the fan circuit so that the heat cannot be turned on
without also turning on the fan.

Illumination
The processing area must be provided with both white light
and safelight illumination.

White light is desirable for many activities, such as mixing

chemicals, cleaning tanks, inserting films into the dryer, and
unloading processing hangers.

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0.55"
Arrangement of Safelights
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carefully considered.

The area should be divided into three zones of safelig ht

intensity: the brightest, in which the films are washed and
placed in the dryer; the medium zone, where films are
developed and fixed; and the dimmest zone, where loading -
bench activities are carried out.

The "safeness" of these lamps is dependent not only upon

the use of bulbs of the correct wattage and the type of filter
but also upon the proper lamp placement in relation to the
film.

Exposed Films are more sensitive to the safelight

illumination than are unexposed films.

Hence it is important to guard the films against direct light

when loading them in hangers prior to development.

Checking Illumination Safety

A simple method of checking the safety of illumination is to
test it with the fastest film used in the laboratory, as
follows:
An exposure is made of a stepped wedge.

The holder is unloaded in the processing room and the films Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
are placed in the area where they are normally handled.
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remainder is exposed to the safelight illumination for the

maximum time normally needed for handling.

The test film is then given standard processing.

If no density shows on the uncovered part that received the
safelight exposure, as compared with the covered part, the
lighting may be assumed to be safe.

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NOTES

VIEWING OF RADIOGRAP HS

Dark Adaptation
The radiographer should wait at least 3 minutes before attempting
film scrutiny when coming into the viewing room from ordinary
artificial room light.

When coming from full sunlight, the observer should allow at least 5
minutes for dark adaptation before viewing.

If the eyes are subjected to the full brightness of the illuminator

during changes of the radiographs, at least 30 seconds re-adaptation
is necessary.

Viewing Rooms
a) Viewing shall be carried out in a room with subdued ambient Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.39", Hanging:
0.3", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style:
lighting, which should reach the eye of the viewer directly or by a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left +
Aligned at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" + Indent
reflection from the radiograph. at: 1.18", Tab stops: Not at 1.18"

b) The viewing room shall be suitably ventilated and not be Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.39", Hanging:
0.3", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style:
subjected to traffic or other excessive noise that will disturb the a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left +
Aligned at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" + Indent
concentration of the viewer at: 1.18", Tab stops: Not at 1.18"

Viewer requirements.
The examination of the finished radiograph should be made
under conditions which favour the best visualization of detail
combined with a maximum of comfort and minimum of
fatigue for the interpreter. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
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To be satisfactory for use in viewing radiographs, an viewer

must fulfill the following requirements:
 It must provide light of an intensity that will Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.89"
illuminate the areas of interest in the radiograph to + Tab after: 2.14" + Indent at: 2.14", Tab
stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at 1.75"
their best advantage, free from glare.
 It must diffuse the light evenly over the entire
viewing area.

The color of the light is of no optical consequence, but

most observers prefer bluish-white.

Such a viewer is often used for viewing industrial

radiographs of moderate density.

Where a somewhat higher intensity is needed, a

fluorescent viewer may be fitted with 15 -watt green
fluorescent tubular lamps.

These light sources have a higher luminous output than

the "daylight" type with the same electrical input .

High- Intensity viewers

For the routineg viewing of high densities, one of the high-
intensity viewers should be used.

These viewers provide an adjustable light source, the

maximum intensity of which is high enough to allow viewing
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
of densities in the neighborhood of 4.0. 0.55"
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Such a high-intensity viewer is especially useful for the

examination of radiographs having a wide range of densities
corresponding to the wide range of thicknesses in the object.

If the exposure has been adequate for the greatest thi ckness
in the specimen, the detail reproduced in other thicknesses
can usually be visualized with illumination of sufficient
intensity.

Background illumination
The contrast sensitivity of the human eye, (i.e. the ability to
distinguish small brightness di fferences) is greatest when the
surroundings are of about the same brightness as the area of
interest.

Thus, to see the finest detail in a radiograph, the viewer must

be masked to avoid glare from bright light coming around the
edges of the radiograph or through areas of low density.

Further, subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is

preferable in the viewing room.

The room illumination must be so arranged that there are no

reflections from the surface of the film under examination.

Interpretation
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
a)Films shall be subjected to interpretation in accordance with the Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
agreed Acceptance Standards.
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During this interpretation, a correct analysis of all film indications

must be made to ensure that artefacts are not mistaken for
component discontinuities.

This analysis may include subsequent actions in order to clarify

doubtful situations.

A system for identification and location of defect indications shall be

utilized.

b)During interpretation and assessment against an Acceptance Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Standard, allowances for possible defect image enlargement are not

permitted.

Providing that correct technique parameters have been utilized,

enlargement due to geometric unsharpness and/or magnification will
be insignificant.

The defect image size shown on the radiograph will be assessed

directly against the requirements of the Acceptance Standard.

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NOTES

CAUSES AND CORRECTION OF UNSATISFACTORY

RADIOGRAPHS

Common radiographic faults

Occasionally, as a result of an error in technique or of
mishandling of materials, an unsatisfactory radiograph is
produces.

Obviously the radiographer will look for the cause and try to
prevent a recurrence of the condition.

To help him in his search, the possible sources of the more

common faults are described and corrective proced ures are
suggested here.

High film density

Excessive film density may be caused by overexposure to X -
radiation, overdevelopment of the film, or by fog (see later
discussion of Fog).

Overexposure
Overexposure of X-ray film is usually caused by incorrect
exposure factors. To compensate for overexposure, it may
be feasible to view the film with a higher intensity of
illumination.

To correct for overexposure, decrease the exposure by a tl Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
least one-third. Also check meters and X-ray timer to be
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Overdevelopment
Causes of overdevelopment are too long a development time,
too warm a developer solution, or both.

To correct for overdevelopment, follow manufacturer's

development recommendations.

Check the darkroom timer and the developer temperature.

Low film density

Inadequate film density may result from underexposure,
underdevelopment, or the presence of foreign material
between the lead screen and the film.

Underexposure
The usual cause of underexposure is the use of incorrect
exposure factors. To correct, increase the exposure by 40
percent or more.

Underdevelopment
Underdevelopment of X-ray film may result from too short
development time, developer solution to cold, weak
developer solution, or a combination of these causes.

To correct for inadequate development time or low

temperature, follow the manufacturer's development
recommendations. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Check that the darkroom timer and the temperature of the
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To correct for weak developer, discard the devel oper and

make a fresh solution. Check the capacity of the tank. Be
certain that the tank does not leak and that water does not
flow into it.

Material between Lead Screens and Film

Lowered density will result if any intervening material such
as paper separates the lead screen from the recording film.

High radiographic contrast

Excessive radiographic contrast may result from high subject
contrast or high film contrast.

High Subject Contrast

The usual cause of excessive subject contrast is a thickness
range in the test specimen too great for the radiation quality
used.

To correct, increase the kilo-voltage. Use a filter at the X-

ray tube. Use masking to lessen the thickness range. (It
may help to view the dense portions of too contrasty a
radiograph with increased intensity of illumination).

High Film Contrast

To correct, use film of lower contrast.

Low radiographic contrast Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Causes of low radiographic contrast include low subject
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Poor definition
Possible causes of poor definition in X-ray images include:
geometric exposure factors, poor contact between film and
intensifying screens, graininess of fluorescent intensifying
screens, and graininess of film.

Geometric Exposure Factors

Poor image definition can result from use of excessive
object-film distance, from the use of an X-ray tube with a
large focal spot, or from a large gamma -ray source.

To correct excessive object-film distance, decrease the

distance between object and film.

If that is impossible, increase the distance between the

radiation source and the film.

Fog
Fog on X-ray films can result from excessive exposure of film
to light (including safelights), inadequacy of film storage
facilities, or improper film processing.

Excessive Exposure of Film to Light

Light exposure of X-ray film can result from light leaks in the
film-processing room or excessive exposure of film to
safelights during loading or unloading, or during processing.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
To correct light leaks, examine the film loading a nd
Formatted Table
processing areas with all lights in the processing room out Formatted: Font: Verdana
and bright lights in adjoining rooms turned on. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
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Seal any light leaks noted.

To correct excessive exposure to safelights, check the safety
factor of safelight lamps. Check the condition of s afelight
filters and replace if necessary. (Faded filter dyes may result
from an overheated safelight if a bulb of high wattage is
employed.)

Inadequacy of Film Storage Facilities.

Inadequacy of film storage facilities may result from
insufficient protection from X or gamma radiation or from
excessive exposure to heat, humidity, and gases.

To detect insufficient protection from X-radiation, test the

protection by attaching a heavy lead strip to the exposure
side of a loaded X-ray exposure holder. Place the holder in
the location where the film is stored.

Develop the test film after two or three weeks; if an image

of the strip is noted, safeguards should be improved. If
insufficient protection from gamma radiation is suspected,
use the recommended precautionary measures in storing and
handling radioactive substances.

Improper Film Processing

Improper film processing leading to fog can be caused by
overdevelopment, incorrectly mixed or contaminated Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
developer solutions or from prolonged inspection of film
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To correct overdevelopment, check the darkroom timer and

the temperature of the developer.

If the developer solution has been mixed incorrectly, discard

the solution and make a new developer solution, followi ng
the manufacturer's instructions. Be sure that the processing
tanks and implements are made from materials inert to the
developer.

To avoid safelight fog, do not inspect film until it is

adequately fixed. Rely on the time-temperature method to
indicate correct development.

Avoid contamination of developing solutions.

Streaks
Causes of streaking of X-ray films may be associated with
development, stop bath and fixer, or film drying.

Streaks associated with Development

Streaks associated with development may result from
contaminated film hangers, lack of agitation during
processing, or inspection before fixation.

Film hangers may be kept clean by making sure that the

wash water covers them completely, including the top bar.
Hanger clips should be kept free of accumulated emulsion.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Streaks due to lack of agitation are eliminated by agitating
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the film at regular intervals during development with proper Formatted: Font: Verdana
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Films should not be held in front of safelights during or

directly after development because developer running across
the film will process streaks.

Streaks Associated with Stop Bath and Fixer

Streaks can also result from interaction of developer and
fixer, from insufficient agitation of film in the stop bath, -or
from inspection of films before clearing.

To avoid interaction of developer and fixer, use an acid stop

bath or rinse films thoroughly running water between
development and fixing.

Films should be agitated on first immersion into the stop

bath.

Films should not be inspected in front of an illuminator until

the original diffused milky-ness has disappeared.

Streaks Associated with Drying

To avoid water spots and streaks, a wetting agent should be
used in the final water rinse before drying films.
Alternatively, film may be gently swabbed with a moist
viscose sponge to remove drops of water clinging to the
emulsion. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Yellow stain Formatted: Font: Verdana
Yellow stain may be associated with development, omission of Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
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stop bath or rinsing, or fixation.

Stain Associated with Development

Yellow stain may result from prolonged development in old,
oxidized developer. To correct discard the developer solution
and replace with a fresh solution.

Stain Associated with Omission of Stop Bath or Rinsing

It is essential to use a stop bath or to rinse films thoro ughly
in clean water before placing them in the fixer solution.

Stain Associated with Fixation

Yellow stain may be caused by exhausted fixer solution. To
correct, replace the fixer solution frequently.

Miscellaneous artifacts
Various artifacts can resul t from improper technique during
drying film exposure and processing.

Crimp marks can be eliminated by avoiding sharp bends in

the film when inserting it in cassettes or film holders.

To avoid pressure marks, protect the film from pressure or

blows; use a rigid cassette when possible.

To eliminate air bells, tap the top bar of the film hanger
sharply against the tank when first immersing the film in the Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
developer. This will dislodge any air bubbles clinging to the
Formatted Table
surface of the film. Formatted: Font: Verdana
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Light Spots can be caused by stop bath or fixer splashed onto

film, before development. Avoid splashing of solutions.

Be sure hands are clean and dry before handling films.

Additional artifacts can result from foreign material on or

imbedded in intensifying screens. To avoid these, handle
screens carefully and inspect them periodically for damage
and contamination.

Hair-like material between lead or fluorescent screens and

film during exposure can produce light marks or images.
These can be avoided by keeping cas settes and exposure
holders clean and by keeping them closed when not in use.

Dark spots and lines

Dark spots on films can be caused by water or developer
splashed onto films before development.

Static marks are avoided by handling films gently. Film

should be removed slowly from its box and from cassettes or
exposure holders.

Scratches on lead screens can also produce dark lines on the

developed film.

White scum
A milky-appearing fixer solution can result when the fixer is Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
too warm when mixed or is mixed too rapidly. To correct,
Formatted Table
follow the manufacturer's directions. Formatted: Font: Verdana
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NOTES

White scum can also be a consequence of developer carried

over to the fixer solution. To avoid this, use a stop bath, or
rinse films thoroughly in clean water before placing them i n
the fixer solution.

Physical damage to film emulsion

Reticulation (puckered or netlike film surfaces) can result
from sudden extreme temperature changes in processing.

To correct, maintain all processing solutions, and water for

rinsing and washing, at as near the same temperature as
possible. Use a fixer solution that will provide adequate
hardening action.

Frilling (loosening of film emulsion from base) can result

from warm or exhausted fixer solution. To correct, control
the temperature of the fixer and replace the solution
frequently.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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RADIATION IMAGE AND THE IMAGE ON THE FILM
NOTES

RADIATION IMAGE AND THE IMAGE ON THE FILM

The intensity of a beam of radiation undergoes local attenuation as
it passes through a specimen, due to absorption and scattering of
the radiation.

As a result, the beam emerging from the specimen contains, at the

surface of the film, areas of different intensities that make up the
radiation image.

When the film is processed these variations are shown as varying

densities - high radiation intensity produces a higher film density
etc.

The quality of the radiograph can be severely affected by scattered

radiation, and it is important to keep its effects to a minimum.

Accuracy of radiograph
Before a radiograph can be of any use as a non-destructive testing
tool, we must have some idea how accurate the tool is.

Sensitivity
The measure of accuracy of a radiograph is called the sensitivity of
the radiograph. (This is done by using penetrameters or IQI- Image
Quality Indicators, which will be discussed later).

Sensitivity in a radiograph is a function of the contrast and the

definition of the radiograph.

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Contrast
Is the comparison between film densities for different areas of the
radiograph as shown below.

Definition
Is the line of demarcation between areas of different densities. If
the image is clear and sharp the radiograph is said to have good
definition as shown below.

Film B shows better definition than film A.

Contrast
Remember that we have said that contrast is a comparison
between film densities for different areas of the radiograph.

Contrast is a combination of subject contrast and film contrast.

Those factors in the film that affect contrast are referred to as

film contrast.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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Subject contrast
Those factors in the specimen that affect contrast are referred to
as subject contrast.

A radiograph of a specimen of uniform thickness and density has

no subject contrast.

By definition, subject contrast is the ratio of X- and gamma ray

intensities transmitted by two selected portions of the specimen.

Utilising rays produced by the lowest kilo-voltage (soft radiation)

that will penetrate the specimen achieve the best possible subject
contrast. (i.e. low kV X-rays will give better subject contrast than
using high kV X-ray or gamma rays for the same specimen).

Use the lowest energy radiation for the penetration of specific half
value layer of a material type - (Half value layers is a thickness of
material that will reduce radiation to one half the original
intensity.)

By increasing or decreasing the penetrating power obviously

affects subject contrast, but there are limits to how far the kilo-
voltage can be changed.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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Figure A Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt

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As shown in figure A, a very low kV results in zero penetration of

the thickest section and a high density in the thinnest.

This result in a very high contrast, but may be impractical since

discontinuities that might lie in thickest section could not appear
on the film.

Figure B
As shown in figure B, a kV is selected that is so high that it
penetrates all sections almost equally and results in equal
density with no subject contrast.

A skilled radiographer is expected to select a kilo-voltage that

will adequately penetrate the specimen and still give the
necessary subject contrast.

Film contrast
Film contrast is defined as the inherent ability of a film to show a
density difference for a given change in film exposure.

For example fine grain (slow) film has better film contrast as a
large grain (fast) film.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
All film manufacturers produce several different types of film and Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
some types have the ability to show more film contrast than
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others. Formatted: Font: Verdana

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As shown above, both film types received the same amount of

radiation in a single exposure. However, film A has the ability to
show better film contrast.

Film contrast values of any particular film are usually expressed

as a relationship between film exposure and resulting density.

Total radiographic contrast is defined as the combination of subject

contrast and film contrast and depends upon:
 Radiation applied Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.75"
 Film type + Tab after: 2" + Indent at: 2", Tab stops:
1.25", List tab + Not at 1.75"
 Exposure
 Film processing
 Specimen
 Scattered radiation
 Type of screens used.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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Inherent unsharpness
Is caused by free electrons that are generated by the radiation ray
as it passes through the film. This scattering of free electrons
through the film causes the film to be exposed wherever the
electrons travel.
The scattering causes some degree of fuzzy edges on the image and
can not be avoided.

Scattering of electrons within film

Scattered radiation
Adversely affects both the contrast and the definition of the
radiograph. Scattered radiation is usually described with reference
to its origin.

Internal scatter originates within the specimen.

On the left is a radiograph that would be obtained if there were
no internal scatter.

On the right is shown a loss of definition caused by the internal

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
scatter. 0.55"
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Side scatter
Side scatter originates from wall, or any other objects nearby
that are in the path of the radiation ray.

Backscatter
Originates from any material. Wall, floor, tabletop or any other
objects that is located in back of the film.

Placing a lead letter B on the back of the cassette identifies

backscatter.

If the letter image appears on the film, this would indicate

scatter radiation.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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Radiographic shadows
The basic principles of shadow formation or geometric
unsharpness must be given primary consideration in order to
assure satisfactory sharpness and essential freedom from
distortion in the radiographic image.

A certain degree of distortion naturally exists in every

radiograph because some parts of the test object will always be
further from the film than other parts.

The greatest magnification is evident in the image of those parts

at the greatest distance from the radiographic film.

Distortion can not be eliminated entirely, but by the use of

appropriate source-film distance it can be lessened to a point
where it will not be objectionable.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Geometric unsharpness occurs if the basic principles of shadow Formatted Table
formation are not followed. Formatted: Font: Verdana
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Five factors govern the geometric unsharpness of a radiograph

 Source size (Dimensions). Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.75"
 Source-to-object distance. + Tab after: 2" + Indent at: 2", Tab stops:
1.25", List tab + Not at 1.75"
 Object-to-film distance.
 Distortion of image.
 Perpendicularly of the ray.

Where:
1 = Focal or Source size (F)
2 = Geometric unsharpness (μg)
3 = Source to film distance (SFD)
4 = Defect to film distance (DFD)
5 = Source to object distance
6 = Object thickness (t)

Formula to calculate geometric unsharpness (:

μg = F.t Where: μg = geometric unsharpness
d F = focal spot or source size
t = specimen thickness (penetrated
thickness)
d = source to object distance Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 1.5" + Tab after: 2" + Indent
1 Source size must be as small as possible. When the source at: 2", Tab stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at
1.75"
is not a point but a small area, the image cast is not very
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
sharp.
Formatted Table
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Penumbra cannot be completely eliminated because a point Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
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source cannot be obtained in radiographic equipment.

Considering the case where the defect is narrower than the

focus width.

In this situation the un-sharp images of each of the two of

the defect overlap and an image results which is not only
un-sharp, but suffers a reduction in contrast, compared
with the contrast of an image of the same defect made
with a point source.

