Naveed Book Physics

The book for Medical & dental test according to UHS pattern
Electro-magnetic induction So
Magnetic flux: The total number of magnetic ∆𝜑 (𝜑2−𝜑1) (𝐵2−𝐵1) cos 𝜃
𝜀 =−𝑁 ∆𝑡 = −𝑁 ∆𝑡
= −𝑁𝐴 ∆𝑡
=
lines of force passing Normally through an area placed in a (cos 𝜃2−cos 𝜃1)
magnetic field is equal to the magnetic flux linked with −𝑁𝐴𝐵 ∆𝑡
that area. For the rectangular coil
∆𝜑 ∆𝐵.𝐴 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝐵(𝑙×𝑤) cos 𝜃
Net flux through the surface 𝜑 =𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗=BAcos 𝜃 𝜀 =−𝑁 ∆𝑡=−𝑁 ∆𝑡 =−𝑁 ∆𝑡 =−𝑁 ∆𝑡
(θ is the angle between area vector and magnetic For the circular coil
field vector) 𝐵(𝜋𝑟2) cos 𝜃
𝜀 =−𝑁
If θ = 0 then 𝜑 = BA, If θ = 90o then 𝜑 = 0 ∆𝑡
Unit and Dimension: Magnetic flux is a scalar For the square coil
𝐵(𝑙2) cos 𝜃
quantity. It’s S.I. unit is weber (wb), CGS unit is Maxwell or 𝜀 =−𝑁 ∆𝑡
Gauss × cm2;  𝜑 = BAcos 𝜃 when angle is between B & unit
( 1 wb = 108 Maxwell) vector are 𝐴⃗
𝑁−𝑚 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Other units : Tesla × m2 =
𝐴𝑚𝑝
=
𝐴𝑚𝑝
=  𝜑 = BAsin 𝜃 when angle is between B & A simple
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 ×𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑠 area
= Volt ×sec = Ohm × Coulomb = Henry ×
𝐴𝑚𝑝 Mutual induction :
Amp. ∆𝐼𝑝
Magnetic flux density : The flux per unit are is 𝜀 =−𝑀 ∆𝑡
𝝋 where – sign represent that emf will oppose the
called magnetic flux density or surface flux density i.e B =
𝑨 rate of change of current in primary coil and depends on
where B is magnetic induction, magnetic intensity
the core , Area, number of turns & closeness of the coil.
and its unit is Wb m-2
Motional EMF Self-induction
∆𝐼
𝜀 =−𝐿
∆𝑡
where – sign represent that emf will oppose the rate of
change of current and depends on the core , Area,
number of turns
Fm = Fe A C Generator
By qvB = qE  𝜀 = 𝑁𝜔𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝐸  𝜀 = 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜃
VB = E ==> V = 𝐵 Velocity selector
 𝜀 = 𝑁𝜔(2𝑟𝑙)𝐵 sin 𝜃
Emf = - VBL sin 𝜃 ==>angle is between V & B Negative sign Transformer
represent emf produced is opposite motion to conductor Transformer: the devise used to step up and step
Faradays law : down the applied A.C voltages. Work only on A.C not D.C
First law: Whenever the number of magnetic lines because output is zero. Work on principle of mutual
of force (magnetic flux) passing through a circuit changes induction. Consist of two coil one is primary and 2nd is
an emf is produced in the circuit called induced emf. The secondary coil.
induced emf
Persists only as long as there is change or cutting of flux.
Second law : The induced emf is given by rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit i.e. It can increase or decrease either voltage or current but
∆𝜑
emf = − ∆𝑡 For not both simultaneously.
∆𝜑
Negative sign indicates that induced emf (e) N turns emf = −𝑁 ∆𝑡
Opposes the change of flux. Emf depends on number of Transformer does not change the frequency of
turns & rate of change of flux. input A.C
Other formulae : 𝜑 = BA cosθ ; Hence 𝜑 will
change if either, B, A or θ will change
 Naveed Book Physics
The book for Medical & dental test according to UHS pattern
There is no electrical connection between the winding but Types of transformer
they are linked magnetically. Effective resistance between Step up Step down
primary and secondary winding is infinite. The flux per turn transformer transformer
of each coil must be same It increases voltage It decreases voltage
𝜑𝑝 = 𝜑𝑠 and decreases and increases current
Equation current
 If NP = number of turns in primary,
 NS = number of turns in secondary,
 VP = applied (input) voltage to primary,  VS > VP  VS < VP
 VS = Voltage across secondary (load voltage or 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
 𝑉𝑝 > 1  𝑉𝑝 < 1
output),
𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑃
 𝜀𝑝 = induced emf in primary ;  <1  >1
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
 𝜀𝑠 = induced emf in secondary,  NS > NP  NS < NP
 𝜑= flux linked with primary as well as secondary, 
𝑁𝑠
>1 
𝑁𝑠
<1
 IP = current in primary; 𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝑝
 ES > E P  ES < E P
 IS = current in secondary (or load current)
 IS < Ip  IS > IP
As in an ideal transformer there is no loss of power 𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
Pin = Pout , vP IP = vS IS , vP≅ 𝜀𝑝, , vs≅ 𝜀𝑠 & P = I2R but R = 0 so P  𝐼𝑝 < 1  𝐼𝑝 > 1
