By:

Dr D S Arya,
Assistant Professor
Department of Hydrology,
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee – 247667
email: dsarya@rediffmail.com
1. Fundamentals

Understanding the role of the electromagnetic
spectrum in remote sensing

Realizing that the atmosphere alters EM energy

Concept of spectral signature in remote sensing

Understanding that the satellite images are actually
arrays of numbers that can be manipulated to
produce pictures

Satellite Programs (particularly IRS)

Understanding spatial, spectral, radiometric, and
temporal resolution
2. Images Types

Panchromatic Images

Multi-spectral Images

False color composites

Natural Images

3. Applications in Water Resources

What is Remote Sensing?
Remote Sensing is the science and art of
obtaining information about an object, area or
phenomenon through the analysis of data
acquired by a device that is not in contact with the
object area, or phenomenon under investigation.

Example: Human Sight

Eyes are Sensors which response to the reflected light
Data is the reflected light from the dark and light areas
Interpretation is white reflected lights are letters
Remote Sensing Types
1. Active Remote Sensing:
The signals are artificially generated to illuminate
features of an object by the remote Sensing
system.
Example: Camera used in flashgun light

2. Passive Remote Sensing:

It senses the naturally available energy.
Example: Camera used in sunlight
How does Remote Sensing work?

In remote sensing the

process involves an
interaction between incident
radiation and the targets of
interest;

It also involves the sensing
of emitted energy.
How does Remote Sensing work?
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A)
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)
3. Interaction with the Target (C)
4. Recording of Energy by the
Sensor (D)
5. Transmission, Reception, and
Processing (E)
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F)
7. Application (G)
 Electromagnetic Energy (EME)
EME refer to the energy which Characteristics of Solar Radiation
moves with the velocity of light
Surface temperature is 5750 –
(3x108) in a harmonic wave 6000 K
pattern and has two force fields
Radiates energy across a range
electric and magnetic that are of wave length at an average
orthogonal to each other. distance of 150 million Km

Only a part (5x10-9 %) reaches
to earth
All objects/bodies with temp
This radiation pass through 100
above 0 K emit Electromagnetic km thick atmosphere
radiation (EMR).
EME is selectively absorbed
and scattered in the atmosphere

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Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)

EMS is a continuous plot of the wavelengths of
different types of solar energy

The EMS is divided into segments of wavelengths
known as “bands”.
EMR Interaction

The atmosphere
interacts with and
changes the character of
electromagnetic energy
(e.g., light) as it travels
from the top of the
atmosphere to the target
and back to the sensor.

During Energy
propagation, scattering
and absorption takes
place
Atmospheric Windows

The atmospheric windows are those regions of EMS
for which the atmosphere is transparent and the
energy flows without much loss
Spectral Reflectance Curves
% Reflectance = Er/Ei*100

Plot of reflectance alongwith wavelength is known as spectral

reflectance /response curves
Spectral Signatures

Everything in nature has a spectral signature. If we can
detect that spectral signature we can separate features,
and get an insight to the type of objects.

Spectral signatures (spectral response patterns) change
over time and space. Why?

atmospheric conditions change - haze, moisture, aerosols,
clouds.

illumination conditions change - sun angle changes with the
season, and with sun angle changes come target spectral
response changes.

targets change - changing water levels, agricultural fields
grow.
Spectral Signatures

By comparing the response
patterns of different features
we may be able to distinguish
between them, where we might
not be able to, if we only
compared them at one
wavelength.

For example, water and
vegetation may reflect
somewhat similarly in the
visible wavelengths but are
almost always separable in the
infrared.
Spectral Signature of water
Spectral Signature of Water

Longer wavelength visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed
more by water than shorter visible wavelengths.

Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger
reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red
or near infrared wavelengths.

If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers of the
water body, then this will allow better reflectivity and a brighter
appearance of the water.

Suspended sediment can be easily confused with shallow (but clear)
water, since these two phenomena appear very similar.

Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and
reflects the green, making the water appear greener in colour when
algae are present.

The topography of the water surface (rough, smooth, floating
materials, etc.) can also lead to complications for water-related
interpretation.
 Remote Sensing Data Collection

Types of Satellites:

Geostationary

INSAT satellites

Sun Synchronous

Landsat, SPOT,
IRS satellites
Remote Sensing Satellites
Major Passive: Multi-Spectral Sensors

LANDSAT MSS/TM/ETM+ (NASA, USA)

SPOT-1, -2, -3 (France)

JERS-1 (Japan)

MODIS (NASA, USA)

AVHRR (NOAA, USA)

ASTER (NASA, USA, and Japan)

IRS-1A, -1B, -1C, 1D, P4 (India)

IKONOS (Space Imaging, USA)
Major Active: Radar/Lidar Sensor

SIR-A, -B, -C (NASA, USA)

RADARSAT (Canada)

JERS-1 (Japan)

ERS-1 (European)

AIRSAR/TOPSAR (NASA, USA)

NEXRAD (NOAA, USA)