2 Penumbra can be reduced when the source/focus-to-film Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
distance (SFD/FFD) is increased. Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 1.5" + Tab after: 2" + Indent
at: 2", Tab stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at
1.75"
To obtain a radiograph that is as sharp as possible, so as to
show maximum detail, the total unsharpness should be
kept to a minimum. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Several codes of good practice give graphs from which the Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
minimum SFD/FFD can be determined.
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Example:
ASME:
Material Thickness Maximum Ug
Under 2” (50.8mm) 0.02” (90.51mm)
2” to 3” (50.8 to 76.2mm) 0.03” (0.76mm)
3” to 4” (76.2 to 101.6mm) 0.04” (1.02mm)
Greater than 4” (>101.6mm) 0.07” (1.78mm)

Formula: SFD/FFD = (Ft / d) + t Formatted: English (U.S.)

3 Another very important technique to reduce penumbra is to Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
keep the film as close to the object as possible. Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 1.5" + Tab after: 2" + Indent
at: 2", Tab stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at
1.75"
4 Whenever possible, the rays from the source should be Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
directed perpendicularly to the film to prevent a distorted Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 1.5" + Tab after: 2" + Indent
image. at: 2", Tab stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at
1.75"

On a radiograph a three dimensional specimen is presented

on a two-dimensional plane (the film)0 and the appearance
of both the specimen and the any defects depend on the
orientation of the beam of radiation.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
For example, as shown below, the image of a gas
Formatted Table
wormhole may be circular or elongated according to the Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
beam angle.
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In general, the beam of radiation should be at right angles to the

film, and specimens should whenever possible be laid flat on the film
cassette.

Special angle shots are however sometimes useful.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
For example, to detect lack of side-wall fusion in a single “V” weld Formatted Table

preparation. These types of defects are often not recorded on the Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
radiograph. To detect such defects, several different exposures at
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several different angles may be necessary for complete coverage.

With set-up A it is unlikely to detect the LOF but with set-up B it is

very likely.

It is often difficult to obtain an image of a discontinuity that has a

thickness of less than 2% of the overall thickness of the specimen.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Determination of depth of a defect Formatted Table
The technique used to determine the depth of a defect is called Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
“parallax” or double exposure technique.
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Lead markers M1 and M2 are fastened to the front and back,

respectively, of the object.

Two exposures are made, the tube being moved a known distance
„a”. the position of the images of the markers M2 will change very
little, perhaps scarcely, as a result of this tube shift, while the shadow
of the defect and marker M1 will change position by a larger amount.

If the defect is sufficiently prominent, both exposures can be made

on the same film. One exposure “fogs‟ the other, thus interfering
somewhat with the visibility of detail.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

The distance of the defect above the film plane is given by: 0.55"
Formatted Table
d = (b x t) / (a +b)
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a= tube shift
b= change in position of defect image
t= FFD/SFD

Object shape
Object shape is another geometrical factor that affects the definition
on a radiograph.

The image of an inclusion could be almost invisible because of a

gradual change in photographic density.

Object A below will have the best definition because of the abrupt
thickness change.

Object A Object B

Film graininess Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Film graininess also affects the definition of the radiograph. While Formatted Table

large grain films are often used to reduce exposure time, the small Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
grain films provide the best definition.
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Radiographic films are usually described as “ultra-fine grain”, “very-

fine grain”, “medium-grain”, or very slow, slow, medium-slow, fast
etc.

Latitude
Latitude is closely related to contrast but opposite sense. The
radiograph with the highest contrast has the least latitude and vice
versa.
Latitude is the range of thicknesses that can be adequately recorded
on the radiograph.

With low energy the At high energy, the

latitude is weak, only two contrast is not good but
steps on the radiograph you have good latitude
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
can be interpreted, but and therefore all the 0.55"

you have good contrast steps can be Formatted Table

Formatted: Font: Verdana
interpreted
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Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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NOTES

SENSITOMETRY Formatted Table

Sensitometry is the study of the action of exposure and

development on radiographic emulsion.

A number of conditions are called for to carry out a sensitometric

process:
 A source of constant exposure of known intensity and FFD Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 0.99"
or SFD + Tab after: 1.24" + Indent at: 1.24", Tab
stops: 1.25", Left + Not at 1.24"
 The emulsion is subjected to a series of exposures of
increasing order (by exposing through a standard step
wedge)
 The results obtained are now interpreted in a form of a
curve, called the characteristic curve or sensitometric
curve.

Density
When a radiographic film is placed on an illuminated screen for
inspection, it will be observed that the image is made up of areas of
different brightness, dependent on the local densities of the
developed emulsion.

Density (D) is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of

the incident light and the transmitted light through the film:

Density (D) = log10 Intensity of incident light

Intensity of transmitted light

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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NOTES

Contrast
The contrast of an image is the relative brightness between the
image and the adjacent background.

The ratio between any two intensities through a radiograph is known

as the contrast between the two levels.

The logarithms of these values are normally plotted on the X-axis of

the characteristic curve.

The contrast between any two exposures plotted on the curve can
therefore be obtained by merely subtracting the value of the one
from the value of the other.

Exposure
Exposure (E) is a measure of the quantity of energy received by the
film emulsion.

It is proportional to the intensity of radiation (I) as well as the time

(t) and is expressed by the relationship:

E = I x t (mA.min)

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CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
The characteristic curve shows the relation between the exposure
applied to a radiographic film and the resulting radiographic density.

Figure A

The curve is divided into different parts:

Blue-base – Basic fog Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:

0.59", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
This is the sum of base density + chemical fog. It is not due Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 0.75" + Tab after: 1" + Indent
to exposure, but due to the reducing action of the developing at: 1", Tab stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at
1.75"
solution on the unexposed silver halide crystals. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

This density can be ascribed to fogging as well as the density Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
of the base.
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Slope Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:

0.59", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
In this part of the curve, the first effects of exposure are Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 0.75" + Tab after: 1" + Indent
visible. at: 1", Tab stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at
1.75"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

The emulsion reacts at ever increasing rate to increases in

Logarithm of Relative Exposure (Log e).

In this part of the curve, two slightly different thicknesses in a

radiographed object will transmit slightly different exposures;
different densities to the film (see D1 and D2 in Fig. B).

Gradient Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:

0.59", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
The best results are obtained in this region of the curve. This Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 0.75" + Tab after: 1" + Indent
part is called the gradient of the slope (nearly a straight line) at: 1", Tab stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at
1.75"
in which increases in D are directly proportional to increases Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

in Log e.

The steeper the slope of the curve the greater the density
difference (see D3 and D4 in Fig. B).

In general, this part of the characteristic curve is a measure

of the film contrast. The steeper the slope, the higher the
contrast.

In practice the contrast properties of a radiographic film are

often expressed in terms of average gradient, which is a
straight line drawn between two selected densities (see line A Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
– C in Fig. A).
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In this area the greatest visibility of detail will be obtained.

The average gradient of the film corresponds the ratio A/B,

and if the ratio is >1, then the difference in density for the
difference in the Log e is great, which would be of great
benefit to make the smallest detail of the internal structure of
the radiographed object more visible.

Over-exposure area – shoulder area Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:

0.59", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
This part is not usually visible on the characteristic curves Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 0.75" + Tab after: 1" + Indent
obtained from manufacturers. This area represents at: 1", Tab stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at
1.75"
progressively smaller increases in density until maximum D is Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

reached. In radiographic films these densities are too high

(over 4) and are normally not used in practice.

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Fig. B
Example:
During interpretation of radiographic film it was found to have a
density 3.5.

We need a density of 2.0. Calculate the new exposure time of the

original film was 20mA.min

Log rel of 3.5 = 2.5

Log rel of 2.0 = 2.25
0.25
Antilog 0.25 = 1.78
New exposure time = 20mA.min/1.78 = 11.24mA.min

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FILM IMAGE QUALITY - SENSITIVITY

Sensitivity" is here the extent to which a radiograph is able to show
clearly details of a given relative size.

Sensitivity in this sense must not be confused with the sensitivity, or

speed of the emulsion and definitely not a way to determine the
smallest defect that can be detected.

The discernibility of a defect on the radiograph depends in general

on:
 the quality of the radiation, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
 the quality of the film, Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: 1.25", List tab
 the film viewing conditions.

Image contrast, image sharpness and film graininess govern

the quality of the image.

The contrast will be controlled by:

 the thickness differences of the specimen, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
 the density (opacity) differences of the specimen and Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: 1.25", List tab
defects,
 the shape and position of defects,
 the quality of the radiation,
 the amount of scattered radiation,
 the filtering.

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The sharpness of the image will be controlled by:

 the effective size of the focal spot or source size, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
 the focus-to-object (FFD) or source-to object (SFD) Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: 1.25", List tab
distance,
 the object-to film distance,
 the contact between the film and screens in cassette,
 the type of intensifying screens used,
 the radiation energy used.

The film quality is governed by its contrast at the density used, its
resolving power and graininess, the latter being decided by:
 the thickness of the emulsion layer, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
 the concentration of the silver grains in the emulsion Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at 2.75"
(silver/gelatin ratio),
 size distribution of the silver grains (film speed)
 the radiation energy employed.

Of these last factors only the next part is under the control of
the radiographer, the other are manufacturing properties.

The film viewing conditions are controlled by:

 the viewing screen light intensity (luminance), Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
 the ambient (viewing room) lighting, Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at 3.75"
 the diffusion and uniformity of the viewing screen,
 illumination,
 film masking,
 the acuity of vision of the film interpreter.

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IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS (IQI) - PENETRAMETERS

The penetrameter is a device whose image on a radiograph is
used to determine radiographic quality level (sensitivity).

It is not intended for use in judging the size or in establishing

acceptance limits of discontinuities.

To be able to assess the image quality of a radiograph, it needs

to be converted into a numerical value, and to do this we use
IQI's.

IQI's consist typically, of a series of thin wires of different

diameters or a series of small plates of various thicknesses
drilled with small holes of various diameters.

The IQI is placed in contact with the object being radiographed

on the side facing the radiation source (X-rays or Gamma rays).

The sensitivity of the radiograph is, for example, quoted as the

number of the thinnest wire that is visible for a distance of
10mm minimum, we then speak of the "image quality number"
or the BZ number of the IQI.

The sensitivity can also be expressed as a percentage. If, for

instance, the diameter of the thinnest wire visible is equal to 2%
of the test piece thickness, the wire discerniibility is said to be
2%.

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The IQI does not provide a guarantee of the detection of a

defect of equivalent size.

For example, it would untrue to claim that because a wire of 2%

of the specimen thickness can be seen on the radiograph, that a
crack extending only 2% through the thickness can also be
detected.

The IQI used must be made of the same material as the

specimen.

IQI‟s are available in Copper, Steel, titanium and Aluminium with

three wire lengths 10, 25 and 50mm.
There are three main IQI designs in use:
1. the wire type Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
2. the step/hole type Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75"

3. the plaque/hole type

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Wire type – EN – European

IQI – Range – Wire Type
W1 W6 W10 W13 Numb Diame
er ter
X 1 3.20
X 2 2.50
X 3 2.00
X 4 1.60
X 5 1.25
X X 6 1.00
X X 7 0.80
X 8 0.63
X 9 0.50
X X 10 0.40
X X 11 0.32
X X 12 0.25
X X 13 0.20
X X 14 0.16
X X 15 0.125
X X 16 0.100
X 17 0.080
X 18 0.063
X 19 0.050

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Step/hole type - AFNOR

The standard makes provision for an IQI designs in Copper, Steel
and Aluminium.

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Hole type – ASME/ASTM

Description:
a) Set of plates (wide selection of materials: Fe, Cu, AI, Ti, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
Mg, stainless steel, brass etc. ) Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75"

b) The identification number of the plate corresponds to its

thickness, expressed in thousandths of inch (1 inch = 25.4
mm).
c) each plate is drilled with 3 holes the diameters of which
(called 4T, 1 T and 2T) correspond to four times, once and
twice the plate thickness

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Choice of IQI:
a) measure the part thickness (in thousandths of inch: called Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
mils) Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75"

NOTE: 1 mm = 40 mils
b) calculate 2% of this thickness Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
c) choose the IQI corresponding to this value Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75"

Expression of the results:

The selected sensitivity is generally the 2 - 2T level.
The following levels may be encountered: X 1 T, X 2T, X 4T.
X: X% of the radiography thickness for a single wall
exposure.
1T: diameter of the detected hole equal to I.Q.I. thickness*
2T: diameter of the detected hole equal to twice the I.Q.I.
thickness*
4T: diameter of the detected hole equal to four times the
I.Q.I. thickness*
* if the IQI thickness is less than 0.01 inch, the hole
diameter is equal to the following values: IT= 0.01 in
2T = 0.02 in 4T = 0.03 inch

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Remarks:
X= 1 - in practice, impossible in the industrial field
X= 2 - general way
X> 2 - rarely used
The sensitivity S is given in percentage by the following
formula, according to ASTM SE 142 standard:

Where:
X = penetrated thickness
T = penetrameter thickness
H = size of detected hole

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Special radiographic Techniques Formatted Table

Fluorometallic Screen Systems

Salt intensifying screens are rarely used in industrial radiography because
of the large unsharpness and consequent poor defect sensitivity which the
screens cause, but a special intermediate system using fluorometallic
screens is available, which can permit much shorter than normal exposure
times and rapid processing is also possible.

Projective Magnification Techniques

With the advent of micro-focus X ray tubes having focal spots 10-20 micro-
metres in diameter a new special technique has been developed.
By placing the specimen close to the X ray tube and having the film spaced
away at a distance, greatly enlarged image is obtained, on which of course
the images of defects in the specimen ate also enlarged but are still sharp.
Because the X ray beam angle is limited, and the X ray source is
necessarily inside the X ray tube, the source to specimen distance cannot
be too small, so if a reasonable area of the specimen is to be examined at
one exposure, a very large source to film distance is essential. With low
output X ray sources this might therefore require long exposure times, and
so high speed film screen combinations have to be used: sometimes salt
screens and salt screen film are used, but because the image is magnified
in size, the effective unsharpness is still very small.
The chief limitations of projective magnification methods are the very small
area of specimen which can be examined at each exposure, and the high
cost of the large films needed. There is an increasing use of these
techniques with image intensifiers.

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Fluoroscopy, Image-Intensifiers, Television-Fluoroscopic Systems.

If the X rays transmitted through a specimen fall on to a fluorescent
screen, a visible image is produced, with the thinner parts of the specimen
brighter than the thicker sections (the opposite to an illuminated film
radiograph). The fluoroscopic image can be viewed directly either with a
mirror or through a layer of radiation absorbing glass, but generally it is
very dim and rather blurred: direct fluoroscopy is only suitable for very
thin
and non- metallic specimens.

A suitable closed-circuit television camera (CCTV) can be directed at the

fluorescent screen to produce a much brighter image at a location remote
from the site: because the fluorescent screen is so dim, a special low-light
camera is usually necessary, but with suitable cameras, good radiographic
results can be obtained.

X ray image intensifiers are available in which the fluorescent screen is at

one end of a vacuum tube; by a series of energy conversions, a much
brighter image is obtained on a secondary screen at the opposite end of
the intensifier tube. The brightness gain can be as much as X1000, and X
ray image-intensifiers are made in various sizes up to 40cm diameter.
Again, a CCTV camera can be used to transfer this second image on to a
remotely placed viewing monitor and to provide additional brightness
gains, as well as image modification, through the electronic circuitry.

Because the image on the image intensifier is much brighter than the
primary fluorescent screen, a simpler CCTV camera may be used.
Such systems have had limited applications in industrial radiography, as Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
generally the attainable defect sensitivity is much poorer than on film, and
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Recently, refinements to such systems, notably the use of digital output

cameras with image storage and digital processing, have produced a
marked improvement in performance of X ray television-fluoroscopic
systems.

Any image can be considered as a series of pixels (picture elements), and

the position and brightness of each pixel in the image on a raster of 512
pixels per line with a 512 line raster, can be easily stored in a computer
frame-store. Such a digitised stored
image can be “improved” by various numerical procedures in the
computer-integration, contrast enhancement, sharpness increase, noise
reduction. Edge enhancement, etc., and then represented on the viewing
monitor. This is called “real-time radiographic imaging” although in fact
some of the computer operations take a few seconds to perform. By these
techniques it is claimed that X ray television fluoroscopic images of quality
equivalent to film radiography can be obtained.

The method can be adapted to any energy of X rays and to conventional

and micro-focus
Tube methods. Being near “real time”, the image is available for inspection
immediately the X rays are switched on; a moving specimen can be
examined. The cost of film processing and film is eliminated, unless one
requires a permanent record, when digital recording or video recording is
possible.

The equipment is necessarily expensive. Apart from the initial X ray set, a
fluorescent screen, optical transfer system and low-light TV camera, (or an
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processing programme and display monitor are also necessary, although

some CCTV cameras now offer a direct digital output.

At present 512 x 512 pixels seems to be the standard format, which fits
with the standard 500/625 line television raster. On larger specimen
image, this is not particularly good image definition, but an optical zoom
can be used to enlarge small areas of the radiographic image to full screen
size.

At present both systems using an X ray intensifier with a vidicon camera

and those using a more sensitive camera coupled optically to a fluorescent
screen are in use.

The former have the advantage of using a simpler camera with potentially
better resolution; special X ray image intensifiers are made, with
conversion screens designed for industrial X ray energies; with systems
using an image intensifier the imaging area is however limited to the
primary screen size of the image intensifier.

The “open” type of system usually needs a more sensitive camera such as
an Isocon or a SITcon, but can have a primary conversion screen of any
size or type; this screen can be interchangeable. This “open” system is
particularly useful with projective magnification techniques using a micro-
focus X ray tube.

Special types of conversion screens mosaic screens, scintillator arrays,

CCD devices, are being developed, which will have a greater X ray
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points mentioned above, is frequently the poor image quality due to small
number of X ray quanta utilized, producing noisy images caused by
quantum fluctuations, due to the low x ray absorption of the primary
conversion screen.

This can be overcome to some extent by frame-storage and averaging in

the computer frame-store; for example, storage and averaging of five
frames, increases the number of utilised X ray quanta by a factor of five,
and causes a delay time of only a fraction of a second. Averaging over 32
frames seems to be a common and worthwhile technique.

Video-tape and disc storage, both analogue and digital, are possible; laser
disc storage is also being used, on hard disc, when large quantities of data
have to be stored.

Computer Assisted Tomography (CAT)

A new concept of imaging has been developed for medical diagnostic
radiography, from the use of computer processing of stored X ray
absorption data, and some of these techniques are being used in the
industrial field.

The specimen is scanned through a single plane by a narrow pencil of X

rays or gamma rays, which is then incident on to an array of detectors. In
the medical equipment, the X ray source, the collimator and the detectors
rotate round the patient, but in industrial designs it is sometimes more
convenient to move the specimen.

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absorption along one line through the specimen. Hounsfield, the inventor
of CAT, has shown that equations can be developed and solved by
computer to convert these readings into a computer generated X ray
image of an axial slice through the specimen.

There are two possible scanning procedures; the “rotate and traverse”
system seems the most practical for industrial applications.

