Study Session 1

Cultures and Societies in Africa

1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Learning Outcomes for study session 1
At the end of the session, you should be able to:
i. Define culture
ii. Describe the classical definition of culture
iii. Enumerate the characteristics of culture
iv. Identify the major components of culture
v. Provide major concepts associated with culture
vi. Illustrate with many examples the variation of culture in the society

1.2 What is Culture?

The word ‗culture‘ is an omnibus term with different meanings. To some, it represents the
songs, dances, drama and art that are exhibited by people in communities. To others, culture
means the ways of life and living, the ways of doing things – writing notes in the class, drinking
water from local clayed pot (Amu), either eating ‗amala‘- yam flour with our fingers or using
cutleries to impress friends; others may see culture as drinking palm wine with calabash cups,
greeting one another, shaking hands with each other, wearing clothes, indigenous or foreign.

To everyone who is familiar with the revival of culture, it represents a people‘s unique and
commonly shared ways of doing things. In all societies, some of the ways of doing things such
as reproduction and eating are the consequences of man‘s biological make-up; others are the
products of the fact that human beings live in groups. These ways of doing things are also the
ways in which as humans we tend to find certain solutions to problems: physical, material and
social ones that face our existence. Different human groups arrive at solution to these problems
in different ways.

Study Outcomes
At the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) Define culture and mention the characteristics of culture
(b) Describe the components of culture
(c) Understand and explain the nature, dynamics and pattern of our socio-cultural environment
for the purpose of effective and socially-relevant change;
(d) Refute and redirect some of the assumptions and positions that are biased and pejorative
with regards to the previous ways in which some of the most important elements of our
history and culture have been explained.
(e) Understand and differentiate the concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural diffusion.

Definitions of Culture
By ‗culture‘ we mean ―a trait or characteristics that, although man made, is found in all human
societies‖. Cultural elements found in all human societies are called ‗cultural universal‘ or
‗cultural uniformities‘. Although some experts disagree as to whether there are any cultural
universals. We do know that virtually all human societies possess designs and potential which
are specific in nature that can be called culture.

We have royalties, such as those of Ile-Ife, Osun state, Nigeria, in Ancient Egypt and even the
more recent monarchies of Europe and Saudi Arabia. It is also important to note that all human
societies regulate sexual behaviours in one way or another. You are not allowed by the social
regulations to ‗jump‘ on any man or woman without the societally laid rules of doing it. These
rules serve as a form of social control. Among the Eskimos and Tivs, wife hospitality is practiced
but detested in other climes.

All human societies have a form of greeting but the way and manner of greeting differs from
one society to another. Language is also a universal phenomenon because there is perhaps no
human society where language is not visible and used,so also, there are social institutions such
as the family, government, religion, economy, education and politics.

What then is culture? Culture has been defined in ‗Primitive Culture‘ by Edward B. Tylor (1871)
as a ‗complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, custom and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society‘. This is tagged ‗classical‘
definition of culture in anthropological literature.

According to Reading (1978:55), culture is seen as ‗the totality of learned behaviour transmitted
from one generation to the next‘. Mitchell (1979: 45) opines that ‗culture, in its broadest
definition, refers to that part of the total repertoire of human action (and its products), which is
socially as opposed to genetically transmitted‘. Kroeber and Kluckhohn argue that ‗culture
consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and transmitted by
symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their
embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (that is, historically
derived and selected ideas and especially their attached values‘. From these definitions, it can
be inferred that culture is so central to human existence and can be simply referred to as the
total way of life of human existence, the way we talk, read, write, greet and exchange
pleasantries are all embedded in culture.

Social Institutions: By social institutions, we mean ―a set of interrelated norms‘, regularized,

prescribed patterns of action and behaviour‖ a normative system centered on some types of
human activity or some major problems of man in society… (Chinoy, 1967: 29). We should
note, however, that only problems and not the solutions are universal. Also, the contents of
solutions are highly variable. Thus, the arrangements of most of these institutions among
human beings differ from place to place. The commonly shared arrangements help us as groups
to solve the problem of our collective existence and this is what is generally known as culture.
Ethnocentrism: Talking about the common elements in culture also brings us to the
discussion of Ethnocentrism – that is the act of evaluation by some social scientists in their
works who see other peoples as primitives etc. and as possessing cultures and behaviour not as
advanced or developed like their own. Ethnocentrism is also important factor in manifestation of
collective behaviour that have been termed as ‗racism‘ and ‗tribalism‘. Ethnocentrism is one of
the factors that can fan the embers of communal clashes and ethnic conflicts.