∝ I2 or I ∝ P2 Hence  RS > R P  RS < R P
𝜀𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝 𝑃2𝑝
= = = = =k  tS > tP  tS > tP
𝜀𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠 𝑃2𝑠
 k>1  k<1
Transformation ratio (or turn ratio)
Efficiency of transformer (ɲ) : Efficiency is
defined as the ratio of output power and input power
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 Vs Is (ii) Eddy current loss : Some electrical power is wasted
ɲ% = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 in the form of heat due to eddy currents, induced in
𝑃𝑖𝑛 Vp Ip
For an ideal transformer Pout = Pin so ɲ =100% core, to minimize this loss transformers core are
(But efficiency of practical transformer lies between 70% – laminated and silicon is
90%) added to the core material as it increases the
For practical transformer Pin = Pout + Ploss resistivity. The material of the core is then called silicon-
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 Pin− Ploss iron (steel).
ɲ% = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
Pout + Ploss 𝑃𝑖𝑛 (iii) Hysteresis loss : The alternating current
Losses in transformer : In transformers some flowing through the coils magnetizes and demagnetizes
power is always lost due to, heating effect, flux the iron core again and Again. Therefore, during each
leakage eddy currents, cycle of magnetization, some energy is lost due to
Hysteresis and humming. hysteresis. However, the loss of energy
(i) Cu loss (I2 R) : When current flows through the Can be minimized by selecting the material of core, which
transformer windings some power is wasted in the form of has a narrow hysteresis loop. Therefore core of
heat ( H = I2 Rt)To minimize this loss windings are made of transformer is made of
thick Cu wires (To reduce resistance) Soft iron. Now a day it is made of “Permalloy” (Fe-22%, Ni-
(ii) Eddy current loss : Some electrical power is 78%).
wasted in the form of heat due to eddy currents, (iv) Magnetic flux leakage : Magnetic flux produced in
induced in core, to minimize this loss transformers core the primary winding is not completely linked with
are laminated and silicon is secondary because few magnetic lines of force
added to the core material as it increases the complete their path in air only. To minimize this loss
resistivity. The material of the core is then called silicon- Secondary winding is kept inside the Primary winding
iron (steel).
 Naveed Book Physics
The book for Medical & dental test according to UHS pattern
(v) Humming losses : Due to the passage of For this, the loop will itself start moving in the direction of
alternating current, the core of the transformer starts motion of the magnet.
vibrating and produces humming sound. Thus, some part (4) It is important to remember that whenever cause of
(may be very small) of the electrical energy is wasted in induced emf is relative motion, the new motion is always
the form of humming sounds produced by the vibrating in the direction of motion of the cause.
core of the transformer. Alternating Current
Uses of transformer: A transformer is used in An alternating quantity (current i or voltage V)
almost all ac operations e.g. is one whose magnitude changes continuously with
(i) In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerator, computer, air time between zero and a maximum value and whose
conditioner etc. direction reverses periodically.
(ii) In the induction furnaces. Some graphical representation for alternating quantities
(iii) Step down transformer is used for welding purposes.
(iv) In the transmission of ac over long distance.
(v) Step down and step up transformers are used in
electrical power distribution.
(vi) Audio frequency transformers are used in radiography,
television, radio, telephone etc.
(vii) Radio frequency transformers are used in radio
communication. Equation for I and V : Alternating current or
(viii) Transformers are also used in impedance matching. voltage varying as sine function can be written as
2𝜋
Lenz’s law I =Io Sin 𝜃 =Io Sin 𝜔𝑡= Io Sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = Io Sin 𝑡
𝑇
This law gives the direction of induced 2𝜋
V =Io Sin 𝜃 =Vo Sin 𝜔𝑡= Vo Sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = Vo Sin 𝑇 𝑡
emf/induced current. According to this law, the direction
of induced emf or current in a circuit is such as to oppose where i and V are Instantaneous values of