Very large amounts of data have to be stored and processed. Particularly

if a high resolution image is required and present equipments usually work
on a 320 x 320 pixel matrix, although larger computer capacity and array
processors allow a larger pixel raster to be used

The image produced is entirely different from a conventional radiograph,

being an image of a thin slice through the specimen, as if a slice had been
cut out and then laid on a cassette for radiography

Industrial potentialities of the method are as yet relatively unexplored. In

CAT, absorption values are determined to a very high accuracy, which
means that the contrast of the displayed image can be varied over an
enormous range; density measurements to accuracy of 0.02% are claimed.

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1 PURPOSE

This part of the course notes has been developed as a training Formatted: Right: 0"

manual for trainees as preparation to obtain approval as an

industrial radiographer from Directorate, Radiation Control.

The purpose of this document is to provide the trainee with a

theoretical knowledge and the basic general training necessary for
the correct understanding and performance of NDT inspections using
Industrial Radiography methods.

This training manual explains the requirements of the different

aspects that should be covered to ensure an understanding of
radiation in order to:

 limit the risk of radiation overexposure of radiation Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

workers and members of the public and,

 to keep radiation doses as low as reasonably achievable

(ALARA).

The South Africa Health Department - Directorate, Radiation Control,

through its rules and regulations, and your company, through its
operating and safety procedures, help to use radiation safely. But
the ultimate responsibility lies with you, the industrial radiographer.

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The objectives of the principles are:

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
 to prevent the occurrence of deterministic effects in radiation
workers by keeping the radiation doses below the relevant
threshold;

 to ensure that reasonable steps are taken to reduce the

occurrence of stochastic effects in all radiation workers
occupationally exposed to radiation;

 to ensure that the health status of a radiation worker does not

pose a safety risk, and through a medical examination, ensure
that exposure to radiation will not adversely affect the health
of that individual; and

 to protect other employees, society and the environment from

the harmful effects of radiation, by establishing and
maintaining effective defence mechanisms, including medical
surveillance and control programmes.

1.1 The Purpose of the Radiation Protection Course. Formatted: Font: 11 pt

The objective of this Radiation Protection Course is to provide

trainees with the necessary knowledge to work safely and in a
responsible manner within the clearly defined radiation safety
limits.
Trainees should be able to use sound radiological practices to
minimise radiation dose and should also understand the risks
associated with working in radiation fields.

Formatted: Font: 11 pt
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1.2 Requirements for a Radiation Worker.

Any worker who is potentially exposed through his/her

occupation to more than 1 mSv per year, shall be classified a
radiation worker. Further, the Directorate, radiation Control or
a medical practitioner may request radiation worker status for
an individual.

Radiation workers shall have a dose/health register and the

register shall contain all the requirements prescribed by the
Directorate Radiation Control.

1.3 Requirements for Registration as Industrial

Radiographers.
 Be 18 years old or older. No person will be trained or Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

registered as a radiation worker unless he/she has

provided proof of his/her age;
 He/she must have successfully completed this Radiation
Protection Course;
 He/she must have been medically examined and declared
fit for registration as a radiation worker by an Appointed
Medical Practitioner, and a suitable entry has been made in
the Health Register.
 In the case of female employees, the Radiation Protection
Officer (RPO) or Assistant Radiation Protection Officer
(ARPO) must be informed when pregnancy is
suspected/known, and the employee shall be informed by
Formatted: Font: 11 pt
the RPO/ARPO of the requirements prescribed by the Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.63"
Directorate; Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
 Be made aware of the requirements for radiation control at Formatted Table
the installation by the RPO/ARPO on an annual basis;.; Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
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 Be in possession of a TLD from SABS while in an RCA. Formatted: Right: 0"

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
(Radiation Controlled Area);
 Be in possession of a digital audible-alarm dosimeter with
a history function. The alarm dosimeter must be set to
give an alarm signal at a dose rate of 5 mSv/h (500 mR/h)
and must be able to give a clear audible response at dose
rates in excess of 500 mSv/h without saturation.. Daily
doses must be accurately recorded, and such records kept
for a period of at least 5 years
 Have their dosimeters replaced and read by the SABS at Formatted: Right: -0.03"

intervals not exceeding 32 days or when exposure greater

than 4 mSv is suspected; and
 In the case of lost/damaged dosimetry, have his/her Formatted: Right: -0.01"

exposure estimated by the RPO/ARPO for inclusion in

his/her dose record. The Dept. of Health shall be informed
of and concur with such cases.
RPO = Radiation Protection Officer
ARPO = Assistant Radiation Protection Officer

1.4 Female Radiation Workers.

Women of reproductive capacity shall only be occupationally
exposed to radiation under conditions where the equivalent
dose to the abdomen is limited to 5 mSv in any consecutive
three month period. Following diagnosis of pregnancy, the
equivalent dose to the conceptus is limited to 2 mSv for the
remainder of the pregnancy. A woman who is pregnant or
breastfeeding may not go into any contaminated areas.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

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Formatted: Font: 11 pt

1.5 Purpose of the Radiation Protection Personnel.

The Radiation Protection personnel are responsible for the
assessment and control of radiological hazards on behalf of a
company.
The main objectives of the RP Programme are:
 The protection of radiation workers performing their Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

duties.
 The protection of other personnel and the general
public in the area surrounding the work area.
 The protection of the environment.
 To ensure compliance to the RP requirements as set
by Directorate, Radiation Control.

Formatted: Font: 11 pt
2.4 Legal Definitions for Sealed Radioactive Sources.

Radioactive Sources that meet the following

requirements are classified as Sealed Sources:

 it must have a specific activity of 100 Becquerel Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

(Bq) per gram of substance, and

 a total activity of more than 4000 Becquerel (Bq).

To define a legal source, activity and mass become

related according to the equation:

Activity Bq
Specific Activity = 
Mass gram Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
NOTE: Fire detector sources are exempt from Formatted: Font: Verdana
this, provided their activity is less than Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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92,5 kBq

Types of Radiation. Formatted: Font: 11 pt

Unstable nuclei emit radiation of three main types.

These are called ALPHA, BETA and GAMMA radiation.
An additional type of radiation, NEUTRON, is mainly
produced by reactions between nuclides.

The properties of these radiations are reflected in their

ability to penetrate matter. By interacting with any
material, they give up some, or all of their energy to the
absorbing medium.

For the purpose of this course, however, an

understanding of their power of penetration will be
sufficient.

The four types of radiation with their relevant properties

are summarised below. The ranges mentioned in the
table vary with the energy of the radiation.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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Table 2
TYPES OF RADIATION

Typical Typical
Radioactive Radiation Nature Charge
range in range in
Source
AIR TISSUE

Radium-226 ALPHA PARTICLE +2 3 cm 0,04 mm

Americium-241 

Cesium-137 BETA PARTICLE –1 3m 5 mm



Cobalt-60 &
GAMMA Electro- 0 VERY THROUGH
Iridium-192 &
 magnetic WAVE LARGE BODY
Selenium 75

X-Ray machine X - rays Electro- 0 LARGE THROUGH

X magnetic WAVE BODY

Americium-241/ NEUTRON PARTICLE 0 VERY 15 cm

Beryllium-9 n LARGE THROUGH
BODY

Alpha Radiation ()

Alpha radiation is positively charged particles, which consist of Formatted: Right: 0"

2 neutrons and 2 protons. Alpha radiation does not have a

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
great penetration capability, can be stopped by the dead layer
Formatted Table
of skin due to its short range in matter, or a few centimeters of
Formatted: Font: Verdana
air can stop it. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Beta Radiation ()

Beta radiation is negatively charged particles in the form of

high-speed electrons, which originate in the nucleus of the
atom. It is much more penetrating than alpha radiation and
can, depending on the energy, pass through 1 – 2 cm of water
or 5 mm of human flesh and several meters of air.

The range in air is about 3 metres. Light metals, such as

aluminium, are normally used to shield against beta radiation.

Gamma Radiation () and X-radiation

Gamma and X-radiation are electromagnetic waves by nature,

that is similar to radio or light waves, but of a much shorter
wavelength. Like other forms of electromagnetic radiation,
gamma and X-rays travel in a straight line with the speed of
light.

Gamma radiation is emitted by the nucleus of radioactive

substances while X-rays are produced from the electron cloud,
normally by machines. It can be very penetrating and is
capable of passing through the human body.

Dense materials such as concrete or lead are often used to

provide shielding against gamma radiation.
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 11 pt
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
In some cases, although we include a shield wall in a facility,
Formatted Table
the dose rate in the area outside the shield is higher than Formatted: Font: Verdana
expected. Sometimes, this is due to Scatter Radiation. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Figure 2
SCATTER RADIATION

A special case of radiation scattering occurs when a very

intense source of radiation is shielded on the sides, but has
the top open. Radiation can be scattered from the air
above the opening to a person on the ground at a
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
reasonable distance from the source. Such scattering is 0.55"

commonly called Skyshine. Formatted Table

Formatted: Font: Verdana
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Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Figure 3
SKYSHINE

Neutron radiation
One of the ways in which neutrons are produced is by the fission
of Uranium in the nuclear reactor. The neutrons can be very
penetrating and can cause provide shielding.

2.6 Radioactive Decay. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
It is impossible to predict when any particular atom will decay.
Formatted Table
The decay rate, or activity of the substance, is proportional to Formatted: Font: Verdana

the number of unstable atoms. When an atom decays, it gives Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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off radiation.

Formatted: Right: -0.03"

The reduction of activity with time is measured as the HALF
LIFE of a radioactive substance. That is the TIME required for
HALF of the radioactive atoms to decay. Thus, after one half-
life the activity decays to one half of the original activity. After
two half-lives, to one quarter of the original activity.

Table 3
TYPICAL HALF-LIVES

Chemical Isotope Half Life Application

Symbol

90Sr Strontium-90 29,1 years Fission product

60Co Cobalt-60 5,3 years NDT inspection

235U Uranium-235 7 x 108 years Enrich Nuclear fuel

192Ir Iridium-192 73,83 days NDT inspection

75Se Selenium-75 120 days NDT inspection

137Cs Cesium-137 31,7 years Measuring Gauges

Ionisation. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
When any of these types of radiation come into contact with an Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
atom (e.g., in the human body), it will cause an electron to
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
leave the atom. In this way, ions are formed. This process is Formatted: Font: Verdana

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called ionisation.
Ionisation is the cause of the damaging effect of radiation on
the cells of the human body.

Alpha radiation produces more ions than Beta and Gamma

radiation of similar energy. Non ionising radiation such as
microwaves and radio waves are not addressed in this training
module.

Alpha, beta, gamma, neutron and X radiation cause ionisation of

atoms, as follows:

Figure 5
IONISATION OF A HELIUM ATOM BY AN ALPHA PARTICLE

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
Compton Scattering (-energy > 0,5 MeV or > 3,01 E-13 J). 0.55"
Formatted Table
Mid-energy range photons (gamma and X-rays) cause ionisation Formatted: Font: Verdana

predominantly by means of Compton scattering. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt

Formatted: Font: Verdana

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As Figure 6 indicates, in Compton scattering, a medium energy

gamma ray interacts with an orbiting outer electron, imparting
some of its energy to the electron.

When this occurs, the electron that absorbs the energy, leaves
the atom to form an ion pair, and, because it has significant
kinetic energy, produces ionisation the same as a beta particle
does.

These secondary electrons are sometimes called delta rays.

In addition, because the energy of the original gamma photon

was not all absorbed, the partially de-energised photon
continues to cause other interactions.

Therefore, the eventual result of a Compton scattering reaction

is that a mid-energy range photon results in the production of
an ion pair, and the photon continues at a reduced energy.

Figure 6
COMPTON SCATTERING

The Electronvolt (eV).

Radiation energy is expressed in electronvolt (eV) or Joule. One Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
electronvolt is the energy gained by an electron in passing Formatted Table

through an electrical potential of one volt and 1 Joule is 6,242 x Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
1018 eV.
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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For example: in the cathode ray tube of a television receiver,

electrons are accelerated from the electron gun to the screen through
an electrical potential of about 10 000 volts. The electrons therefore
have an energy of 10 000 eV when they strike the screen.

The electronvolt is a very small unit so radiation energies are usually

expressed in kilo (1 000) or mega (1 000 000) electronvolt:

One kilo-electronvolt = 1 keV = 1000 eV Formatted: Font: 10 pt

One mega-electronvolt = 1 MeV = 1000 keV = 1 000 000

eV

The Penetrating Power of Radiation in Matter Formatted: Centered, Indent: Left: 0", First
line: 0"

Figure 7
PENETRATING POWER OF RADIATION IN MATTER

ALPHA

BETA

GAMMA

NEUTRON

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Materials Paper Aluminium Lead Concrete Formatted: Font: Verdana

Human body Stop at Through Into the Through Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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the skin the skin body the body

Gamma radiation is the most difficult to shield against and,

therefore, presents the biggest problem. The penetrating power
of the gamma is due, in part, to the fact that it has no charge or
mass.

Therefore, it does not interact as frequently as do the other

types of radiation. For this reason, more gamma interactions
would occur in a dense material that has many electrons.

One such material is lead. Lead is very dense and has around
210 electrons for each nucleus. Thus, a gamma ray would
interact more times in passing through 10 cm of lead, than in
passing through the same thickness of a light material, such as
water.

Absorption Coefficient Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

The general law governing the absorption of radiation as it

passes through matter is that the fraction of the radiation as it
passes through a thin layer of matter is proportional to the
thickness of the layer and to an absorption coefficient, i.e.

And if this is applied to homogeneous radiation and to an

absorber of finite thickness x, it can be integrated to become:

I = Ioe-μt

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

Where: 0.55"

I= Transmitted intensity Formatted Table

Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Ilo = Incident intensity
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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μ= Absorption coefficient- ln2/d

Formatted: Right: -0.03"
d= half value layer for specific isotope through specific
material

tx = Thickness

2.12 Contamination

 Definition. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.64", Tab stops:

0.89", Left + Not at 1.25"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Contamination is simply radioactive material where we do not
want it.

If the material can be wiped off, it is called loose, smearable

contamination.

If it cannot be wiped off, it is called fixed contamination.

Formatted: Indent: Hanging: 0.59", Tab
2.13 The Hazards created by Loose Contamination are: stops: 0.91", List tab + Not at 1.25"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
 It can settle on skin or be absorbed into the body.
0.55"
Formatted Table
 Depending on the amount deposited on the surrounding area, it
Formatted: Font: Verdana
can pose a radiation hazard. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Surface deposits can be agitated, become airborne and inhaled.

Formatted: Right: -0.01", Tab stops: 5.83",
2.14 Protection against Contamination. Left

The protection against contamination is achieved by: Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.66", Right:
-0.01", Tab stops: 5.83", Left

 Containment of radioactive material. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 Wearing of special clothing.

 Monitoring of equipment and personnel with instruments

designed to detect contamination.

Characteristics of isotopes used in Gamma Radiography

Isotope Co-60 Ir-192 Se-75 Cs-137

Typical half value

20 13 8 17.27
layer in steel (mm)

Typical half value

11 5.5 1.5 6.35
layer in lead (mm)

R/(h*Ci) at 1m 1.32 0.55 .203 .32

mSv/(h*GBq at 1m 0.365 0.1486 0.0548 0.0865

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

Half-Life 5.3 yrs 74.5 days 120 days 31.7 yrs 0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
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RADIATION UNITS AND RADIATION

WORKER REQUIREMENTS.
Absorbed Dose. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.01", Right:
-0.03"

To be exposed to radiation, is to absorb the energy given off by

radioactive material.

The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). 1 gray = 1 J/kg.

The non SI unit of absorbed dose is the rad. (1 gray = 100 rad.)

The amount of dose you receive is dependent on:

 the amount of radiation, Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 the type of radiation,

 whether it is internal or external, and
 the length of time that you are exposed to the radiation Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.48", Hanging:
0.42", Right: -0.03", Bulleted + Level: 1 +
Aligned at: 0.25" + Tab after: 0.5" + Indent
at: 0.5", Tab stops: Not at 0.5"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.86"

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Intake/Uptake.

Uptake is the amount of radioactive material that has been

absorbed into the organs or deposited within the body, which
results in a dose to organs within the body.
Intake is defined as the process of taking radionuclides into the
body by inhalation, ingestion or through the skin, but the substance
is not necessarily absorbed by an organ.
Formatted: Indent: Hanging: 0.85"
Equivalent Dose.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Equivalent dose is the effect of the absorbed dose to an individual Formatted Table
organ or tissue of a person. The different types of radiation cause Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
different degrees of damage to the body.
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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The S.I. unit, which takes biological effects into account, is the
sievert, and the non S.I. unit is the rem. (1 Sv = 100 rem).

The Equivalent dose can be calculated by using the following

formula:

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0.04",

Equivalent Dose (sievert) = Absorbed dose (gray) x WR Right: 0.38"

Radiation Weighting Factor(s) (WR), reflect the ability of a

particular type of radiation to cause damage, and it depends on the
density of ionisation caused by the radiation. The WR for gamma and
beta radiation is 1; neutrons, depending on energy, 5 - 20 and
alpha, due to the intense ionisation produced 20.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0",
Effective Dose. Right: -0.03", Tab stops: 5.83", Left

The term Effective Dose is used to describe the contribution to the

whole body dose as a result of external and internal radiation
damage.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Sub Multiples of Units.

Since dose is expressed in terms of Sievert(Sv), milli Sieverts(mSv) Formatted: Right: -0.03"

or micro Sieverts(µSv), it is important to know how to convert from

one to the other.

1 Sv = 1000 mSv (100 rem) Formatted: German (Germany)

1 mSv = 1000 µSv (100 mrem).

Operational Units for Measuring Dose.

Formatted Table

Table 4 Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
UNITS FOR MEASURING DOSE Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Unit Description Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Ambient Dose Equivalent measured Refers to general area dose rates.

in mSv/h or Sv/h (mR/h).

Individual Dose Equivalent, Refers to external dose due to 

penetrating, measured in sievert radiation
(rem)

Individual Dose Equivalent, Refers to skin dose due to 

superficial, measured in sievert radiation.
(rem)

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Annual Dose Limits.

In accordance with the ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Formatted: Right: -0.03"

Protection) recommendations, the appropriate radiation dose limits for

adults, that are persons over the age of 18 years, are specified in Table
4below. Since some organs are more sensitive than others to the effects of
radiation, different limits are specified for various organs.

Formatted Table

Table 5 Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
ANNUAL DOSE LIMITS Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Non-Radiation Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Classified Radiation
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Workers Workers (Public)

Effective Dose:

Whole Body i.e., 20 mSv per year, averaged

Gonads, over 5 consecutive years, 1 mSv
Red Bone Marrow and not more than 50 mSv
in any one calender year.

Equivalent Dose:

Lens of Eye 150 mSv 15 mSv

Skin 500 mSv 50 mSv

Hands/feet 500 mSv

3.8 Dose Rate.

To control the radiation hazard, it is necessary to know the rate

at which the radiation is being received.

The relationship between dose, dose rate and time is:

Dose = Dose Rate x Time.

Example: How long would it take to accumulate a dose of

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
20 mSv in a 5 mSv/h dose rate area? 0.55"

Time = Dose/ Dose Rate Formatted Table

Formatted: Font: Verdana
20mSv
= Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
5mSv / h Formatted: Font: Verdana

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= 4 hours.
Table 5
ANNUAL DOSE LIMITS

Non-Radiation
Classified Radiation
Workers
Workers
(Public)

Effective Dose:

Formatted: Line spacing: single

Whole Body i.e., 20 mSv per year, averaged
Gonads, over 5 consecutive years, and 1 mSv
Red Bone Marrow not more than 50 mSv in any
one calender year.