Cultural diffusion: Another important notion that we should note whose manifestations
contributed to the similarity in the behaviour of peoples is ‗cultural diffusion‘. This is the process
whereby traits and characteristics that are part of one society are imported into another. Africa
has witnessed a lot of this in reggae and rap music, use of Compact Disc MP4, and I-Pads
devices LED Flat screen TVs, Digital Voice Recorders among others are all elements of this.
These products are made outside the shore of Africa andare imported but the use and
sometimes, abuse of these items are common in our communities.
In a nut shell, culture is learned mainly through the socialisation process. Socialization is the
process whereby the ways of any group is learnt right from infancy to adulthood.

Characteristics of Culture
What are the major features of culture?
 Culture whether material or non-material is passed from generation to generation
through language.
 provides socially acceptable patterns for meeting needs of the people in the society
 is cumulative.
 is meaningful because of its symbolic quality.
 is learned from one person and passed to another.
 is a basic determinant of personality.
 it depends for its existence on the continued functioning of the society but not upon
any individual or group.
1.4.1 In-Text Questions (ITQs)
i. Who espouses the ‗classical‘ definition of culture?
ii. Name two major concepts associated with culture
iii. List three features of culture
1.4.2. In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Edward B. Tylor espoused the classical definition of culture
ii. Two major concepts associated with culture are: Ethnocentrism and Cultural
diffusion
iii. Culture is learnt. Culture is cumulative and is transmitted from generation to
another generation
1.5 Components of Culture
Chinoy (1967: 29) identifies three (3) main groups of the components of culture
(a) Institutions, the rules of norms which govern human behaviour
(b) Ideas, knowledge and belief of all variables – moral, theological, philosophical, scientific,
technological, among others
(c) Material products or artifacts which men produce and use in the course of their collective
lives.
In looking at these constituents, it becomes clearer that culture is both material and non-
material. The material components are concrete things that can be seen, felt or touched such
as your android hand-held phone set, benches, bags and lap-tops. On the other hand, non-
material elements constitute the abstract aspect of culture such as ideas, customs and values.
Can you touch any of these materials? Of course, not.

1.5.1. ITQs

i. Enumerate two main group components of culture

ii. Indicate the two constituents of culture
1.5.2 ITAs
i. Institutions, Ideas, Knowledge and Beliefs
ii. Material and Non-material

1.6. Culture Patterns

According to Beal & Hojier (1971:107), the term culture pattern refers to a cluster of related
ways of behaving found in a given culture. Hogan (2006: 104) avers that culture pattern is the
‗predominant value and belief that characterize a culture‘.

Culture patterns can be divided into two broad types: Ideal patterns and Behaviour patterns.
Ideal patterns refer to the modes of behaviour of a specific people if they conform completely
to the standards set up by their culture. Behavioural patterns refer to actual behaviour observed
in particular situations.

Culture patterns like culture cannot be directly observed and are studied as abstractions from
observed behaviour. They may also be viewed in terms of their functions in the society.

1. 7- National Culture Patterns

(1) A national pattern culture is the largest functional unit of national societies e.g. Nigerian
Culture, Ethiopian Culture, English Culture, American Culture, etc.
(2) Ethnocentrism is a widespread characteristic of national groups.
(3) The study of national patterns of culture is complicated by factors such as:
(a) Multiple groups within communities: Some nations such as Nigeria, Kenya, Russia and
USA are composed of several cultural and sub-cultural groups within their territories.
(b) The fact that culture patterns are dynamic; they change with time.
 (c) The fact that the contributions or situation of some dominant classes or sub-groups may
dominate the national culture patterns while those of other classes or groups are not
visibly represented.