TRMM (NASA, USA)

ALTMS (TerraPoint, USA)

FLI-MAP (John Chance, USA)

ALTM (USA)

TopoEye (USA)

ATLAS (USA)
Indian RS Satellites

IRS is a part of NNRMS (National Natural Resources
Management System)

ISRO has Launched IRS 1A (1988), IRS 1B (1991), IRS
1C (1995), IRS 1D (1997), IRS P4 /OceanSat (1999),
IRS P6/ResourceSat (2003), Cartosat2 (2006)

The average Altitude is 817 Km and revisiting time is 22-
24 days and crosses equator at 10.30 AM

Most of the satellites have LISS (Linear Imaging Self
Scanning), PAN and AWiF (Wide Field) Sensors
IRS P6: Onboard Sensors
Resolutions

A pixel (picture element) is the name of an individual
cell of digital image data. The ground area that is
covered by a pixel is known as spatial resolution of
the data.

The spectral resolution refer to number of bands
over the data is collected.

The radiometric resolution of a system refers to
the number of quantized bits that are used for
recording the reflected electromagnetic energy

The temporal resolution of a system refers to the
frequency of data acquisition over the same area.
Image Interpretation
The main objective of image interpretation is to extract
information about features displayed in an image. It
depends upon:
• Analyst’s Experience,
• Power of Observation,
• Understanding of basic principles of RS
• Purpose of Interpretation

Visual Photo/Image Interpretation:

The keys are Shape, Size, Pattern, Shadows, Tone,
Texture and Site.

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 Digital Image Interpretation

During the last two decades, RS has been
progressively moving from analogue
photographs to digital image processing.

Digital data is basically collected in the form of
digits.

Therefore image colors/brightness forms an array of
numeric numbers.

These values can be added, subtracted multiplied
and in general are subjected to statistical
manipulations.

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 Digital Image Interpretation

Image restoration

Geometric, radiometric Corrections and Noise removal

Image Enhancement

Gray Level Threshholding, Level Slicing and Contrast
Stretching

Image Classification

Supervised Classification and Unsupervised
Classification

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2. Images Types
Digital image: pixels
and reflectance

A digital image is an array

of pixels. Each spectral
band contains the same
array with reflectance
values representative of
that part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
High Resolution

1 meter panchromatic 10 meter panchromatic

(IKONOS) (SPOT)

Low Resolution

30 meter multispectral 80 meter multispectral

(Landsat - TM or ETM) (Landsat - MSS)
Natural Color and FCC Images

Blue Blue
Green Blue
Green Green
Red Green
Red Red
Infra Red Red
3 Applications

Mapping and monitoring landuse/landcover

Snow cover monitoring/mapping

Wetland mapping

Runoff calculations (SCS Method)

Flood Plain Mapping/zoning

River Shifting studies

Water spread area calculations of Reservoir

EIA studies related to water resources
Choosing data type

All of these factors should be considered when selecting a
system for a particular application.

Scale (resolution, footprint)

Signature (spectral, resolution)

Timing (Seasonality, Repeatability)

When you select imagery for an application, you need to consider the smallest
features that you need to identify, and use that as a guide to selecting the appropriate
spatial resolution. You also need to consider the spatial extent of the project and
select a system that can cover the area with minimal mosaicing efforts.

If you are going to rely on specific spectral characteristics for identifying features,
those spectral characteristics need to be evident in the selected system.

Finally, if you are using Remote Sensing for monitoring activities, you need to verify
that the frequency of acquisition from the system is appropriate for your monitoring
frequency.
Flood Studies
Monitoring Glacier Changes (1985)
Monitoring Glacier Changes (1986)
LULC Map (1962 &1990)
Impact on runoff generation
SCS Curve Number Method

Runoff depth Q = (P-Ia) 2 /(P-Ia+S), Where

Q – runoff depth in inches,

P – rainfall intensity in inches,

Ia – initial abstraction(Average value is 0.2S),

S – storage index.

Weighted Curve Number CN = 1000/(10+S), Where

CN = (Σland cover area*curve number)/Total area

The curve numbers are chosen on the basis of AMC

condition and Hydrological soil group type.
Analysis of LULC Changes
Sl Land use Area sq.km Area sq.km
N (1967) (1990)
o
Land use/Land cover Changes

1 Congested built-up area 0.844 1.435 5

Area, sq.km (1967)

Area (sq. km)

4
2 Scattered built-up area 2.899 4.486 Area sq.km (1990)
3
2
3 Agricultural land (Ordinary 2.043 0.462
1
soil)
0
4 Agricultural Land (Sandy soil) 1.525 1.013
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Land use Category
5 Thick Grassland 0.186 0.101

6 Playgrounds 0.462 0.462

7 Canal 0.158 0.158

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Analysis of LULC Changes

The 125 percent more land has been converted into

urban land.

Considering the equal rainfall intensity and
antecedent moister condition, it is found that there
would be 15 % more runoff in the year 1990.

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