Equivalent
Dose:

Lens of Eye 150 mSv 15 mSv

Skin 500 mSv 50 mSv

Hands/feet 500 mSv

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Dose Rate.

To control the radiation hazard, it is necessary to know the rate at which

the radiation is being received.

The relationship between dose, dose rate and time is:

Dose = Dose Rate x Time.

Example: How long would it take to accumulate a dose of 20 mSv in a 5

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
mSv/h dose rate area? 0.55"
Formatted Table
Time = Dose/ Dose Rate
Formatted: Font: Verdana
20mSv
= Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
5mSv / h Formatted: Font: Verdana

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= 4 hours.
Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.09"

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS FROM RADIATION

INTRODUCTION. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

The human senses cannot detect the presence of ionising radiation;

therefore, we have no natural way of knowing how much radiation
dose we have received.

The human body is made up of hundreds of millions of tiny cells that

perform the many functions, which keep us alive. It is possible for Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
radiation to interact with the complex molecules that make up the cell,
Formatted Table
in such a way as to inhibit its function or to even kill it. Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Obviously if many cells in the body are affected in this way, the body
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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as a whole can be harmed. It can be inferred that the more radiation a

person is exposed to, the more ill effects he may suffer.

The interaction of ionising radiation with the human body, arising

either from external sources outside the body, or from internal
contamination of the body, leads to biological effects which may
eventually give rise to clinical symptoms.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Tissue/cell sensitivity.

The different cells are affected differently by radiation. This is called

their radiosensitivity.

In general, the radiation sensitivity of a tissue varies directly with the

rate of proliferation of its cells and inversely with the degree of
differentiation. The more often a cell divides, the more susceptible it is
to radiation damage.

Very sensitive: White blood cells

Immature red blood cells.
Skin cells.
Immature sperm cells.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
Moderately sensitive: Epithelium of the small intestine 0.55"
Formatted Table
Hair follicles
Formatted: Font: Verdana
The cells lining the inside of blood vessels Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Resistant: Mature sperm cells.

Muscle cells.
Nerve cells.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Effects on Cells.

When a cell is exposed to ionising radiation, four things may happen:

 nothing Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 cell damage
 cell death
 cell mutation

Additionally, the effects of radiation on the body vary with:

 area or organ of the body exposed to radiation Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 type of radiation exposure

 length of exposure.

 the rate at which the radiation dose was received.

Radiation damage to cells occur in four steps:

Step 1: The initial physical stage: Ionisation (Production of Formatted: Indent: First line: 0", Right:
-0.03"
free radicals)
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.28", Hanging:
1.1", Right: -0.03"
Within approximately 10-16 seconds, the radiation
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
displaces electrons from atoms in the cell, and a large 0.55"
Formatted Table
number of positive ions and free electrons are formed.
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Step 2: The physicochemical stage: Free radical and
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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peroxides are formed (Breakage of chemical bonds)

Within approximately 10-12 seconds, the positive ions and

free electrons react with neutral molecules, forming two
kinds of extremely dangerous products - free radicals and
peroxides.
These materials are extremely reactive, i.e. they attack
any molecule in their vicinity. (Free radicals are atoms or
molecules with one or more unpaired electrons.)
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.26", Hanging:
Step 3: The chemical stage: The free radicals and 1.12", Right: -0.03"

peroxides attack molecules in the cell (Production

of new chemical bonds and cross-linkage between
macromolecules).

Within about 10-6 seconds, the free radicals and peroxides Formatted: Indent: Left: 1.36", Right: -0.03"

attack, amongst others, the vitally important complex

molecules in the cell. The molecule attacked by a free
radical can become a free radical in itself; in this way, a
chain reaction is set in motion.

Essential molecules are thus destroyed and freak Formatted: Indent: Left: 1.38", Right: 0"

molecules are produced. These are function-less or even

poisonous, and are foreign to the functioning cell. In this
way, the essential life-functions of the cell may be
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 1.09"
suppressed and genetic material may be damaged. Formatted: Indent: Left: 1.38", Right: -0.03"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
Step 4: The biological stage (Damage to molecules, which 0.55"
Formatted Table
regulate vital processes e.g. DNA).
Formatted: Font: Verdana

Within a timescale that varies from minutes to several Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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years, the chemical damage to the molecules affects the

body in one of two ways:

1. It may cause the early death of the cell by Formatted: Indent: Left: 1.39", Hanging:
0.4", Right: -0.03", Numbered + Level: 1 +
destroying the cell‟s ability to function. Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0" + Tab after:
0.5" + Indent at: 0.5", Tab stops: Not at 0.5"
2. The genetic material in the cell is damaged,
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
undergoes changes, and when the cell divides, this
change may be transmitted to the cells formed from
the parent cell.
Formatted: Indent: Hanging: 0.88"
Stochastic and Deterministic Effects.

The above mentioned two types of changes have quite different Formatted: Right: 0", Tab stops: 5.83", Left

results.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.33", Hanging:

1. The death, or prevention of cell division, results in the depletion 0.52", Right: -0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
of the cell population within the organs of the body. Radiation Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.82" + Tab
after: 1.32" + Indent at: 1.32", Tab stops:
may destroy more cells than would die naturally, thereby 0.83", List tab

harming the functioning of the body. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.02", Right:

Below a certain threshold dose, the fraction of cells that are -0.01"

damaged, is not sufficiently high to affect the function of the

organ, so, that there will be no observable effect on the organ
and the body as a whole.
Formatted: Right: -0.01"
Above the threshold, effects will start to be observed and the
severity of the effects will increase rapidly as the dose Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.08", Hanging:
0.95", Right: 0", Numbered + Level: 1 +
increases. Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.82" + Tab
after: 1.32" + Indent at: 1.32", Tab stops:
This type of effect is called deterministic. 0.88", List tab + Not at 1.32"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
2. In the second case, modification of even a single cell may Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
result, after a latency period, in a cancer in the exposed Formatted Table
individual, if the modification is in a reproductive cell which is Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
actively involved in procreation; the damage may be
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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transmitted to later generations and give rise to hereditary

effects.

In these cases, it is the likelihood of the effect occurring that

depends on the dose. This type of effect is referred to as
stochastic, meaning “of a random or statistical nature.” (The
Greek word “stochos” means “to guess” or “to aim”)

Table 6
DOSE THRESHOLDS FOR DETERMINISTIC EFFECTS

Equivalent dose:
Equivalent dose:
Tissue and effect Protracted, lifetime
Single brief
exposure
exposure
(per year)
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Testes: Formatted Table

Temporary sterility 150 mSv 400 mSv Formatted: Font: Verdana

Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Permanent sterility 3500 mSv 2000 mSv

Ovaries: Sterility 2500 mSv 200 mSv

Lens of the eye:

Detectable opacities 500 mSv 100 mSv
Visual 2000 mSv 150 mSv
impairment(cataract)

Bone marrow:
Depression of 500 mSv 400 mSv
production of blood

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

The crucial differences between the deterministic and

stochastic effects of ionising radiation are Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
summarised in the following table.
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Table 7
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
DETERMINISTIC AND STOCHASTIC EFFECTS OF IONISING RADIATION.
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Formatted Table
Deterministic effects Stochastic effects

Caused by the death of cells. Caused by changes in cells that do not

die

There is a clear, unambiguous Effect:

causal relationship between 1. Risk that cancer may develop,
exposure and the observed after a period of latency
effect. 2. Risk of hereditary damage,
Effect: injury-radiation transferred to progeny.
disease & radiation wounds

Threshold effect: A certain No threshold dose for risk.

minimum dose must be
exceeded before the particular
effect is observed, no injury if
dose is below the threshold.

Above the threshold, the Seriousness of cancer is independent

seriousness of the injury is of the dose, but the probability/risk
proportional to the of cancer is proportional to the dose.
magnitude of the dose

Strongly dependent on the Practically independent of the dose

dose rate.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0.08"

Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.02", Right:

-0.01"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
DNA damage and repair. 0.55"
Damage to DNA is the most critical effect of low-level ionising Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
radiation. Chromosomal aberrations are a result of DNA damage. DNA
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
is a principal target in the irradiated cell. The acute effects of ionising
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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radiation are caused by the death of cells. They die when they attempt
to divide, but can no longer multiply successfully as a result of damage
to their DNA.

In order to deal with the initial DNA damage that gives rise to these Formatted: Indent: Hanging: 0.02", Right:
-0.01"
changes, cells have evolved complex, enzyme-mediated repair
systems. Lesions induced in DNA by ionising radiation, ultraviolet light
and chemical agents are identified and removed.

 DNA can be repaired error-free. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.26", Hanging:

0.03", Right: -0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
Numbering Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 +
 Repair can be error-prone, resulting in small base sequence changes Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.47" + Indent
at: 0.67"
(point mutations) at the site of the initial lesions; or more gross
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
changes such as gene deletions or rearrangements. These misrepair
events, if they occur in important regions of DNA, may have long term
consequences for the cell and can result in cell death or stable genetic
changes in surviving cells.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Cell killing.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.28", Right: -0.01"
The killing of cells, resulting from irreparable damage to vital cell
structures, such as the chromosomes, often becomes manifest in
rapidly dividing cell populations, a few hours or days after exposure.
The degree of killing of cells, increases with the radiation dose. If
enough cells are killed in an organ or tissue, the function of the organ
or tissue is impaired. In extreme cases the organism itself may die.
These effects are deterministic.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Cell modification.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.26", First line: 0",
Right: -0.01"
This is the result of specific molecular DNA changes, and takes place in Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
much longer overall times. Various agents, including radiation can
Formatted Table
induce such changes. One result of this change is the potential Formatted: Font: Verdana
capability of the transformed cells for unlimited cellular proliferation. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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This change alone does not consistute “malignant”, i.e. cancerous

transformation. The initiated cell(s) must undergo further changes,
usually after a long time, and possibly after stimulation by a promoting
substance, before becoming a cell with malignant potential
Tissue response to cell modification.
Most cell transformations do not progress to a cancer. This is thought
to be due to a combination of circumstances:

 Virtually no unrepaired cells remain viable after more than a few Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.18", Hanging:
0.38", Right: -0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
divisions. Numbering Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.47" + Indent
at: 0.67"
 Cells capable of several divisions are frequently “programmed” to
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
differentiate into non-dividing functional cells.

 The required sequence of promotion and progression events in the

cell‟s environment does not occur.

 Host defence mechanisms (e.g. competent immune-surveillance,

natural killer cell activity) exist to prevent the cancerous cells from
multiplying successfully. In other words, the selective cloning of
cancerous cells are prevented.

Chronic Exposure.
Exposure received over a long period of time is called chronic
exposure. To be safe, we assume that there is a health risk associated
with chronic exposure and therefore limits the exposure to workers in
exposed to radiation.
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.18", Hanging:
0.38", Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: 1.5
lines, Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style:
The possible effects of a chronic radiation dose is: Bullet + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 0.51" + Indent at: 0.71"
 increased probability of cancer (fatal and non-fatal) Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
 possibility of genetic effects
Formatted Table
 shortening of the life span. Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Acute Exposure.
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Exposure received in a short period of time, usually less than 24 Formatted: Right: -0.01"

hours, is called acute exposure. Assuming no medical treatment, the

risk of health effects is as per Ttable 8.

Table 8
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ACUTE RADIATION DOSES
Formatted Table
Acute Dose Probable Biological Effects Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
less than 250 mSv No observable effects. No injury; no disability Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
250 mSv to 1 Sv Slight blood changes, no other observable effect
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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No permanent disability
Nausea, vomiting, fatigue, hair loss. Vomiting and
1 Sv to 2 Sv
nausea may occur within three hours of exposure.

Moderate blood changes are possible. Except for

the blood-forming system, recovery will occur in
essentially all cases within a few weeks.
No permanent disability

2 Sv to 3 Sv Same as above, plus: reddening of the skin

(erythema), haemorrhage, diarrhoea, loss of
appetite, loss of weight, fever and lethargy,
epilation, sore throat.
Disability: Severe blood disorders and some deaths.

4 Sv 50% of persons exposed would die within 30 days.

6 Sv and over. Vomiting occurs within one hour. Other effects

include severe blood changes, haemorrhage,
infection, and hair loss. Probability of death is
100% (for 6Sv whole body dose) within 30 days.
Survivors convalesce over a long period of time.

It is important to note that the symptoms listed in the table refer to a

dose received over a relatively short period (i.e. within a matter of
hours). This is called an acute exposure.

Please note that the biological effect of a worker receiving 50 mSv per
year for 40 years, resulting in a total body dose of 2 Sv, is NOT the
effect as stated in this chart.

The above mentioned philosophy is the basis for the ALARA concept. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.36", Right: -0.01"
ALARA stands for “As Low As Reasonably Achievable”.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Somatic and Genetic Effects. Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Two classes of effects may occur due to exposure to radiation:
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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1. Somatic effects occur in the individual that received the Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.36", Hanging:
0.58", Right: -0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
radiation exposure. These are broken into two groups: Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 1" + Tab after:
1.5" + Indent at: 1.5"
 Prompt effects appear shortly after the exposure
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
(immediately, to a few months later).
 Delayed effects appear months or years after the dose.

2. Genetic effects appear in the future children of the individual

exposed to radiation. Studies have shown that the risk of
genetic effects is very small.

Effects on the Unborn Child.

Genetic effects may occur due to radiation exposure to the foetus

during the embryonic stage. Examples of these effects include death,
structural abnormalities, abnormal growth, and mental
retardation.

During week 8 to 15 of pregnancy, the nerve tissue of the unborn

baby is developing, and a large radiation dose to the baby during
these weeks can result in mental retardation.

Due to an unborn child‟s increased sensitivity to radiation (because

the embryo/foetus is rapidly developing); stricter limits are
established for pregnant employees. These limits will be discussed
later.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0",

Effects of Age. Right: -0.01"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
As we discussed earlier, radiation has a greater effect on cells that
Formatted Table
have a higher rate of reproduction. As a person ages, cell
Formatted: Font: Verdana
reproduction slows. Therefore, as an individual grows older, the Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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effects that ionising radiation has on the body become less.

Thus the minimum age to register as a Radiation Worker, is 18

years.

Dose History. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 11 pt

Formatted: Font: Verdana, 11 pt
Before a worker is allowed to become a radiation worker, he/she must Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

provide a dose record of all previous occupational doses of radiation to Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.36", First line: 0"

the relevant Authority (and the Dept. of Health). See radiation

workers responsibilities for more

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

NATURAL AND MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
Natural Radioactivity

Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon and has been in existence since

the creation of the universe. Everyone is exposed throughout life with
low-level ionising radiation from natural sources. There are 4
categories of natural radiation (also called background radiation) that
affect mankind:

 COSMIC RADIATION Formatted: Indent: Left: 1.13", Hanging:

0.38", Right: -0.03", Numbered + Level: 1 +
Numbering Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 +
 TERRESTRIAL RADIATION Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.51" + Indent
at: 0.76"

 THE BODY Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 RADON

Formatted: Font: 11 pt, Bold

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Cosmic Radiation
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Cosmic radiation reaches the earth from interstellar space and from
the sun. It is composed of a wide variety of penetrating radiation that
undergo many types of reactions with the elements they encounter in
the atmosphere.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.39", Right: -0.03"
The atmosphere acts as shield that reduces the intensity of cosmic
radiation that reaches the earth‟s surface considerably. This shielding
action results in lower levels of cosmic radiation at sea level than at
altitude - the higher above sea level we live, the less dense the
protective layer of air between us and outer space, and the higher the
radiation dose from cosmic radiation.

A person in Cape Town receives about 0,3 mSv/year from this source,
while someone living in Johannesburg (approximately 2 000 m above
sea level) receives about 0,6 mSv/year. Astronauts are exposed to
typical cosmic radiation dose rates of 1 mSv per week. Aircraft cabin
crewmembers receive annual doses as high as 5 mSv from cosmic
radiation.

On average, cosmic radiation contributes 9% of the total effective Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.38", Right: -0.03"

dose to the population.

Formatted: Font: 11 pt
Terrestrial Radiation
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.16", First line: 0",
Right: -0.03"
The earth itself contains naturally occurring so-called primordial
radionuclides, which are long-lived radionuclides that were formed
232
early in the history of the universe. Examples are Th (T1/2 = 1,4 x
1010 years) and 238
U (T1/2 = 4,5 x 109 years). These primordial
radionuclides undergo transitions at a very slow rate, and produce
several radioactive decay products (progeny) in their respective decay Formatted: Font: 11 pt
Formatted: Right: -0.01"
chains.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
The concentrations of these naturally occurring radionuclides vary Formatted: Font: Verdana

considerably, depending on the type of rock formation. In sandstone Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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and limestone regions the concentrations are much lower than in Formatted: Font: 11 pt

granite, which means that the dose rate depends on the geographical
location.

In South Africa terrestrial radiation is particularly high at the granite Formatted: Font: 11 pt

outcrop called Paarl Rock and on mine dumps in the Witwatersrand

area. Monazite sand regions in Brazil and India have a background
effective dose to the population in the order of 30 mSv per year, i.e.
50% higher than the dose limit of a radiation worker.

On average, terrestrial radiation contributes about 13% of the total

effective dose to population.
Formatted: Font: 11 pt, Bold
Radioactive Material inside the Human Body Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0.19",
Right: -0.01"

Internal Radiation originates within the human body. Our bodies Formatted: Font: 11 pt

incorporate naturally occurring radionuclides from 2 sources:

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
 primordial radionuclides and their decay products.

 Radionuclides produced by cosmic radiation.

In the human body of a typical adult, over 500 000 radioactive

disintegration take place each minute. Billions of cells are hit by
ionising radiation each hour.

On average, radiation from naturally occurring radioactive material in

the body contributes about 12% to the total effective dose to the
population.
Formatted: Indent: Hanging: 0.62"

Formatted: Font: 11 pt
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.44", Right: -0.01"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"

Radon. Formatted Table

Formatted: Font: Verdana
222
The radioactive noble gas radon, mainly Rn, (T1/2 = 3,8 days) and Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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220
Rn (T1/2 = 56s) and its decay products, make the largest
contribution to the natural background radiation dose to the general
222 226
population. Rn is the decay product of Rn which is itself a
member of the decay chain of the long-lived primordial radionuclide
238
U. Radon decay products decay by alpha and beta emission. Formatted: Font: 11 pt
Formatted: Font: 11 pt, English (South Africa)
The average indoor concentration in South African dwellings is about
Formatted: Font: 11 pt
37 Bq.m-3. In Randburg, the average concentration is about 111
Bq.m-3. The radon concentration exceeds 185.m-3 in about 1% of
South African houses. In one specific house in Paarl, the radon
concentration is 777 Bq.m-3. The annual dose to the residents of this
house is similar to the maximum permitted dose to a radiation worker Formatted: Font: 11 pt

(50 mSv/y).

Radon and its decay products contribute about 55% of the average Formatted: Justified, Right: -0.03", Line
spacing: 1.5 lines
effective dose to the population.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.23"
Summary.

The above 4 types of background radiation are responsible for an

average background dose of about 3,1 mSv per person per year.