1.7.1. ITQs
i. Define culture patterns
ii. Provide one factor that can affect national pattern of culture

1.7.2 ITAs
How would you differentiate between Nigerian culture pattern from that of Asia?

1.8. What is Society?

Society or social formation is not synonymous to boundaries or location. This is a narrow
way of defining society. Society includes a set of people in a specific location/boundary,
sharing a body of customs, norms, values, reproducing themselves and sharing a
language or languages. A society has specific rules and regulations which serve as social
control and members who violate the rules are sanctioned.

1.8.1. ITQs
 Identify one or two elements of society
1.8.2. ITAs
 Some elements of society are shared customs, norms, language and boundary.

1.9. Classification of Society

Society can be classified in many ways. Sociologists categorise societies into ‗primitive,
traditional which denotes societies with simple, undiluted, undifferentiated and almost
homogenous customs and social control or ‗modern‘ typified by industrial modern
societies. There are also allusions to non-literate and literate societies, segmental and
organic societies as French Scholar, Emile Durkheim enthused (See Mitchell, 1979:206-
207).

1.9.1. ITQs?
 List two types of human societies
1.9.2. ITAs?
 Two kinds of human societies are segmental and organic forms

1.10. Culture and Society.

From the earlier discussion in this session, it would be seen that culture is central to the
existence of human society. It is culture that gives the colour, the shine and life to any
human society. No human society can survive without culture.
1.10.1. ITQs?
 What is the relationship between culture and society?
 1.10.2. Self-Assessment Question (SAQ)?
 Think of any characteristic or component of culture in your community or society and
discuss with a friend of yours who should identify his/her own and share with you
also.

1.11. Culture(s) of Africa

1.11.1. Historical Overview
It is important to allude to historical undercurrents of cultures of Africa. This section deals
with that social phenomenon. Africa‘s cultural rebirth has been an integral aspect of post-
independence nation-building on the continent, with the recognition for the need to harness
the diverse cultural resources of Africa in order to enhance the process of education, and
create the needed enabling environment. In recent times, there has been a call for a much
greater emphasis on the cultural dimension in all aspects of development. In the past, our
parents were adroit in teaching and passing our cultural heritage to the children who imbibe
and practise them. The practice has been weakened by forces of industrialisation and
globalisation.

During colonialism in Africa, Europeans adopted the attitudes of superiority as a sense of

mission. They lived in special areas (Government Reserved Area-GRA) and went to special
schools. The French were able to accept Africans as French, if they gave up their African
culture and adopted French ways. Knowledge of Portuguese language and culture and
abandonment of indigenous ways defined one as civilized in some other parts of Africa.
Kenyan social commentator Mwiti Mugambi pragmatically avers that the future of Africa can
only be forged from accepting and mending the socio-cultural present. For Mugambi,
colonial cultural hangovers, pervasive Western cultural inundation, and aid-giving arm-
twisting donors are, he argues, here to stay and no amount of looking into Africa's past will
make them go away except we take conscious steps to alter that.

Culture is here defined as the totality of thought and practice by which a people creates
itself, celebrates, sustains and develops itself and introduces itself to history and humanity‘
— Maulana Karenga; African Culture and the Ongoing Quest for Excellence

1.11.2. ITQs?
 Describe the historical force of cultural development in Africa

1.11.3. ITAs?
 What aspect of culture have you learnt from your parents?

1.12. Attributes of African Culture(s)

1.12.1. African Arts and Crafts

 It is certain that Africa has inherent gorgeous customs and culture in terms of arts and
crafts. Some of these manifestations are depicted in wood-carvings, mats, leather and
pottery art works, among others. There are indigenous sculpture makers, painters, and the
like.

1.12.2. Folklore and Religion

African folklore and religion form special segments of African culture. The folklore and myth
of creation in Africa is common. In Nigeria, it is believed that Ile-Ife is the source of creation
and civilisation begins from there. There is the myth of homo sapiens‘ descendance in Ile-
Ife, Osun state, Nigeria.
In another vein, flood myths have been circulating in different parts of Africa. Culture and
religion share space and are deeply intertwined in African cultures. In Nigeria, there is an
admixture of traditional believers, Christians and Muslims associating with one another most
times in peace and occasionally in conflict. In Ethiopia, Christianity and Islam form the core
aspects of their culture and these influence their cuisine and customs as well as rituals and
rites. Religion serves a number of functions for Nigerians. In indigenous African religion, the
concept of the ‗Olodumare‘ among the Yoruba, depicts the Omniscient, Omnipresent and all
-powerful God.