the cause that produces it. This law is based upon law of current and voltage, I0 and V0 are peak
conservation of energy.it is applied in close circuit. values of current and voltage , 𝜔 = Angular frequency in
(1) When N-pole of a bar magnet moves towards the coil, rad/sec, f = Frequency in Hz and T =
the flux associated with loop increases and an emf is time period
induced in it. Since the circuit of loop is closed, induced
current also flows in it.
(2) Cause of this induced current, is approach of north-pole
and therefore to oppose the cause, i.e., to repel the
approaching north pole, the induced current in loop is in
such a direction so
that the front face of loop behaves as north pole.
Therefore induced current as seen by observer O is in
 During positive half cycle current is clockwise
anticlockwise direction. (Figure)
 During Negative half cycle current is anti-clockwise
(i) The time taken to complete one cycle of variations
is called the periodic time or time period.
(ii) Alternating quantity is positive for half the cycle and
negative for the rest half. Hence average value of
(3) If the loop is free to move the cause of induced emf in alternating quantity (i or V) over a complete cycle is
the coil can also be termed as relative motion. zero.
Therefore to oppose the cause, the relative motion (iii) The value of alternating quantity is zero or
between the approaching magnet and the loop should be maximum 2f times every second. The direction also
opposed. changes 2f times every second.
 Naveed Book Physics
The book for Medical & dental test according to UHS pattern
(iv) Generally sinusoidal waveform is used as alternating (ii) In general when values of voltage or current for
current/voltage. alternating circuits are given, these are r.m.s. value
𝑇 (iii) Ac ammeter and voltmeter are always measure r.m.s.
(v) At t = 4 from the beginning, i or V reaches to their
maximum value. value. Values printed on ac circuits are r.m.s. values.
Important Values of Alternating Quantities (iv) In our houses ac is supplied at 220 V, which is
Peak value (I0 or V0) : The maximum value of the r.m.s. value of voltage. It's peak value is √2 × 200 =
Alternating quantity (i or V) is defined as peak value or 311 V
amplitude. (v) r.m.s. value of ac is equal to that value of dc,
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 which when passed through a resistance for a given time
IO = 0.707 = 1.1414 Irms
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 will produce the same amount of heat as produced by the
 Vo = 0.707 = 1.1414 Vrms alternating current when passed through the same
Mean square value : The average of square Resistance for same time.
of instantaneous values in one cycle is called mean Mean or Average value (I av or Vav) : The
square value. average value of alternating quantity for one complete
It is always positive for one complete cycle. cycle is zero. The average value of ac over half cycle (t = 0
𝑉𝑜2 𝐼𝑜2
𝑉2 = 2 , 𝐼2 = 2 to T/2)
2
Root mean square (r.m.s.) value : Root of  Iav = 𝜋 Io = 0.637 Io = 63.7 % Io
mean of square of voltage or current in an ac circuit 2
for one complete cycle is called r.m.s. value. It is  Vav = 𝜋 Vo = 0.637 Vo = 63.7 % Vo
denoted by Vrms , Irms Peak to peak value : It is equal to the sum
 Irms = Io/√2 = 0.707 Io = 70.7 % Io of the magnitudes of positive and negative peak values
 Vrms = Vo/√2 = 0.707 Vo = 70.7 % Vo Peak to peak value = V0 + V0 = 2V0 = 2 /√2 Vrms=2.828 Vrm
Form factor and peak factor : The ratio of r.m.s. value
(i) The r.m.s. value of alternating current is also of ac to it's average during half cycle is defined as form
called virtual value or effective value. factor. The ratio of peak value and r.m.s. value is called
. peak factor

The various positions of relative motion between the magnet and the coil

Position of magnet

Direction of induced Anticlockwise direction Clockwise direction Clockwise direction Anticlockwise direction
current

Behavior of face of the As a north pole As a south pole As a south pole As a north pole
coil

Type of magnetic Repulsive force Attractive force Repulsive force Attractive force
force opposed

Magnetic field linked Cross (×), Increases Cross (×), Decreases Dots (.) Increases Dots (.) Decreases
with the coil and it’s
progress as viewed from
left
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The book for Medical & dental test according to UHS pattern

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