In some regions of South America the background dose is as high as Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.44", First line: 0"

120 mSv per person per year, i.e. 40 times higher than the above
averages and 6 times higher than the permitted dose to a radworker

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Table 9
CONTRIBUTIONS DUE TO NATURAL
BACKGROUND RADIATION

Source Dose per year

Terrestrial Radiation 0,45 mSv

Cosmic Radiation 0,3 mSv

Internal Radiation:
14
C in the body produced by cosmic radiation 0,02 mSv
Other nuclides produced by cosmic radiation 0,01 mSv
40
K in the body. 0,18 mSv
U and Th decay chains nuclides 0,16 mSv

Rn and Rn decay progeny 2 mSv

TOTAL  3 mSv
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION.

There are many man made sources of radiation in the modern world,
apart from the Nuclear Reactor. These can affect our daily lives at some
stage or another.

The purpose of this section is to describe the sources and levels of dose
received by the population as a result of man‟s activities.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Medical Applications. Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Diagnostic Radiology.
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Radiation is used for diagnostic purposes, e.g. the diagnosis of bone
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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fractures and disease by X-ray examination. Radionuclides are also used

in nuclear medicine during diagnostic procedures. The radioisotopes are
used to trace the location and nature of specific chemicals or
abnormalities in the body.

A set of diagnostic X-rays can deliver quite a substantial radiation dose

to the patient. Tahe tabble 1belo0w summarises typical doses that
patients may receive when they undergo different X-ray procedures
(Variations by a factor of 2 are not unusual)

Table 10 Formatted: Font: Verdana

TYPICAL DOSE DELIVERED BY X-RAY EXAMINATIONS

Organ Average Dose

Lung 0,2 mSv
Dental 0,1 mSv
Spinal Column 1 mSv
Stomach 5 mSv
Colon 20 mSv

Therapeutic Radiology.
Radiation is used to treat diseases. Cancer is treated by radiotherapy,
while radioiodine is used to treat hyper-thyroidism. Doses as high as 80
mSv are delivered to a tumour to kill the malignant cells.

Although very large doses may be used in certain treatments, only a

small number of people are involved, so that therapeutic radiology
contributes an average of only 0,03 mSv to the population dose.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
Industrial Applications of Artificial Radionuclides. 0.55"
Formatted Table
Radiometric methods of analysis are widely applied in industry. The Formatted: Font: Verdana

following are only some examples of industrial applications. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Radioactivation analysis involves the irradiation (normally with

neutron radiation) of a non-radioactive sample to produce radioactive
nuclides by activation, followed by measurement of their radiation, from
which the composition of the original sample can be inferred.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

Some typical applications include the following:

 Determination of metals in alloys Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.28", Hanging:

0.28", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left +
 Determination of the ash content of coal Aligned at: 0.91" + Indent at: 1.1"

 Concentration of metals in blood plasma, etc. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: Font: 11 pt
Metallurgy - the wearing of piston rings in internal combustion
engines, e.g., is measured by activating the ring through irradiation,
and then testing the lubricating oil for the radioactive material abraded
from the piston ring.

Industrial Radiography is the process of using radiation to penetrate

manufactured products such as casting and welded pipelines, to
determine whether flaws exist.

Radiation is produced either by X-ray machines or by radioactive

materials contained in small sealed capsules. The radiation penetrates
the object being studied and exposes X ray film or other detection
systems placed behind the object.

Early industrial radiography, using X-rays and radium, started in the

early 1900s, and grew in use tremendously, especially since the 1940s
with the use of manufactured sources such as Co-60 and Ir-192.

Tracer techniques involve the addition of radioactive compounds to a

system. The tagged compound can then be followed through an
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
industrial or biological process. 0.55"
Formatted Table
60
Sterilisation, radioisotopes, such as Co, is used for the sterilisation Formatted: Font: Verdana
of medical instruments and the preservation of food by irradiation. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Geology, the ages of geological formations and fossils may be

estimated using radionuclide techniques.

Process instrumentation, radioisotopes are used in process

instrumentation, where they are widely employed to measure:
process variables, e.g. the levels of fluids and solids in tanks, silos and
other vessels, the density of fluids and solids, the thickness of sheets
and coatings, the moisture content of soils and other solids, the mass
flow of materials in pipelines and on conveyor belts, and the
determination of the chemical composition of raw materials,
intermediate processes and end products.
Generation of Nuclear Energy. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Nuclear Power Stations, such as Koeberg, produce radioactive waste as

a by-product.
Small amounts of liquid and gaseous radioactive waste are continuously
dispersed to the environment and contribute to the population dose. At
present the contribution to the total exposure of the population from
waste disposal and radioactive releases is very low - less than 2 Sv per
year.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Right: -0.01"
Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests.

Some of the radionuclides created during an atmospheric nuclear blast

are ejected into the stratosphere (10 -20 km high) and are carried
around the earth several times.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
They gradually return to the earth over a period of a few years and give 0.55"
Formatted Table
small yet appreciable doses to the worlds population.
Formatted: Font: Verdana
90 1/2
Two important fission products are Sr (Strontium-90; T = 28,8 Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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137
years) and Cs (Cesium-137; T1/2 = 30 years). 90
Sr, concentrates in
137
the skeleton, and Cs, is distributed throughout the body. Fallout
contributes about 10 Sv per year to the population dose.

Technologically Enhanced Natural Radiation (TENR).

TENR refers to the dose from natural radiation that people receive as a Formatted: Right: -0.01"

direct result of technological activities.

The most important examples are mining and especially the milling of
ore. Workers in mines and ore mills are exposed to significant levels of
ionising radiation from radionuclides in air, dust and rock.

These sources are not man-made, but exposure to them is as a direct

result of human technological activities. About 999 MBq of the
222
radioactive gas Rn is released per ton of mined uranium ore. Mine
222
dumps also release Rn into the atmosphere.

Because jet flights take passengers to an altitude where cosmic

radiation levels are considerably higher than at sea level; it is also
classified as a source of TENR.

Occupational Exposure. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Right: -0.01"

People who are employed in radiotherapy, the nuclear industry,

nuclear research, or who are exposed to TENR, are occupationally
exposed. The dose from occupational exposure is very small when
averaged over the whole population. The estimated dose in developed
countries like the UK, USA and France, is about 5 Sv per year.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
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Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Summary. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.01", Right: -0.01"

Radiation used for medical purposes contributes an average of 0,5

mSv per person per year to the total effective dose to the population.
Jet flights contribute approximately 0,1 mSv for every 20 000 km
flown.

Colour TVs contribute about 0,03 mSv per year per person. Other
sources of man-made radiation and technology-related exposure such
as occupational exposure at nuclear facilities, smoke detectors,
aeroplane trips, fallout, nuclear power stations and radionuclides in
industrial applications contribute a total effective dose of less than 0,05
mSv per person per year.

Tobacco smoking is a significant source of radiation dose to the body, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.31", Right: -0.03"

especially to the lungs.

It is also known that typical indoor radon concentrations are

approximately 13 times more carcinogenic (i.e. likely to cause cancer)
to a smoker than to a non-smoker.

The average contributions of natural and man-made radiation to the

total effective radiation dose of the population, is illustrated in the
following figure. It is clear that radiation produced by the nuclear
industry contributes only a fraction of the average effective dose to the
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
population. 0.55"
Formatted Table
The average effective radiation dose to the population is 3,6 mSv per Formatted: Font: Verdana
person per year. Medical irradiation, 84% by natural background Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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radiation and less than 1% contribute approximately 15% of this by the

nuclear industry.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Figure 8
DOSE CONTRIBUTION FROM NATURAL AND MAN-MADE
RADIATION.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
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Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Other: < 1%:

Occupational Exposure: 0,3%
Radon Progeny: 55% Fallout from nuclear bombs: 0,3%
Nuclear Fuel Cycle: 0,1%
Miscellaneous: 0,1%

Terrestrial Radiation:
8% Cosmic Radiation:
8%

Consumer products:
3% Medical X-rays:
11%

Nuclear medicine: 4%
Natural: 82%
Internal Radiation: 11% Man made: 18%

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

(Reference Document: Radiation Safety Training and Reference
Manual of the National Accelerator Centre).

Formatted: English (U.S.)

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
RADIATION DETECTION AND PROTECTION. 0.55"
Formatted Table
Introduction.
Formatted: Font: Verdana
The fact that the human body is unable to sense ionising radiation is Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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probably responsible for much of the general apprehension about this

type of hazard.

Instruments are used to detect the presence of ionising radiation.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Radiation Signposting.

The following Radiation Trefoil (Black indicates radiation hazards on Formatted: Right: -0.01", Tab stops: 5.83",
Left
yellow background).

Figure 9
THE TREFOIL

This sign is found in association with radioactivity and is supposed to Formatted: Right: 0"

represent three “beams” of radiation coming from a radioactive source.

When seen as a sign or label, it means that a container or area poses a
radiological hazard. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
This sign will appear on containers containing radioactive materials, as Formatted Table
well as on doors of areas in which radiation hazards exist (e.g., Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
radioactive sources and X-ray equipment).
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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When radioactive materials are used, the surrounding area is usually

called a controlled area. This area is marked by means of barriers and
signposting with the trefoil sign.
Only authorised persons (radiation workers) may enter a controlled
area.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.03", Hanging:
0.02"

Radiation Protection. Formatted: English (U.S.)

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
International organisations and the Council establish the limiting
amounts of radiation that can be received by a worker for Nuclear
Safety or the Department of Health.

The objective of radiation protection is to ensure that the amount of

radiation received by a worker will be within the established limits and
that all doses are kept
As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA).
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0",
Reducing Radiation Effect. Right: 0"

The best way to avoid becoming a weekend traffic accident statistic is

to stay off the highways. With radiation too, the best policy would be
avoidance. But for those times when avoidance is not possible, the
amount of radiation received can be reduced in three basic ways.

 By controlling the length of TIME of exposure. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 By keeping the DISTANCE from the radiation source as

large as possible.
 By the use of SHIELDING. That is placing material
between you and the source of radiation. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana

Time Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt

Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

If the radiation in a particular area is constant, limiting the amount of

time an individual stays in the area can control the exposure of
personnel to radiation.
For example, the ambient radiation field in an area is 10 mSv/h:
If a person stays in this area for 30 minutes, he will receive a dose of 5
mSv, 15 minutes in this area will result in a dose of 2,5 mSv.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Distance

Radiation exposure can be reduced by keeping the distance between

the radiation source and the individual, as large as possible.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Right: 0"

A small radioactive source gives off gamma radiation at a rate of:

1 mSv/h at a distance of 30 cm.

0,25 mSv/h at a distance of 60 cm, and
0,04 mSv/h at a distance of 150 cm.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
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In general, gamma ray intensity is inversely proportional to the square

of the distance from the source.

(Inverse Square Law: I1d12 = I2d22 )

Figure 10
RADIATION/DISTANCE RELATIONSHIP

1 mSv/h 0,25 mSv/h 0,04 mSv/h Formatted: English (U.S.)

Formatted: English (U.S.)
Formatted: English (U.S.)
Formatted: English (U.S.)
Formatted: English (U.S.)
Point source
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

30 cm 60 cm 150 cm

Shielding Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

As you will remember from the section titled Radioactivity, the Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.33", Right: -0.03"

penetration powers of radiation vary according to type.

A sheet of paper can stop alpha radiation while a small thickness of Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.31", Right: -0.03"

aluminium or 3 metres of air is sufficient for beta radiation.

Gamma and neutron radiation requires considerably more material for

shielding. For gamma radiation, various thicknesses‟ of dense material
such as lead, concrete and water can be used to reduce radiation to
desired levels.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.03", Hanging:
Concrete, water and paraffin wax can stop neutron radiation. 0.02"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
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The ALARA Philosophy.

ALARA is short for “As Low As is Reasonably Achievable”.

The goal of the ALARA philosophy is to keep the radiation doses both to Formatted: Right: -0.03"

its employees and the surrounding general public to a minimum.

PERSONAL DOSIMETRY Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Introduction

Because our senses cannot detect the effects of ionising radiation,

people in the vicinity of radioactive material must wear personal
dosimeters to measure the radiation dose that they receive.

The Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)

This dosimeter is, at present, the legal method of monitoring the

whole body radiation dose for the purpose of record keeping. It must
be worn at all times during employment inside radiation areas.
TLD's are also used to measure the radiation dose received by
extremities, i.e., fingers, feet etc., if these are likely to receive more
dose than the trunk of the body.
The TLD measures beta, gamma, neutron and X-radiation,
therefore all types of radiation, except alpha.

The Quartz Fibre Dosimeter (QFD)

The quartz fibre dosimeter is a portable ionisation chamber about the

size of a fountain pen.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.39", Right:
It gives an indication of accumulated gamma and X-ray exposure -0.01", Space Before: 6 pt
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
only. 0.55"
Formatted Table
Alpha, beta and neutron radiation will not be measured. Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

These dosimeters are prone to mechanical shock, i.e., dropping or

vibration. Mechanical shock can result in deflection of the fibre
resulting in either increased dose display or off-scale deflection.

Figure 12
QUARTZ FIBRE DOSIMETER Formatted: Font: 11 pt, Bold, Italic

VIEW THROUGH EYE-PIECE

SHOWING READING OF 700 Sv Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Not Italic

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
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Formatted: Font: Verdana

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The Electronic Personal Electronic Dosimeter (EPD). Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Portable direct reading devices such as the Dosicard, incorporate a solid

Silicon detector, electronic circuit and diode display. The EPD measures
gamma and X-radiation. Incorporated in the instrument is a pre-set
alarm facility with an audible warning device. The EPD will alarm at a
pre-determined dose and dose rate.
For radiography the alarm dosimeter shall be set to alarm at or below a Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.28", Right: -0.03"

dose rate of 5 mSv/h (500 mR/h) and continue to give a clear audible
alarm for dose rates in excess of 500 mSv/h (50 R/h) without
saturation.

Figure 13
ELECTRONIC DOSEMETER

Loss of Dosimetry Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

If you lose any item of dosimetry, you must report the loss to the Formatted: Right: -0.01"

controlling authority as soon as possible. Never wear a dosimeter that

belongs to another person. Formatted: Left
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Internal Dosimetry

If the possibility exists that a person has been internally contaminated Formatted: Right: -0.03"

(e.g. touched his face with contaminated hands), a whole body

assessment can be performed to determine the presence of radioactive
substances inside the body, and the total dose delivered. The time
taken to receive this dose could be up to 50 years following intake.

A Whole-Body count can be done to measure the gamma radiation

emitted by radioactive substances inside the body. The instrument
can identify the nuclide and calculate the dose that the person will
receive over the next 50 years.

The process involves a person entering a shielded facility to reduce

natural background radiation, and being “counted” for a short period of
time. The sensitivity of this equipment is such that the presence of
natural radioactivity in the body, e.g., K-40 can be evaluated.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Formatted: Font: Times New Roman, 12 pt,

Not Bold, English (South Africa)
SEALED AND UNSEALED SOURCES.
Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: 0", First line:
INTRODUCTION. 0", Line spacing: single, Tab stops: Not at
1.79"
The handling of radioactive sources is becoming increasingly frequent. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Especially between source manufacturers and end users, such as
hospitals and clinics. Sources are used in radiography, to measure the
thickness of manufactured items like PVC film and sheet, metal
sheeting, newsprint and corrugated paper. They find uses as fire
detectors, material densitometers and level gauges

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
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Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0",

Right: -0.03"
Radioactive Sources:

Sealed Sources.

This is a Group IV hazardous substance that is firmly bonded within

solid inactive material or sealed in an inactive capsule of sufficient
mechanical strength to exclude the possibility of contact with such
substance and of the dispersion thereof into the environment under
foreseeable conditions of use and wear; but this definition shall not
apply where such bonding or encapsulation is solely for the purpose of
storage, transport or disposal.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Unsealed Sources.

Radioactive material that is not in a sealed container. It can cause

both a radiation and a contamination hazard. Unsealed sources can be
solids, liquids or gases e.g. Iodine-131 which is used for filter testing,
Argon-41 for flow rate measurements for gases etc.

This type of source can also include Alpha and weak Beta emitters
which cannot be used effectively if totally sealed. The latter is
generally manufactured with a window which is covered by a grid to
prevent the radioactive substance from being wiped off. The hazard
from such sources is twofold, namely RADIATION and
CONTAMINATION.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.03", Hanging:
0.02"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Source Containers.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.38", First line: 0",

The material used, and the design of source containers depend Right: 0"

on:

 The activity of the source. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.88", Hanging:

0.38", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left +
 The type and energy of radiation emitted. Aligned at: 0.95" + Indent at: 1.14"

 The required reduction of intensity (also called Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

attenuation or shielding).

 Whether the source is sealed or unsealed.

 How the source will be used.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Container materials are described as follows:

 For Alpha () sources –wood or plastic are used Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.2", Hanging:
0.86", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left +
 For Beta () sources –Aluminium, Perspex or metal with Aligned at: 0.95" + Indent at: 1.14"
low atomic no. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 For Gamma () sources –Lead or Depleted Uranium

 For Neutron (n) Proton rich materials such as some

plastics, paraffin
wax or water Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
International Signs and Labels (see Figure 15) Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana

The following is a summary of the labels and when each one is to be Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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used.

The Transport Index: This figure indicates the radiation dose rate in
Sv/h at a distance of 1 m from the outer surface of the container.
Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0",
Space Before: 0 pt, After: 0 pt, Numbered +
Level: 1 + Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start
at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0" + Tab
after: 0.5" + Indent at: 0.5", Tab stops: 0.2",
List tab
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0",
Space Before: 0 pt, After: 0 pt, Numbered +
Level: 1 + Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start
at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0" + Tab
after: 0.5" + Indent at: 0.5", Tab stops: 0.2",
List tab
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0",
Space Before: 0 pt, After: 0 pt, Numbered +
Level: 1 + Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start
at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0" + Tab
after: 0.5" + Indent at: 0.5", Tab stops: 0.2",
List tab
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Table 11 Formatted: Font: 10 pt
INTERNATIONAL LABEL REQUIREMENTS. Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Label Radioactive Radioactive Yellow Radioactive Yellow Formatted: Font: 10 pt

White I II III Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Information 1. The contents 1. The contents 1. The contents Formatted: Font: 10 pt
on label 2. The activity, 2. The activity, 2. The activity,
Formatted: Font: 10 pt
in becquerel in becquerel in becquerel
3. The Transport Index 3. The Transport Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Index Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Dose rate less than 5 5 Sv/h - less than 500 Sv/h - less Formatted: Font: 10 pt
on Surface Sv/h 500 Sv/h than
Formatted: Font: 10 pt
of the 2 mSv/h
Container Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.11", Right: 0.38",
Line spacing: 1.5 lines
Transport 0 1 Maximum 10 Maximum
Index Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"

Shipping packages containing radioactive substances must contain Formatted Table

Formatted: Font: Verdana
two labels, on opposite sides of the package. The packages are to
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
be labelled according to the level of expected radiation exposure for Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

each package.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.03", Hanging:

0.02"

Figure 15
INTERNATIONAL SIGNS

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.38", First line: 0"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Source Emergency.
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
A source emergency will exist if any of the following take Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

place:

1) Loss of a source. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.36", Hanging:

0.3", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style:
1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left +
2) Serious damage of a source involving leakage. Aligned at: 0.95" + Indent at: 1.14"

3) Overexposure of personnel including unplanned exposure. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

4) Fire, explosion, flooding involving radioactive sources.

Persons to Notify.

Any emergency must immediately be reported to the Radiation

Protection Officer (RPO) or the Assistant Radiation Protection Officer
(ARPO) of the organisation. The RPO/ARPO must report any
incident/accident to the Directorate Radiation Control (Dept. of
Health) within 24 hours.