1.12.3. Clothing
Africans adorn themselves with different attires. Many indigenous fabrics are hand-woven.
There is a tie and dye fabric in Abeokuta, Ogun State, ‗Aso Oke‘ in Iseyin, Oyo State,
Nigeria, among others. In Ethiopia, Women's traditional clothes are made from fabric called
shemma and used to make habesha qemis: it is basically cotton cloth, about 90 cm wide,
woven in long strips which are then sewn together. Sometimes shiny threads are woven into
the fabric for an elegant effect. In southeast Nigeria, indigenous men tend to wear a knee-
length shirt with wrapper. In West Africa, many of the indigenous attire is influenced by
Islamic traditions. Zulus wear a variety of attire, both traditional for ceremonial or culturally
celebratory occasions, and modern westernised clothing for everyday use. Among the Zulu,
one can decipher from their attire that the women are married. Traditional male clothing is
usually light, consisting of a two-part apron (similar to a loincloth) used to cover the genitals
and buttocks.

1.12.4. African Cuisine

Africa is a large continent containing over 50 countries and thus, endowed with rich delicacies in
terms of food and drinks. There is also the use of food products like peppers, peanuts and
maize introduced by the colonial masters. The African food is a combination of traditional fruits
and vegetables, milk and meat products. The African village diet is often vegetable and assorted
stable grains and starch products. Exotic game and fish are gathered from Africa's vast area.
There is Argungun Festival in Kebbi State, Nigeria where fishing is communally harvested.
Indigenous cooking in most of Africa is characterised by use of starch as a focus, accompanied
by stew containing meat or vegetables, or both. Cassava, cocoyam, potato and yams are the
main root vegetables. Africans also use steamed greens with hot spices. Dishes of steamed or
boiled green vegetables, peas, beans and cereals, starchy cassava, yams and sweet potatoes
are widely consumed. In each African locality, there are numerous wild fruits and vegetables
which are used as food. Pawpaw, Banana, oranges, watermelon and tangerine are very
common edible fruits for the people.

The non-Muslim population of Africa tend to consume alcohol beverages. People from Ethiopia
lay claim to first regular cultivation of coffeeand they have a sort of coffee ceremony, like
Japanese Tea Ceremony.

1.12.5. Languages

There are many languages in Africa (written and unwritten). The main ethno-linguistic divisions
are Afro-asiatic (North Africa, Chad, Horn of Africa), Niger-Congo (mostly Bantu) in most of
Sub-Saharan Africa, Nilo-Saharan in parts of the Sahara and the Sahel and parts of Eastern
Africa, and Khoisan. The continent of Africa speaks hundreds of languages, and if dialects
spoken by various ethnic groups are also included, the number is much higher. These
languages and dialects do not have the same importance: some are spoken by only few
hundred persons, others are spoken by millions. Among the most prominent languages spoken
are Arabic, Swahili, Yoruba and Hausa. Very few countries of Africa use any single language
and for this reason several official languages coexist, African and European. Some Africans may
also speak different languages such as Swahili, English, French, Spanish, Bambara, Sotho, and
many more. We shall dwell more on this in the section on language.

1.12.6. ITQs?
i. Describe some prominent arts and crafts in Africa
ii. What are the commonest fruits and vegetables in your community?
iii. List three main languages in Africa

1.12.7. ITAs?
i. Prominent arts and crafts include Bronze, sculpture and silver
ii. Commonest fruits are Pawpaw, Watermelon and Banana
iii. Swahili, Hausa and Yoruba are three main languages in Africa

1.13. Culture Areas of Africa

1.13.1. Fundamental Assumptions of the Concept

The concept of culture areas as championed by Herskovits (1924) is an attempt to group

together people whose indigenous ways of life are similar to a great degree. It is the high
degree of similarity that makes them appear unique. According to the International
Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (1968, culled from Encyclopadia.com retrieved February 28,
2012), Culture areas are geographical territories in which characteristic culture patterns are
recognizable through repeated associations of specific traits and are usually, through one or
more modes of subsistence related to the particular environment.