Dealing with the emergency.

In case of fire or explosion, the RPO/ARPO shall inform the emergency

plan co-ordinator or similar person giving all the details normally
required. The RPO/ARPO shall also ensure that the Police or other
authorities involved in the emergency are informed of, and advised of
protective measures associated with any radioactive sources/X-ray Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.43", Hanging:
0.35", Right: 0", Numbered + Level: 1 +
Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
machines at the installation. Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.95" + Indent
at: 1.14"
In addition, the following must be done: Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.43", Hanging:
1) Stop the spillage or release of radioactivity if possible. The 0.35", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
RPO/ARPO shall implement safety instructions prescribed by the + Aligned at: 0.95" + Indent at: 1.14"

Directorate Radiation Control (Dept. of Health). Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.43", Hanging:
0.35", Right: -0.03", Numbered + Level: 1 +
Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
2) Warn the people in the immediate area to evacuate. Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.95" + Indent
at: 1.14"
3) Isolate the area to prevent the spread of contamination. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
4) Minimise the exposure to yourself and others. If you are not Formatted: Font: Verdana

needed to clean up the spillage - leave the area. Remember Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

ALARA!
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
Additional Actions:

1) Repaired/damaged radioactive sources shall not be re-used Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.23", Hanging:
0.53", Right: -0.03", Numbered + Level: 1 +
without permission from the Directorate Radiation Control (Dept. Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 1.25" + Indent
of Health). at: 1.45"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
2) In the case of lost or stolen sources, the police shall be notified. A
written report to the Directorate Radiation Control (Dept. of
Health) shall follow such notification within 7 days.

3) If a medical practitioner is of the opinion that a person was

exposed to ionising radiation to the extent that medical treatment
is required, or that the removal of that person from specific
working conditions is necessary, the practitioner shall inform the
Directorate Radiation Control (Dept. of Health).

4) If the reading from a dosemeter differs markedly from estimated

exposure, the RPO/ARPO shall investigate and shall apply to the
Directorate Radiation Control (Dept. of Health) to obtain
permission to make a special entry in the dose register.

5) If any of the legal limits are exceeded, or if an employee or other

person is suspected of receiving a radiation dose greater than 4
mSv in one day, the RPO/ARPO shall immediately:
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.78", Hanging:
 Investigate the matter; 0.2", Right: -0.03", Numbered + Level: 1 +
Numbering Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.95" + Indent
 Inform the Directorate Radiation Control (Dept. of Health); at: 1.14"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.73", Hanging:
 Inform the affected person; 0.28", Right: -0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
Numbering Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.95" + Indent
 Assess the dose received and inform the Directorate Radiation at: 1.14"

Control (Dept. of Health) and the affected person of the result; Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
and Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
 A report shall be written and sent to the Directorate Radiation
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

Control (Dept. of Health) and to your company as well.

Personal Protective Measures.

 No sources to be handled with unprotected hands. Use Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.88", Hanging:
0.38", Right: -0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
gloves for low activity sealed/unsealed sources and “long Numbering Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.95" + Indent
handling tongs” for higher activity sources. at: 1.14"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
 Exclude items of food, drink, smoking materials, cosmetic,
personal handkerchiefs and eating utensils.

 Where appropriate, use face shields when beta emitting

sources are used.

 Always monitor yourself for contamination after you have

used sealed or unsealed sources. When you find
contamination on your body, call the RPO or ARPO who will
conduct the decontamination. DO NOT move around
unnecessarily spreading contamination.

Leak Testing of Radioactive Sources.

Prerequisites.

1. Leak testing must be performed by suitably qualified Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.88", Hanging:
0.38", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
personnel (Source Handlers), or by approved suppliers. Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 1.26" + Indent at: 1.46"

2. A working procedure is required for all leak tests on Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

radioactive sources.
Formatted: No bullets or numbering

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Precautions and Limitations. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

1. Testing of high activity sources must be performed using remote Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.19", Hanging:
0.5", Right: -0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
handling tools, e.g. tongs. Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 1.26" + Indent
at: 1.46"
2. The leak test must be conducted so as not to damage the source.
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Electroplated sources, e.g. alpha sources, must not be smeared Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.19", Hanging:
0.5", Right: 0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
on the active deposit, because this process could result in the Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 1.26" + Indent
removal of activity. at: 1.46"

3. Testing of high activity sources must be done in an area where

access by non-involved personnel can be restricted.

4. Exemption is granted from the 24 month interval for leakage tests

as required by Condition 52 of the government gazette, subject to
the following provisions being satisfied:

 The exemption is applicable to sealed sources which form an

integral component part of an item or equipment and which are
inaccessible under normal operating conditions.

 All sealed sources must, if possible, be leak tested before

being installed in such equipment and the results of the test
must be entered in the Source Register.

 Smears must be taken on the outside surfaces of the

equipment, before it is removed from the installed location for
maintenance or repairs. This ensures that no contamination
above ambient levels take place.

 On dismantling of the equipment, smears must be taken to

ensure that there has been no leakage from the source,
before proceeding with maintenance work or repairs.

 All results of smear tests as detailed above are recorded in

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
the Source Register.
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Procedure for leak testing.
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

1. All installed sources must be leak tested every two years, Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.88", Hanging:
0.38", Right: -0.03", Numbered + Level: 1 +
or as prescribed by the Directorate of Radiation Control Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 1.26" + Indent
(Dept. of Health). at: 1.46"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
2. Have ready a supply of smear papers or swabs and gloves,
and two pairs of tweezers.

3. Have ready a dose rate and contamination instrument.

4. Ensure that a dosimeter is worn if required while working

with sources,

5. Take a clean smear paper and carefully wipe the surface of

the source, if accessible.

6. Take care not to touch or wipe the active deposit, in case

of an electroplated source.

7. If the source is not readily accessible, a smear can be

taken in the proximity of the source location.

8. Seal the smear paper and mark it with the source number
for identification afterwards.

9. Prevent cross-contamination of the smears by wrapping

them individually.

10. On completion of the leak test smears, move to a low

background area and determine the activity on the smears,
if any, using suitable contamination measurement
instruments.

11. Record the results of the leak tests in the applicable source
registers.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Definition of a Leaking Source. Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

Any source with a removable activity (as determined by dry

smear) of more than 185 Bq is deemed to be leaking and must
be treated as in Paragraph 7.7.5below.

Actions to take in the event of a leaking source.

1. If a source is found to be leaking, restrict access to the vicinity Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5", Hanging:
0.38", Right: -0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
of the source. Check all personnel who was in contact with the Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 1.26" + Indent
source for contamination. at: 1.46"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
2. Determine the extend of the spread of the contamination in the
vicinity where the source was installed/used.

3. If possible, seal the source in an airtight container and then

inform the Directorate Radiation Control (Dept. of Health).

Any identified leaking source must be withdrawn from service and

be disposed of in the manner prescribed by the Directorate
Radiation Control (Dept. of Health).

Formatted: Space After: 0 pt

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Table 12
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
LEAK TEST FREQUENCY.
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

Formatted Table
TYPE OF APPLICATION LEAK TEST FREQUENCY
Formatted: Right: 0.34"
Gauges:
24 months
(Alignment, Level, Density,
Thickness,Moisture)
Bore-hole Logging: 6 months
(Where source is permanently
built in)

XRF Analyser: 24 months

Monitor: 24 months
(Dust, Ash, Dewpoint meter,
Belt mass meter)

Teletherapy Unit: 12 months

After-loading Device: 12 months

Portable level gauges: 6 months

Where source is incorporated in the Formatted: Right: 0.34"
Soil Gauges:
rod: 6 months
Where source is permanently in
container: 24 months

Reference 6 months
Source/Calibration Source:

NOTE: NDT units need only be leak tested if they have been in Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.03", Hanging:
0.82", Right: -0.01"
contaminated areas.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.03", Hanging:

0.02"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
SOURCE CONTROL Formatted: Font: Verdana

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RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

INTRODUCTION Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Hanging:

0.3"

In accordance with the South African governing bodies concerned

with radiation, are there certain responsibilities and duties that must
be fulfilled by all the key persons involved with radiation control.

These responsibilities are herewith explained in the different aspects

of type and involvement of radioactive substances.

1 References applicable to the Use and Possession of

Radioactive Sources

2 Administrative Requirements as required by the Normative

Standards of the Directorate Radiation Control (Department of
Health).

3 Specific requirements regarding Sealed Sources

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.54", Right: -0.03"
4 Requirements Prior to High or Low Volume Radiography Work

5 Requirements for Sources Arriving at Installations

6 Requirements for the Transportation of Radiography Isotope

Containers
Formatted: Right: -0.03"
7 Requirements for Radiation Radiography Isotope Storage
Facilities

8 Requirements during Radiography Work conducted

9 Requirements on Completion of Radiography Work

10 Requirements during a Radiation Emergency

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.21"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Abbreviations used in this section are as follows: Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

 Directorate: Directorate Radiation Control (Dept. of Health). Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: -0.01",
Hanging: 0.5", Right: 0.03", Numbered +
Level: 1 + Numbering Style: Bullet + Start at: 1
 IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency. + Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.63" + Indent
at: 0.88"
 IRCP: International Commission for Radiation Protection. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 NDT: Non-Destructive Testing

 RPO: Radiation Protection Officer

 ARPO: Acting Radiation Protection Officer

 RT: Industrial Radiographic Testing/Inspection

 TLD: Thermoluminescent Dosimeter.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.48", Hanging:

0.02"
References Applicable to the use and Possession of Radioactive
Sources.

The following documents contain provisions that constitute

requirements of this specification. All standards are subject to
revision, and parties to purchasing agreements based on this
specification, are encouraged to apply the most recent editions of
the standards listed below.

They are:

 IAEA: Safety Series No. 6. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.51", Hanging:

0.5", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style:
Bullet + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
 Code of Practice for the safe use of soil moisture and density at: 0.63" + Indent at: 0.88"

gauges containing Radioactive Sources. Directorate Radiation Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Control (Department of Health).

 Code of Practice for the management and disposal of Non

Nuclear Radioactive Waste. Directorate Radiation Control
(Department of Health).
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
 IRCP 91-1: Code of practice for Industrial Radiography.
Formatted Table
Directorate Radiation Control (Department of Health) (Nov Formatted: Font: Verdana

1999). Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt

Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

 TRUG 91-1: Guidelines for the safe transport of

Radioactive Material. Directorate Radiation Control
(Department of Health) (April 1997).

 DLUG 91-1: Ionising radiation dose limits and Annual Limits

on Intake of Radioactive Material. Directorate Radiation
Control (Department of Health) (Feb 1997).

 UNSEAL: Requirements for the safe use of Unsealed

Radioactive Nuclides. Directorate Radiation Control
(Department of Health) (Feb 1997).

 GAUGE: Standards for the Safe use of Industrial Gauges

Containing Radioactive Sources. Directorate Radiation Control
(Department of Health) (Aug 1996).

 FIRE Protective measures to take in the event of an accident

involving Radioactivity. Directorate Radiation Control
(Department of Health) (Feb 1990).

 Government Notice Regulations Relating to Group IV

Hazardous Substances.
R245/R247 of 1993.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.53", Hanging:
 Act No. 15 of 1973 Hazardous Substances Act. 0.5", Right: -0.01", Numbered + Level: 1 +
Numbering Style: Bullet + Start at: 1 +
Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.63" + Indent
at: 0.88"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana

Administrative Requirements Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt

Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

No Duties/Responsibility Formatted Table

1 Comply with the Requirements of the Directorate. Formatted: Font: 10 pt

2 Ensure that employees have access to copies of the Hazardous Substances Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Act, the Government Notice R245/247 and the normative Directorate

reference documentation.

3 Act as holder of the authority for Radioactive Sealed Sources. Formatted: Font: 10 pt

4 Apply for authority to Acquire, Possess and Convey Radioactive Nuclides Formatted: Font: 10 pt

on Form RN 781 from the Directorate.

5 Appoint in writing the following Radiation Protection team members: Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Formatted: Right: 0.86"
a. Radiation Protection Officer
Complete and send form RN 781 to the Directorate
b. Acting Radiation Protection Officer
Complete and send form RN 781 to the Directorate

6 Establish and maintain operational Radiation Protection procedures and Formatted: Font: 10 pt

checklists. These procedures must address all aspects concerning Fixed

Sources, and Industrial Radiography conducted at the installation.

7 Establish a program of routine reviews on fixed sources and radiography, Formatted: Font: 10 pt

with the appointed Radiation Protection Officers.

8 Register all personnel involved with Radiation Protection programme Formatted: Font: 10 pt

with SABS as Radiation Workers and obtain permanent TLD‟s for each
person. Obtain lifetime radiation doses if any of the appointees were
involved in radiation work prior to this registration.

9 Ensure compliance with the dose limits. (Table 14). Formatted: Font: 10 pt

10 Inform any pregnant workers of the hazard of radiation to the foetus. Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

11 Enforce the requirements of the Directorate, Radiation Control Practice Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: 10 pt
e.g.

When a source arrives on, and leaves the site, it must be recorded in Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.31",
Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style: a, b,
a source Logbook c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 0" + Tab after: 0.31" + Indent at: 0.31"
For each source an approved Source Register must be kept.
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Only authorised persons may remove a source from storage or a
container, and such movements shall be recorded in a source
logbook.
No radioactive material shall be sent by post.
No radioactive material shall be left unattended at any time.
No radioactive material shall be taken into an area used for domestic
purposes.

12 Each case of excessive or abnormal exposure must be investigated to Formatted: Font: 10 pt

determine its cause, and steps must be taken to prevent its re-
occurrence.

13 Conduct periodic radiation surveys where required and if needed, the Formatted: Font: 10 pt

records of such surveys, including descriptions of corrective measures,

must be kept.

14 On relinquishing his/her duties, an RPO/ARPO shall take stock of all Formatted: Font: 10 pt

sealed radioactive sources and X-ray machines under his/her authority

and submit the stock list to the holder of the authority. Complete form RN
785 & RN 784E and send to the Directorate to inform them of changes in
the Radiation Protection appointments.

15 The RPO/ARPO shall, annually, in December, take stock of all Sealed Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Radioactive Sources under his/her control. A report on these sources,

including any discrepancies found (compared to the authority), shall be
submitted to the Directorate, by the end of January in the following year.
Complete forms RN 784E and submit to the Directorate. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
16 Records, registers and logbooks must be kept in safe custody, in a
Formatted: Font: Verdana
place where it is protected and safeguarded from fire, theft or
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
destruction, when it is not in use. Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.48", Hanging:
0.02"

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 Formatted Table
RADIATION SAFETYSPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
NOTES

17 Records, registers and logbooks must be kept for a minimum Formatted Table

period of five years after the date of the last entry.

Thereafter, as the case may be:

a. continue to keep it in safe custody,

b. dispose thereof with the approval of the Directorate,

c. or hand it over to the Directorate, at their request for further Formatted: Space Before: 3 pt, After: 0 pt

safekeeping.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
SET-UP AND VERIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT SETTINGS
NOTES

SET-UP AND VERIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT SETTINGS

A specific exposure chart for instance for a specific X-ray machine
or gamma source, has some constants, when these constants
change, you need to rectify your exposure time by using given or
known factors, i.e:
 Focus/source-to-film distance Formatted: Indent: Left: 1", Hanging: 0.5",
Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 2.5" + Tab
 Density in area of interest after: 2.75" + Indent at: 2.75", Tab stops: Not
at 2.75"
 Type of film
 Type of material

Inverse Square law:

When the X-ray tube is held constant, or when a particular
radioactive source is used, the radiation intensity reaching the
specimen is governed by the distance between the radiation source
and the specimen, varying inversely with the square of this
distance.

The Inverse square law may be stated as follows:

where I1 and I2 are the intensities at SFD1 and SFD2 respectively.

Exposure calculations.
With a given quality of X- or gamma-radiation, the three factors
governing the exposure are as follows:
4.1. The milliamperage (for X-rays) or source strength (for
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
gamma-rays). 0.55"

5.2. Time. Formatted Table

Formatted: Font: Verdana
6.3. Source-film distance.
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
SET-UP AND VERIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT SETTINGS
NOTES

The numerical relationships among these three quantities are

demonstrated using X-rays as an example.

The same relationships apply for gamma rays, provided the

number of millicuries or curies of the source is substituted
wherever milliamperage appears.

The necessary calculations for any changes in source-film distance

(SFD), milliamperage (mA), or time (T), are matters of simple
arithmetic and are illustrated in the following examples.

As noted earlier, kilovoltage changes cannot be calculated directly

but must be obtained from the equipment exposure chart or the
operator's logbook.

Milliamperage-Distance Relation:
The milliamperage employed in any exposure technique should be
in conformity with the manufacturer's rating of the X-ray tube.

In most laboratories, however, a constant value of milliamperage

is usually adopted for convenience.

Rule: The milliamperage (M) required for a given exposure at a

kilovoltage is directly proportional to the square of the source-film
distance (SFD).

Example: Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Suppose that with a given exposure time and kilovoltage, a
Formatted Table
properly exposed radiograph is obtained with 5-mA. (M1) at Formatted: Font: Verdana

300mm source-film distance (SFD)1 . Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt

Formatted: Font: Verdana

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SET-UP AND VERIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT SETTINGS
NOTES

Now suppose that it is desired to increase the sharpness of detail

in the image by increasing the source-film distance to 600mm
(SFD)2.

The correct milliamperage (M2) to obtain the desired

radiographic density at the increased (SFD)2 may be computed
from the proportion

Care should be taken, however, not to exceed the milliamperage

rating of the X-ray tube.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

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SET-UP AND VERIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT SETTINGS
NOTES

Time-Distance Relation Rule:

The exposure time (T) required for a given exposure is directly
proportional to the square of the source-film distance (SFD).

Example.
When a source-film distance of 600mm (SFD 1), is changed to
400mm (SFD2), an exposure time of 10 minutes (T 1) must be
changed to T2 minutes.

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SET-UP AND VERIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT SETTINGS
NOTES

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TEST CONDITIONS
NOTES

TEST CONDITIONS
Surface preparation
General Conditions:
To achieve optimum radiographic sensitivity and defect location,
areas to be examined must be free from surplus material.

b)In the case of castings, final radiography will be carried out with Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

excess material, e.g. feed gates, flash etc. removed to drawing

requirements. Mould material, sand and investment shell etc. will
be removed from all surfaces. Internal passageways and chambers
will be free from core material.

c)The radiography of welding is normally carried out in the “as Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

welded” condition. The removal of excess and non-uniform weld

material to aid radiography should be considered and where
necessary agreed between Manufacturing Engineering and the
Controlling NDT authority. This will be an important consideration
during the preparation for the inspection of welded areas on
components.

Inspection surfaces shall satisfy the requirements of the

applicable materials specifications, with additional conditioning, if
necessary, by any suitable process to a degree that surface
irregularities cannot mask or be confused with discontinuities.

In general, surface preparation is not necessary, but where surface

imperfections or coatings might cause difficulty in detecting
defects, the surface shall be ground smooth or the coatings shall be
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
removed. 0.55"
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TEST CONDITIONS
NOTES

Unless otherwise specified, radiography shall be carried out after

the final stage of manufacture, e.g. after grinding or heat
treatment.

Welds:
The weld ripples or weld surface irregularities on both the inside
(where accessible) and outside shall be removed by any suitable
process to such a degree that the resulting radiographic image
due to any irregularities cannot mask or be confused with the
image of any discontinuity.