As one formulation within the general school of historical particularism that has developed in
anthropology in the United States, the concept of culture area reflects the theoretical position
that each culture, on whatever level it may be analysed, must be examined with regard to its
own history and in regard to the general principles of independent invention, culture borrowing,
and cultural integration. Although many factors at the base of any recognizable culture area are
ecological in nature, the culture-area concept is one that conforms to the doctrine of limited
possibilities rather than to a simple geographic determinism.

Viewed in this light and assessed according to the size and character of the geographic units
and the degree of complexity of cultural similarities within and differences between the units,
the culture-area concept takes shape as a classificatory device of marked utility in describing
the cultural regions of the world. Since ―culture‖ and ―area‖ are both generalised terms, their
use in combination gives no real clue as to the precise meaning, which must be specified. When
contrasting one culture area with another, the level of abstraction must be the same.

In its original formulation, the culture-area concept applied primarily to the ethnographic
present and occupied an important place in the natural-history phase of anthropology that was
concerned with the orderly description of the cultures of the world. The geographic distribution
of culture traits within such areas served as indirect evidence for the reconstruction of cultural
histories. The formulations for each of the major continents were used for convenience in the
ordering of ethnographic descriptions but were otherwise ignored or discarded as being too
limited in time, too static in concept, and too generally conceived to be of much use to the
developing trends of concern with inter-personal and social dynamics.

The steady expansion of archaeological research, which furnishes direct evidence for the
construction of the historical chronicle in local terms, reduced the role of indirect evidence
equipped by contemporary data in the reconstruction of culture history. Although the culture-
area concept went into temporary eclipse as a tool for theoretical research, it was still retained
for the arrangement of museum collections, for which it was originally devised and for the
presentation of descriptive data at the classroom level (e.g., Herskovits 1955; Keesing 1958).

Fundamental Assumptions of the Concept

Culture Area has some assumptions which are as follows:
(1) That is there are culture centres in culture areas. That is, there is a locus within the culture
area with the greatest concentration of culture traits which helps to differentiate the area
generally from others. In certain cases, there could be more than one culture centre in a
culture area. However, culture centres tend to be found in urban centres and other points of
cultural diffusion and adaptation.
(2) Culture traits from culture centres tend to diffuse evenly from the centres to the periphery
of the culture areas. It is possible to criticise this assumption of Herskovits that assumes an
automatic diffusion of culture.
(3) As there are culture centres of most concentration of traits, there are also peripheries of
least concentration of traits. The limitations of this assumption are that the so-called points
of least concentration of traits and the peripheries could also be vulnerable to several other
culture traits from other culture centres.
(4) Since culture has an ecological basis, areas of similar culture will tend to have similar
environment conditions.
(5) The fifth assumption within the conception deals with the age-area concept which is an
attempt to give time dimension to culture traits that are distributed over natural or
geographical area. Here, the oldest traits will have dominance over particular areas.

Using all the above stated elements, Herskovits attempted characterization of culture areas
which are briefly outlinedbelow:

1. Eastern Sudan Area: This consists of mainly nomadic peoplewho are usually
represented by the Kababish people. Livestock are camels, goats. The religion is mainly
Islam and social organization is made up of strong pattern with Sheikh as head of group
controlling their movements. Milk of camel is a principal means of sustenance and camel
is used as marriage gift.
2. Western Sudan: This is a marginal area and the dominant religionsare Islam and Animism
(worship of idols). It possesses great kingdom some of which reach the coast. Benin,
Hausa, Fulbe, Borno and Yoruba were some of the Empires. Political organizations are
stable and dynastic. Economic life is complex with a dual economy composed of herding and
agriculture emphasis depending on different societies. Markets exist including trading
centres such as Kano and Timbuktu. Linguistic situation is chaotic-several languages. Art
forms complex and advanced-terra cottas.