Where possible, the contour of the weld surface shall be smooth

and any change in section shall be gradual.

In order to obtain maximum flaw sensitivity the part of the work

to be examined should be smooth and free from irregularities
such as weld ripples, grinding or chipping marks.

The finished surface of all butt-welded joints may be flush with

the base material or may have reasonably uniform crowns, with
reinforcement not to exceed that specified in the referencing
Code Section.

Location of Film
Films shall be placed as near as possible to the component and be
accurately positioned in order to give complete coverage of the Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
whole of the part, or the areas requiring examination.
Formatted Table
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TEST CONDITIONS
NOTES

Use of Multiple Film Techniques

 Multiple film techniques, i.e. the use of a combination of Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.69", Hanging:
0.49", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
films having different speed characteristics, are permitted Style: a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" +
for examination of variable sectional thicknesses. Indent at: 1.18"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 The exposure conditions shall be selected to permit the Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.69", Hanging:
0.49", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
thicker section to be recorded on the fastest film and the Style: a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" +
thinner section on the slowest film. Indent at: 1.18"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 The exposure conditions shall be determined by the Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.69", Hanging:
0.49", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
thickest section to be covered, provided that acceptable Style: a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" +
IQI sensitivity is achieved on the thinner sections. Indent at: 1.18"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

 The films speed characteristics must be chosen to ensure Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.69", Hanging:
0.49", Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering
that the required range of thickness‟ are covered, using Style: a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left
+ Aligned at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" +
film densities within the optimum requirements of this Indent at: 1.18"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
specification.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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TEST CONDITIONS
NOTES

Selection of energy of radiation

The first requirement of radiography is to have radiation energy
that is capable of penetrating the specimen thickness, with a set-up
that will produce the required sensitivity within an economical
exposure time.
The table below gives practical guidelines for steel penetration:
X-Rays (kV) Maximum Thickness -
Steel
100 10
150 15
200 25
300 40
400 175
Gamma rays Maximum Thickness -
Steel
Ir192 10 – 90
Co60 15 – 140
Se75 5 - 40

These maximum thickness values are recommended for the

radiography of say butt welds in pressure vessels which require
very high sensitivity radiographs with the use of fine-grain films
with lead or metal intensifying screens.

It is emphasized that the minimum thicknesses given for gamma-

radiation may be used, but should not be interpreted as implying
that on these thicknesses the sensitivity with gamma radiation is Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
equivalent to the sensitivity with X-rays. Formatted Table
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TEST CONDITIONS
NOTES

Gamma-rays should be used only on the understanding that apart

from geometric considerations the sensitivity will be inferior to that
of a good X-ray technique.

Exposure Charts
X-ray machines:
The first requirement before using X-ray exposure charts is to
obtain the constants of the X-ray equipment itself.

These are kilovoltage (kV), milliamperes (mA), focal spot size and
the physical position of the focal point.

A specific exposure chart for a specific source of radiation has some

constants, when these constants are changed you need to rectify
your exposure time by using given factors:
X-rays
 focus-to-film distance – usually 700mm Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
 density in area of interest – 2.0mm Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at 4.75"
 type of film
 type of material – usually steel
Gamma rays
 source-to-film distance – usually 1000mm Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
 density in area of interest – 2.0mm Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75", Tab
stops: 1.25", List tab + Not at 4.75"
 type of film
 type of material – usually steel

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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TEST CONDITIONS
NOTES

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE SELECTION
NOTES

The sector specific part of the training manual provides the

guidance to apply the general knowledge obtain in the practical
applications of industrial radiography.

The aim of this part of the training manual will be to work in the
sequence of the different steps to be taken for a RT Level 2
technician to perform and supervise RT operations according to
established or recognised procedures.

The RT Level 2 must be competent to:

select the RT technique for specific components Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68", Hanging:
0.59", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 1.5" +
determine test conditions, pre- and post inspections Tab after: 1.75" + Indent at: 1.75"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
determine correct apparatus to be used, together with settings
determine correct film selections
implement, apply and supervise all safety regulations
set-up and verify equipment settings
perform and supervise inspections
determine film processing requirements
implement actions when exposure factors change
determine film quality requirements
interpret and evaluate results according to applicable
standards, codes or specifications
identify and determine film artifacts
identify different types of defects
organize and report results of radiographic inspections
prepare written RT instructions

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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RT TECHNIQUE SELECTION Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
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RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE SELECTION
NOTES

A single-wall technique for exposure of a component shall be used for

radiography whenever possible. When it is not practical to use a
single-wall technique, especially in the case of circumferential
components such as pipes, a double-wall technique shall be used.

Single-wall technique
In the single-wall technique, the radiation passes through only one
wall of the component (material), which is viewed for acceptance on
the radiograph.

Flat components

Welded plate used to demonstrate technique

Circumferential components
Because circumferential components on which radiographic
inspection is conducted can range in size from 10mm internal
diameter to several meters.

This is a much more complicated application of radiography. The

larger components can obviously be treated as flat components
such as plates and it may be possible to use radiographic
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
equipment inside the pipe. 0.55"
Formatted Table
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There are three basic arrangements for radiography of
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NOTES

circumferential components.

With this technique the film ID and IQI are placed on the
source side of the pipe.

Radiation source outside, film inside

Welded pipe used to demonstrate technique

This method has the advantage that the film is on the side where
most critical defects; like root cracks occur - there is therefore a
slight detection sensitivity of these defects due to smaller
geometric unsharpness.

On the other hand, the film is curved away from the source of
radiation, so that the length of weld which can be examined at each
exposure is rather small and the geometry at the edge of each film
results in some image distortion.

In practice, at least 6-14 radiographs are necessary to cover a

complete weld and the source of radiation has to be moved for Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
each exposure.
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana

This method is more suitable for large vessels which can be Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

rotated than for pipe welds.

With this technique the film ID and IQI are placed on the
source side of the pipe.

Radiation source inside, film outside

Panoramic method
Make use of several films overlapping or rollpack films

Welded pipe used to demonstrate technique

These are the best and most efficient method, if it is possible to get
a suitable source of radiation inside the pipe.

If the source is placed in the weld centre, the length of weld which
can be examined with one exposure is limited by the size of the
radiation field.

The Panoramic method is so attractive that special equipment;

(crawlers) are made to carry a x-ray unit or a Gamma-Ray source
inside a pipe to the correct location.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Gamma-Ray sources are very convenient to use in this manner, if
Formatted Table
the pipe wall thickness is appropriate. Formatted: Font: Verdana

When inspecting small diameter pipes using these techniques, you Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

need to use very small diameter of radiation sources in order to

obtain good definition.

With this technique the film ID and IQI are placed on the
source side of the pipe.

Source 0ff-set method

If the Panoramic arrangement method is too restrictive, the
radiation source can be placed off-centre as shown below,

Welded pipe used to demonstrate technique

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
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For this arrangement about 4 or more exposures are needed Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

to cover the complete weld, but this arrangement of

exposures need to be worked out for each pipe diameter /
wall thickness ratio.

With this technique the film ID and IQI are placed on the
source side of the pipe.

Source of radiation outside, film outside

This method must be used when there is no access to the
inside of the pipe.

If the pipe is a large diameter pipe, the radiation can be

placed close to the pipe wall as shown above, with the film
on the opposite side.

With this technique the film ID and IQI are placed on the film
side of the pipe. Remember to place a "FS" next to the IQI-
ID, to indicate to the film interpreter that the IQI is placed
on the film side.

The wire diameter of the IQI is based on the single wall

technique.

If this technique would result in too a small SFD, the source

must be stood off the pipe as shown below.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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NOTES

Welded pipe used to demonstrate technique

In all double wall techniques the radiation must penetrate two walls
and this reduces the sensitivity, because the minimum size of IQI
detail must be expressed as a percentage of the single wall
thickness.

For this reason if for no other, double wall methods should not be
used unnecessarily.

In both cases the image of the part of the weld nearest the source
will be too burred (blown away) to be of any use to the
radiographer or interpreter and for this reason it is called double
wall, single image. Remember that your exposure time is
calculated for double wall thickness.

At least three exposures 1200 to each other must be made for

complete coverage of weld with coverage of films.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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NOTES

As you can remember, you get better contrast with X-rays than
with gamma rays. But using this method, it has been shown that
on an 18mm thick pipe, a gamma ray technique using Ir192 inside
the pipe can give - better sensitivities than X-rays with the double
wall method.

Double wall double image method (Ellipse)

If pipe with a diameter smaller than 89mm (3,5") and your SFD is
large, the images of the parts of the weld at both A+B may be
sharp enough to be useful and both welded areas are interpreted.

Welded pipe used to demonstrate technique

The source is in offset position from the plane of the weld as shown
above; otherwise the images of the two parts of the weld will be
superimposed and may be confused.

The eclipse should open for at least twice the weld cap size or a
minimum of 5mm.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
The top + & bottom weld must not overlap and the eclipse must Formatted Table

stay eclipse and not round, because this way the welds become Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
blurred.
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE SELECTION
NOTES

The distance of the offset of the source should be kept to a

minimum, (often one-fifth of the SFD is recommended).

It has been found in practice that if an excessive offset distance is

used, narrow root defects can be missed or become difficult to
interpret.

Whenever possible, the film should be bent to fit close to the weld
surface in order to reduce the defect-to-film distance to a
minimum.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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NOTES

CONTROL CHECKS AND PROCEDURES

Control checks and maintenance shall be carried out at the intervals
specified and shall be recorded to ensure that the efficiency of the
radiographic process is maintained.

They include procedures to detect progressive functional

deterioration in :
Optical focal spot dimension Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.47", Hanging:
0.25", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 4.5" +
Darkroom safelight Tab after: 4.75" + Indent at: 4.75", Tab
stops: Not at 4.75"
Beam uniformity Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Consistency of processing equipment

Output from X-ray units
Densitometer calibration
Automatic film processor

Optical Focal Spot Dimension

The focal spot dimension shall be established and checked 6 monthly
for deterioration and recorded.

X-Ray units used for inspection shall have a maximum focal spot size
of 4mm.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.39"
Since the dimensions of the radiation source have considerable effect
on the sharpness of the shadows, it is frequently desirable to
determine the shape and size of the X-ray tube focal spot.

This may be accomplished by the method of pinhole radiography,

which is identical in principle with that of the pinhole camera. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"

A thin lead plate containing a small hole is placed exactly midway Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
between the focal spot and the film, and lead shielding is so
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Formatted: Font: Verdana

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CONTROL CHECKS AND PROCEDURES
NOTES

arranged that no X-rays except those passing through the pinhole

reach the film.

The developed film will show an image that, for most practical
radiographic purposes, may be taken as equal in size and shape to the
focal spot.

If precise measurements are required, the measured dimensions of the

focal-spot image should be decreased by twice the diameter of the
pinhole.

The method is applicable to x-ray tubes operating up to about 250 kV.

Above this kilovoltage, however, the thickness of the lead needed makes
the method impractical. (The entire focal spot cannot be "seen" from the
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
film side of a small hole in a thick plate.) 0.55"
Formatted Table
Thus the technique cannot be used for high-energy x-rays or the
Formatted: Font: Verdana
commonly used gamma-ray sources, and much more complicated Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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CONTROL CHECKS AND PROCEDURES
NOTES

methods, suitable only for the laboratory, must be employed.

A focus-film distance of 130mm (24 inches) is usually convenient.

Of course, the time of exposure will be much greater than that required to
expose the film without the pinhole plate because so little radiation can
get through such a small aperture.

In general, a needle or a No. 60 drill will make a hole small enough for
practical purposes.

A density in the image area of 1.0 to 2.0 is satisfactory. If the focal-spot

area is overexposed, the estimate of focal-spot size will be exaggerated,
as can be seen by comparing the two images.

Pinhole pictures of the focal spot of an x-ray tube. A shorter exposure (left) shows only
focal spot. A longer exposure (right) show, as well as the focal spot, some details of the
tungsten button and copper anode stem. The x-ray images of these parts result from their
bombardment with stray electrons.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
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CONTROL CHECKS AND PROCEDURES
NOTES

Darkroom Safelight
The darkroom safelight shall be checked monthly.

Use two films of the same batch, of the fastest type that can be
processed in the darkroom.

Expose one of the films to the safelight in the most exposed Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.59", Hanging:
0.25", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3.39"
zone, and for the maximum time production films may be + Tab after: 3.64" + Indent at: 3.64", Tab
stops: Not at 3.64"
exposed. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Process the two films at the same time.

The maximum density difference between the two films shall be
0,1 D.

Beam Uniformity
The check shall be carried out annually at 50% and 100% of
maximum voltage provided by the generator.
On one or more film/s place 5 identical metal shims having a Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.59", Hanging:
0.25", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3.39"
thickness function of each voltage ( 4(4 located at 90° to each + Tab after: 3.64" + Indent at: 3.64", Tab
stops: Not at 3.64"
other on the periphery of the zone to be inspected and 1 in the Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

centercentre).
For each voltage carry out an x-ray exposure in order to obtain
a density between 2.5 D and 3.5D.
Measure the density obtained from the five shims.
The density difference shall not be more than 0.3D. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
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Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
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CONTROL CHECKS AND PROCEDURES
NOTES

Check for Consistency of Processing System

a)The purpose of this is to progressively monitor the activity and Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.62", Bulleted +
Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3.39" + Tab after:
efficiency of the film processing system. this may be carried 3.64" + Indent at: 3.64", Tab stops: Not at
3.64"
out using one of two methods: Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

b)Using a commercial Process Monitoring System approved by the Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.62", Bulleted +
Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3.39" + Tab after:
controlling NDT Authority. 3.64" + Indent at: 3.64", Tab stops: Not at
3.64"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

These systems utilize monitoring procedures based upon light

produced step wedge sensitometry.

They are undertaken with a sensitometer/densitometer using a

film, which meets certain performance criteria.

Manufacturer‟s instructions are to be adhered to. Results are

to be recorded and retained for a minimum period of three
months.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.63", Bulleted +

Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3.39" + Tab after:
c)A system utilizing radiographicallly pre-exposed film strips, 3.64" + Indent at: 3.64", Tab stops: Not at
3.64"
described below. It is permissible to obtain pre-exposed
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
control strips from a suitable supplier who is able to certify Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.63", Bulleted +
Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3.39" + Tab after:
standardized exposure factors. 3.64" + Indent at: 3.64", Tab stops: Not at
3.64"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
d)The pre-exposed filmstrips utilized for this check, are produced, Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
by exposing sections of a conveniently sized film to different
Formatted Table
quantities of radiation in a progressive manner. Formatted: Font: Verdana
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NOTES

On processing this will result in strips of varying density levels

down the radiograph.

This effect is achieved using a suitable metal step wedge or by

progressively moving the edge of a lead sheet down the film
cassette a controlled distance between each of several
exposures.

The film will contain a minimum of three areas having

different exposure levels.

These pre-exposed films will be kept for a minimum of one

week before being used for control check purposes.

The details of the procedure and the exposure parameters to

achieve the pre-exposed, non-processed film described will be
recorded. (Refer Appendix R)

The film is then cut longitudinally into narrow sections to give

a supply of pre-exposed strips. These will be stored in a light
proof container until required for the checks.

At the commencement of the appropriate shift a strip shall be

processed through the automatic or manual processing
system, using the standard conditions. Care must be taken to
ensure that all solutions have reached the optimum processing
temperatures. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
When fully dry, the density strips on the check film are Formatted: Font: Verdana

measured using a calibrated densitometer. These readings are Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

recorded on a chart or graph to enable a progressive

assessment to be made.

Individual high or low readings varying from the “normal

average” reading by more than 15% shall be cause for
processing a second strip.

If the difference in value is maintained, an investigation into

the reason for the discrepancy shall be initiated by the
controlling Radiologist.

Check for X-ray Unit Output Characteristics

This may be carried out using one of two methods:

The films from the first batch of work each day are checked Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.75", Hanging:
0.25", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3" +
for IQI sensitivity and for density against the original Tab after: 3.25" + Indent at: 3.25", Tab
stops: Not at 3.25"
standard technique films for the part concerned. If original Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

sensitivity is not achieved or density varies with more than

20% then an investigation into the reason for the
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.75", Hanging:
discrepancy shall be initiated by the Controlling Radiologist. 0.25", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3" +
Tab after: 3.25" + Indent at: 3.25", Tab
All results shall be recorded and retained for a minimum stops: Not at 3.25"
period of three months. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: 1", Hanging: 0.3",
Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style: a, b,
c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
Using the standard test piece procedure described below, for at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" + Indent at:
1.18", Tab stops: Not at 0.69" + 1.18"
each X-ray unit in use:
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
a)The test piece will be made to have a variational thickness
Formatted Table
incorporated e.g., have machined strips demonstrating a Formatted: Font: Verdana

2% thickness change or have a surface mounted IQI Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt

Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

permanently attached. This will enable radiographic

sensitivity to be assessed.

b)The exposure parameters necessary to achieve a defined Formatted: Indent: Left: 1", Hanging: 0.3",
Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style: a, b,
density and to demonstrate 2% sensitivity at a thickness c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" + Indent at:
step difference will be determined. This exposure, using 1.18", Tab stops: Not at 0.69" + 0.79" +
1.18"
film of the type and speed normally utilized in the Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

department for production radiography, shall be

displayed in the vicinity of the X-ray unit concerned.

c)The test piece shall be exposed at the stipulated Formatted: Indent: Left: 1", Hanging: 0.3",
Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style: a, b,
parameters and processed using the standard conditions. c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" + Indent at:
The radiograph produced shall be viewed and assessed to 1.18", Tab stops: Not at 0.69" + 0.79" +
1.18"
ensure that the sensitivity and density requirements are Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

being maintained.

d)If required 2% sensitivity is not achieved or the density Formatted: Indent: Left: 1", Hanging: 0.3",
Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style: a, b,
reading obtained varies by more than 20% from that c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 0.79" + Tab after: 1.18" + Indent at:
stipulated, an investigation into the reason for the 1.18", Tab stops: Not at 0.69" + 1.18"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
discrepancy shall be initiated by the Controlling
Radiologist.

Densitometer Calibration
a)This shall be carried out by comparing the density readings from a Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

master calibrated film against the instrument readings.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
The calibrated film strip shall be traceable to the master standard
Formatted Table
recognized National Standard or be calibrated by an alternatively Formatted: Font: Verdana

approved facility. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt

Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

The filmstrip shall be replaced every 2 years or earlier if obvious

physical damage is apparent.

b)Maximum permissible deviation between the densitometer and the Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

calibrated filmstrip shall be 0.1D.

Calibration shall be formally recorded and the densitometer labeled

to indicate calibration status and the date by which next calibration
is required.

c)Densitometers shall be calibrated against the film strip at intervals Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

not exceeding six months.

a)The densitometer shall be capable of measuring the light Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

transmitted through a radiograph with a film density up to 4.0 with a

density unit resolution of 0.02.

When film densities greater than 4.0 are permitted, a densitometer

applicable to film densities of up to maximum density permitted is
required.

b)A calibrated reference density strip shall be maintained and Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

correlation to 0.10 between it and the densitometer is required.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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STORAGE AND RETENTION OF RADIOGRAPHS

Storage of Unexposed Films

a)Films shall be stored under suitable conditions. Guidelines can be Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

obtained from the manufacturer.

b)Films shall be utilized with due regard to date sequence. Expired Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

film must not be used unless testing to guarantee performance is

carried out prior to use.