3. The Desert Region: It is referred to as the Oasis culture. The conception of the Oasis here
is not just that of the easy access to water. Oasis dwellers are sedentary. Camels and
horses are principal domestic animals. There are also sheep, goats etc. Inhabitants are
Tuarages and Barbers. Descent is patrilineal and male authority is patriarchal.

The Egyptian area is part of the Desert area but for the Nile Baltes incursion. Land of ancient
civilization highly elaborate artistic work and it is the land of the salpinx and pyramids.

There are other areas included in this classification-that is, the Madagascan area with 4 sub-
areas within it namely, the Central Plateau Region, East coast, West coast and Extreme south.
These are the major characteristics of Herskovits‘ (1924) Culture areas of Africa. They represent
a broad classification emphasizing the traditional nature of the areas. Today, social change
deriving from various influences such as impact of colonization and modernization has affected
the essentially traditional nature of the cultures of these areas. Readers are encouraged to
pursue further reading from the original text. Sources include International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences.

1.13.2. ITQs?
i. List two fundamental assumptions of culture areas
ii. Provide with illustrations two culture areas as provided by Herskovits
1.13.3. ITAs?
Ia. Culture traits from culture centres tend to diffuse evenly from the centres to the periphery of
the culture areas. It is possible to criticize this assumption of Herskovitts which assumes an
automatic diffusion of culture.
Ib. As there are culture centres of most concentration of traits, there are also peripheries of
least concentration of traits. The limitations of this assumption are that the so-called points of
least concentration of traits and the peripheries could also be vulnerable to several other culture
traits from other culture centres.

a. Eastern Sudan Area: This consists of mainly nomadic people, represented mainly by
the Kababish people. Livestock are camels, goats. Religion mainly Islam, social
organization- strongly patterned with Sheikh as head of group controlling their
movements.

b. Western Sudan: This is a marginal area. Dominant religions are Islam and Animism
(worship of idols). It possesses great kingdom some of which reach the coast. Benin,
Hausa, Fulbe, Borno and Yoruba were some of the Empires. Political organizations are
stable and dynastic. Economic life is complex with a dual economy composed of herding and
agriculture emphasis depending on different societies.

Summary of Study Session 1

The study session is the first of the ten sessions in the module. This study session is intended to
equip students with the knowledge and skill to appreciate the rich diversity as well as the
similarities in the African socio-cultural, socio-economic, geographic and political landscape. In
addition, attributes of African Culture such as cuisine, folklore, myths and religion, clothing and
its varied production are explored.

The focus is on the African peoples, their cultures, norms, practices, customs, environment,
institutions, the history and evolution of these social features and their impacts on the African
image, African identity and the African question in contemporary times. The session begins
with clarification of basic concepts such as culture, enumerated and illustrated components of
culture and discussed characteristics of culture. The session moved on to look at what a society
is and the sociological typologies of human societies. It considered the nexus and interface of
culture and society, mentioned the attributes of African culture such as arts and crafts, folklore
and religion, clothing and cuisine, among others. It considers culture areas of Africa and the
exposition of Herskovits on the fundamental assumptions of culture areas. There are in-text
questions and in-text answers and activities at the end of each sub-section.
SAQs?
i. How would you define culture?
ii. Mention two features of culture
iii. What are the two major components of culture?
iv. Who is the proponent of cultural area?
v. Enumerate three attributes of African Culture

References

Bowden, R (2007). Africa South of the Sahara. New York: Coughlan Publishing

Ehret, C (2002). The Civilizations of Africa. Charlottesville: University of Virginia

Hogan, M.O (2006). Academic‘s Dictionary of Sociology. New Delhi: EPP Books Services

Mitchell, G.D (1979) ed. A New Dictionary of Sociology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul

Ninalowo, A and Badru, F.A (2012) eds. Fundamentals of General African Studies. Lagos:
Department of Sociology, University of Lagos

Reading, H.F (1978). A Dictionary of the Social Sciences. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul

Tajudeen Abdul Raheem, ed., (1996). Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in
the Twenty First Century.London: Pluto Press.