This shall consist of a minimum of :

Base fog level measurement, when processed without Formatted: Indent: Left: 1", Hanging: 0.5",
Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3" + Tab
exposure. The fog levels must not exceed the values after: 3.25" + Indent at: 3.25", Tab stops: Not
at 3.25"
given in part 6 of this volume. Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Proof of image quality by comparison with an exposed and Formatted: Indent: Left: 1", Hanging: 0.5",
Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3" + Tab
processed film of the same type. after: 3.25" + Indent at: 3.25", Tab stops: Not
at 3.25"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

c)Daily checks shall be carried out to ensure film is within the expiry Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

date. Confirmation is to be recorded.

Storage of Exposed Films

Films shall be stored under suitable conditions as regards humidity, Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
temperature and freedom from harmful atmospheres, for periods as
Formatted Table
specified in reference codes or specifications. Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

Retention of Radiographs for Record Purposes

a)Unless otherwise stated in specific contract requirements, Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

radiographs produced against Engineering requirements will be filed

for reference purposes in accordance with the appropriate Company
Quality procedure

b)Radiographs taken against non-mandatory requirements, or as Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

check procedures, may be disposed of in accordance with local

operating procedure requirements.

Check of film archivability

This describes the check of the efficiency of the fixing and water
washing in the x-ray film development process with regards to
residual Thiosulfate.

Formatted: Indent: Hanging: 0.22", Bulleted

Materials/Equipment to be used + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 0.75" + Tab after: 1"
+ Indent at: 1", Tab stops: Not at 1"
1)Test fluid
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
2)Processed pre-exposed film strip Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.8", Hanging:
0.57", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3" +
3)Colour scale AGFA STRUCTURIX Thio-Test Colour Wedge Tab after: 3.25" + Indent at: 3.25", Tab
stops: Not at 3.25"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Performance of Test Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.83", Hanging:
0.53", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3" +
1)Apply one drop of the test solution to one side of the blank Tab after: 3.25" + Indent at: 3.25", Tab
stops: Not at 3.25"
part of the test film
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
2)After 2 minutes remove the excess fluid, allow the spot to
Formatted Table
dry for approximately 1 minute and repeat the Formatted: Font: Verdana

procedure on the other side of the film opposite the first Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

test spot.

3)Compare as soon as possible but within 30 minutes the test Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.87", Hanging:
0.5", Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 3" +
stain with the Thio-Test colour wedge. Tab after: 3.25" + Indent at: 3.25", Tab
stops: Not at 3.25"
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

At the comparison the test film is placed on a pure white

background and the colour wedge colour steps on the
blank area of the test film as close as possible to the
test spot.

Interpretation of results
The colour step on the wedge which most closely compares
to the colour of the test spot determines the archival life
expectancy.

The colour steps of the test wedge correspond with the

archival life expectancy values in the following table.

ARCHIVABILITY
COLOUR STEP or
LIFE EXPECTANCY

Darkest step Not archivable

Dark step Up to 10 years

Light step Up to 100 years

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
Lightest step Permanent 0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

At the comparison with the colour step wedge the test spot
on the test film shall match as a minimum the step for an
archival life expectancy of up to 100 years.

If these requirements are not met corrective action shall be

taken e.g Fresh fixer shall be used and water flow shall be
checked to be correct.

This check shall be carried out on a weekly basis and shall be

documented on the following form.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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 Formatted Table
DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

Absorption
The process whereby the incident photons are reduced in number as they pass
through matter.

Activity
The number of nuclear disintegrations per unit time taking place in a radioactive
source.

Anode
The positive electrode of an X-ray tube.

Anode current
The electrons passing from the cathode to the anode in an X-ray tube.

Artifact (false indication)

A spurious indication on a radiograph caused e.g. by faults in the manufacturing,
handling, exposing or processing of a film.

Attenuation
The reduction in intensity of a beam of X- or gamma radiation during its passage
through matter caused by absorption and scattering.

Attenuation coefficient µ
The relationship between the intensity (Io) of a radiation incident on one side of
an absorber and the transmitted intensity (I) for an absorber thickness (t) as
–( µt)
expressed by I = Io · e .

Average gradient
The slope of a line drawn between two specified points on the sensitometric (H & Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
D) curve.
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

Back scatter/back scattered radiation

That part of the scattered X- or gamma radiation which is emitted at an angle of
more than 90° in relation to the direction of the incident beam.

Betatron
A machine in which electrons are accelerated in a circular orbit before being
deflected onto a target to produce high energy X-rays.

Build-up factor
The ratio of the intensity of the total radiation reaching a point, to the intensity of
the primary radiation reaching the same point.

Cassette
A rigid or flexible light-tight container for holding radiographic film or paper with
or without intensifying screens, during exposure.

Cathode
The negative electrode of an X-ray tube.

Calibrated density step wedge

A piece of film having a series of different optical densities which have been
calibrated to be used as reference densities.

Characteristic curve (of a film)

A curve showing the relationship between the common logarithm of exposure, log
K, and the optical density, D.

Clearing time
The time required for the first stage of fixing of a film, during which the
cloudiness disappears. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

Collimation
The limiting of a beam of radiation to a form of required dimensions, by the use
of diaphragms made of absorbing material.
Collimator
A device made from radiation absorbent material such as lead or tungsten,
designed to limit and define the direction and area of the radiation beam.

Compton scatter
A form of scattering caused by a photon of X- or gamma radiation interacting
with an electron and suffering a reduction of energy, the scattered radiation
being emitted at an angle to the incident direction.
NOTE For radiation in the energy range 100 keV, to 10 MeV, it is the main factor contributing to
radiation attenuation.

Computerized tomography (CT)

A procedure by which an image of the detail in a chosen plane, perpendicular to
the axis of the specimen, is computed from a large number of X-ray absorption
measurements made from many directions perpendicular to the axis.
NOTE This is computerized axial tomography and does not apply to other means of performing
tomography.

Constant potential circuit

An electronic configuration which is designed to apply and maintain a
substantially constant potential within an X-ray tube.

Continuous spectrum
The range of wavelengths or quantum energies generated by an X-ray set.

Contrast medium
Any suitable substance, solid or liquid, applied to a material being radiographed,
to enhance its radiation contrast in total or in part.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

Contrast sensitivity (thickness sensitivity)

The smallest thickness change in a specimen which produces a discernible
change in optical density on a radiographic (or radioscopic) image, usually
expressed as a percentage of the total specimen thickness.

Decay curve
The activity of a radioisotope plotted against time, usually as a log/linear
relationship.

Densitometer
A device for the measurement of the optical density of a radiographic film or
reflective density of a photographic print.

Development (of a film or paper)

The chemical or physical process which converts a latent image into a visible
image.

Diffraction mottle
A superimposed pattern on a radiographic image due to diffraction of the incident
radiation by the material structure.

Dosemeter (dosimeter)
A instrument for measuring the accumulated dose of X- or gamma radiation.

Dose rate meter

An instrument for the measurement of X- or gamma radiation dose-rate.

Dual focus tube

An X-ray tube with two different size of focus.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Duplex wire image quality indicator
Formatted Table
An image quality indicator specifically designed to assess the overall unsharpness Formatted: Font: Verdana
of a radiographic image and composed of a series of pairs of wire elements made Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

of high density metal.

Edge-blocking material
Material applied around a specimen or in cavities to obtain a more uniform
absorption, to reduce extraneous scattered radiation, and to prevent local over-
exposure, e.g. fine lead shot.
Equalizing filter (beam flattener)
A device used to equalize the intensity across the primary X-ray beam in
megavoltage radiography and so extend the useful field size.

Equivalent X-ray voltage

The voltage of a X-ray tube which produces a radiograph most nearly equivalent
to a gamma radiograph taken with a particular gamma-ray source.

Exposure
The process whereby radiation is recorded on an imaging system.

Exposure calculator
A device (for example a slide rule) which may be used to determine the exposure
time required.

Exposure chart
A chart indicating the time for radiographic exposures for different thicknesses of
a specified material and for a given quality of a beam radiation.

Exposure latitude
The range of exposures corresponding to the useful optical density range of the
emulsion.

Exposure time
Duration of the process of exposing a recording medium to radiation. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Film base Formatted: Font: Verdana
The support material on which the photosensitive emulsion is coated. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

Film gradient (G)

The slope of the characteristic curve of a film at a specified optical density D.

Film illuminator (viewing screen)

Equipment containing a source of light and a translucent screen used for viewing
radiographs.

Film processing
The operations necessary to transform the latent image on the film into a
permanent visible image, consisting normally of developing, fixing, washing and
drying a film.

Film system speed

A quantitative measure of the response of a film system to radiation energy, for
specific exposure conditions.

Filter
Uniform layer of material, usual of higher atomic number than the specimen,
placed between the radiation source and the film for the purpose of preferentially
absorbing the softer radiations.

Fixing
The chemical removal of silver halides from a film emulsion after development.

Flaw sensitivity
The minimum flaw size detectable under specified test conditions.

Fluorescent intensifying screen Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
A screen consisting of a coating of phosphors which fluoresces when exposed to
Formatted Table
X or gamma radiation. Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

Fluorometallic intensifying screen

A screen consisting of a metallic foil (usually lead) coated with a material that
fluoresces when exposed to X or gamma radiation.

Fluoroscopy
The production of a visible image on a fluorescent screen by X-rays and for direct
viewing of the screen.

Focal spot
The X-ray emitting area on the anode of the X-ray tube, as seen from the
measuring device.

Focal spot size

The dimension across the focal spot of an X-ray tube, measured parallel to the
plane of the film or the fluorescent screen.

Focus-to-film-distance (FFD)
The shortest distance from the focus of an X-ray tube to a film set up for a
radiographic exposure.

Fog density
A general term used to denote the optical density of a processed film caused by
anything other than the direct action of image – forming radiation. It can be
aging fog, chemical fog, dichroic fog, exposure fog or inherent fog.

Gamma radiography
Radiography using a gamma-ray source.

Gamma rays Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
Electromagnetic ionizing radiation, emitted by specific radioactive materials.
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Gamma-ray source Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

Radioactive material sealed into a metal capsule.

Gamma-ray source container

A container made of dense material and having a wall thickness sufficient to
produce a very great reduction in the intensity of the radiation emitted by the
source, so as to make it safe to handle.

Geometric unsharpness
Unsharpness of a radiographic image arising from the finite size of the source of
radiation. Its magnitude also depends on the distances of source-to-object and
object-to-film. Also called geometric blurring or penumbra.

Graininess
The visual appearance of granularity.

Granularity
The stochastic density fluctuations in the radiograph superimposed on the object
image.

Half life
The time in which the activity of a radioactive source decays to half its value.

Half value layer/thickness (HVL)

The thickness of specified material which, when introduced into the beam of X or
gamma radiation, reduces its intensity by a half.

Illuminator
Equipment for viewing radiographs. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Image contrast Formatted: Font: Verdana
The relative change of optical density between two adjacent areas in a Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

radiographic image.

Image definition
The sharpness of delineation of image detail in a radiograph.

Image enhancement
Any process which increases the quality of an image by improving contrast
and/or definition, or reducing noise. Often done by computer programs, when it
is known as “digital image processing”.

Image intensifier
An electronic device designed to provide a brighter image than produced by the
unaided action of the X-ray beam on a fluorescent screen.

Image quality
That characteristic of a radiographic image which determines the degree of detail
which it shows.

Image quality indicator (IQI)

A device comprising a series of elements of graded thickness which enables a
measure of the image quality to be obtained. The elements of an IQI are
commonly wires or steps with holes.

Image quality value, IQI sensitivity

Measure of the image quality required or achieved.

Incident beam axis

The axis of the beam cone defined by the focal spot and the tube window.

Industrial radiology
The science and application of X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons and other Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
penetrating radiation in non-destructive testing.
Formatted Table
Formatted: Font: Verdana
Inherent filtration Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

The filtration of a radiation beam by the parts of the tube, set up or source
encapsulation, through which the primary beam will pass.

Inherent unsharpness
The blurring of a radiographic image caused by photons of radiation dislodging
electrons in the photographic emulsion and these electrons rendering silver
halide grains developable.

Intensifying factor
The ratio of the exposure time without intensifying screens, to that when screens
are used, other conditions being the same, to obtain the same optical density.

Intensifying screen
A material that converts a part of the radiographic energy into light or electrons
and that, when in contact with a recording medium during exposure, improves
the quality of the radiograph, or reduces the exposure time required to produce a
radiograph or both.

2.83 Latent image

An invisible image produced in a film by radiation and capable of being converted
into a visible image by film processing.

Linear electron accelerator (LINAC)

A machine for producing high energy electrons by accelerating them along a
waveguide. The electrons, strike a target to produce X-rays.

Masking Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:

0.55"
The application of material which limits the area of irradiation of an object to the
Formatted Table
region undergoing radiographic examination. Formatted: Font: Verdana
Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

Metal screen
A screen consisting of dense metal (usually lead) that filters radiation and emits
electrons when exposed to X- or gamma rays.

Microfocus radiography
Radiography using an X-ray tube having a very small effective focus-size of less
than 100 µm in size. Commonly used for direct geometric enlargement of the
image by projection.

Movement unsharpness
A blurring of the radiographic or radioscopic image due to relative movement of
the radiation source, object or radiation detector.

Object contrast
Relative difference of radiation transmission between two considered zones of the
irradiated object.

Object-to-film distance
The distance between the radiation side of the test object and the film surface
measured along the central axis of the radiation beam.

Quality (of a beam of radiation)

The penetrating power of the radiation, often measured as a half-value thickness.

Radiation contrast
Differences in radiation intensity arising from variation in radiation opacity within
an irradiated object.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Radiation source
Formatted Table
Equipment (e.g. X-ray tube or gamma ray source) capable of emitting ionising Formatted: Font: Verdana
radiation. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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Radiograph
A visible image after processing produced by a beam of penetrating ionising
radiation on a radiographic film or paper. The term is also used for images
produced by neutrons, electrons, protons etc.

Radiographic film
A film consisting of a transparent base, usually coated on both sides with a
radiation sensitive emulsion.

Radiography
The production of radiographs on a permanent imaging support.

Radioisotope
Isotopes of an element with the property of spontaneously emitting particles or
gamma radiation or of emitting X radiation.
Radioscopy
The production of a visual image by ionising radiation on a radiation detector
such as fluorescent screen and displayed on a television monitor screen.

Resolution
The distance between details this can just be separated in an image.

Rod anode tube

A type of X-ray tube in which the target is situated at the extremity of a tubular
anode; such tubes can produce a panoramic beam of radiation.

Scattered Radiation
Radiation which has suffered a change in direction, with or without a change in
energy, during its passage through matter. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
Formatted Table
Screen type film Formatted: Font: Verdana
Radiographic film designed for use with fluorescent intensifying screens. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
Formatted: Font: Verdana

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NOTES

Source holder
A holding, carrying, or attachment device, by means of which the gamma ray
source (sealed source) can be fixed in the exposure container, or at the head of a
remote control device.

Source size
The size of the source of radiation.

Source-to-film distance (SFD)

The distance between the source of radiation and the film measured in the
direction of the beam.

Specific activity
The activity per unit mass of a radioisotope.

Step wedge
Object in the form of a series of steps of a same material.

Stereo radiography
The production of a pair of radiographs suitable for stereoscopic viewing.

Target
The area on the surface of the anode of an X-ray tube on which the electron
beam impinges and from which the primary beam of X-rays is emitted

Tube diaphragm
A device, normally fixed to a tube shield or head, to limit the extent of the
emergent X-ray beam. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
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Tube head Formatted: Font: Verdana
That part of an X-ray installation that contains the tube in its shield. Formatted: Font: Verdana, 8 pt
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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

Tube shield
The housing of an X-ray tube which reduces the leakage radiation to defined
values.

Tube shutter
A device attached to a tube shield, generally of lead and usually remotely
operated, used to control the emergence of the X-ray beam.

Tube window
The area of an X-ray tube through which the radiation is emitted.

Tube voltage
The high voltage applied between the anode and the cathode of an X-ray tube.

Unsealed source
Any radioactive source which is not sealed into a capsule.

Unsharpness
Due to image blurring a loss of image definition. It is combination of “geometric
unsharpness”, “inherent unsharpness” and “movement unsharpness”.

Useful density range

The range of optical density on a radiograph that is used for image interpretation.
The upper limit is determined by the film illuminator and the lower limit by the
loss in flaw sensitivity.

Vacuum cassette
A light-tight container that where operated under a vacuum holds film and screen
in intimate contact during radiographic exposure.
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Viewing mask
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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

Visual contrast
The visual density difference between two adjacent areas on an illuminated
radiograph.

X-rays
Penetrating electromagnetic radiation, within the approximate wavelength range
of 1 nm to 0,0001 nanometres, produced when high velocity electrons impinge
on a metal target.

X-ray film
See “Radiographic film”

X-ray tube
A vacuum tube, usually containing a filament to produce electrons which are
accelerated to strike an anode, on the surface of which X-rays are produced.

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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

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BS 5650 : 1978 Specification for gamma radiography Non-

destructive testing
ISO 3999: 1977 General principles.
BS EN 462-1 : 1994 Non-destructive testing – Image quality of
radiographs
Part 1 Image quality indicators (wire type) –
Determination of image quality value
BS EN 462-2 : 1994 Non-destructive testing – Image quality of
radiographs
Part 2 Image quality indicators (step/hole type) –
determination of image quality value

BS EN 462-3 : 1994 Non-destructive testing – Image quality of

radiographs
Part 3 Image quality for ferrous metals
BS EN 462-4 : 1994 Non-destructive testing – Image quality of
radiographs
Part 4 Experimental evaluation of image quality
value and image quality tables
BS EN 452-5 : 1994 Non-destructive testing – Image quality of
radiographs
Part 5 Image quality indicators (duplex wire type) –
Determination of image unsharpness value.
BS EN 584-1 : 1995 Non-destructive testing – Industrial radiographic film
–
Part 1 Classification of film systems for industrial
radiography
BS EN 584-2 : 1997 Non-destructive testing – Industrial radiographic film
–
Part 2 Control of film processing by means of
reference values
BS EN 1330-3 : 1997 Non-destructive testing – Terminology – Formatted: French (France)

Part 3 Terms used in industrial radiographic testing. Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.55", First line:
0.55"
BS EN 1435:1997 Non-destructive testing of welds – Radiographic
Formatted Table
testing of welded joints.
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testing of welded joints Acceptance levels

BS EN 25580 : 1992 Specification for

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HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE ACT, NO 15 OF 1973 Formatted: Font: Verdana, 16 pt

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10.10 APPLICATION FORM: RN787

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10.11 APPLICATION FORM: RC001-1

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10.13 APPLICATION FORM: RC013-1

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10.14 APPLICATION FORM: RN606 (E) Formatted: TRAINING BROCHURES

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10.15 APPLICATION FORM: RC009-1 Formatted: TRAINING BROCHURES

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10.16 APPLICATION FORM: RN607 (E)

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10.17 APPLICATION FORM: RC010-1

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10.18 APPLICATION FORM: RN785 Formatted: TRAINING BROCHURES

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10.19 APPLICATION FORM: RN780 Formatted: TRAINING BROCHURES

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10.20 APPLICATION FORM: RN900 Formatted: TRAINING BROCHURES

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10.21 APPLICATION FORM: RN526 Formatted: TRAINING BROCHURES

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REFERENCE STANDARDS IN RADIOGRAPHY
NOTES

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