Program : B.

E
Subject Name: Advance Machine Design
Subject Code: ME-8001
Semester: 8th
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Unit 1
Fundamentals of technical systems
Introduction:
Technical tasks are performed with the help of technical artefacts that include plant,
equipment, machines, assemblies and components, listed here in approximate order of their
complexity. These terms may not have identical uses in different fields. Thus, a piece of
equipment (reactor, evaporator) is sometimes considered to be more complex than a plant,
and artefacts described as 專plant尉 in certain fields may be described as 專machines尉 in others. A
machine consists of assemblies and components. Control equipment is used in plant and
machines alike and may also be made up of assemblies and components, and perhaps even of
small machines.
The variation in use of these terms reflect historical developments and application areas. There
are attempts to define standards in which energy-transforming technical artefacts are referred
to as machines, material-transforming artefacts as apparatus and signal-transforming artefacts
as devices. It is evident that a clear division on the basis of these characteristics is not always
possible and that the current terminology is not ideal.
Common viewpoints are:
• Fu tio : used to ide tify or des ri e the fu tio al relatio ships
• Asse ly: used to pla asse ly operatio s.
• Produ tio : used to fa ilitate produ tio a d produ tio pla i g.
Description of design process:
Morris Asimow was among the first to give a detailed description of the complete design
process in what he called the morphology of design. His seven phases of design are described
below, with slight changes of terminology to conform to current practice. The various activities
that make up the first three phases of design: conceptual design, embodiment design, and
detail design. This eightstep set of design activities is our representation of the basic design
process. The purpose of this graphic is to remind you of the logical sequence of activities that
leads from problem definition to the detail design.
1.5.1 Phase I. Conceptual Design
Conceptual design is the process by which the design is initiated, carried to the point of creating
a number of possible solutions, and narrowed down to a single best concept. It is sometimes
called the feasibility study. Conceptual design is the phase that requires the greatest creativity,
involves the most uncertainty, and requires coordination among many functions in the business
organization. The following are the discrete activities that we consider under conceptual design.

Steps of Engineering conceptual design Process:

1. Identifying the problem: - Evaluating the needs or identifying the problem is a very
important step in finding a solution. An improper definition of the problem will cause the
engineer to waste time or arrive at an in correct solution. It is important that the stated
needs be real needs. A great design may be worthless if it duplicates other known designs
or does ’t enefit many people.
2. Gathering needed information: -After defining the problem, an engineer begins to gather
all the information and data necessary to solve the problem. It could be physical
measurements, maps, results of laboratory experiments, patents, results of opinion surveys,

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or any number of other types of information. Engineers should always try to build on what
has already been done before. Information on related problems that have been solved or
unsolved may help engineers find the best solution.
3. Searching for creative solutions: -There are several techniques to help a group or individual
to produce original creative ideas. The development of these new ideas may come from
creativity, a subconscious effort, or innovation, a conscious effort. Some techniques Wright
(1) suggests that may aid a group or individual in obtaining a creative solution are
brainstorming, checklists, attribute listing, the forced relationship technique, and adopting a
different point of view.
 Brainstorming: - A popular technique for group problem solving is brainstorming.
Typically, a brainstorming session consists of 6 to 12 people who spontaneously
introduce ideas designed to solve a specific problem. In these sessions, encourage and
record all ideas, including those that appear completely impractical. Do not allow
judgment or evaluation of ideas during the idea generation session. It is important to
generate as many ideas as possible, encourage people to build upon the ideas of others.
Evaluate the ideas after the session is complete.
 Checklists: - One of the simplest methods for generating new ideas is to make a
checklist. The checklist encourages the user to examine various points, areas, and design
possibilities. For example to improve a device, you may want a checklist like this:
i. Ways the device could be put to other uses.
ii. Ways the device could be modified.
iii. Ways the device could be rearranged.
iv. Ways the device could be magnified.
v. Ways the device could be reduced, etc.
 Attribute Listing: - With attribute listing, all the major characteristics or attributes of a
product, object, or idea are isolated and listed. Then, for each attribute, list ideas as to
how each of the attributes could be changed. Again, as in brainstorming, all ideas are
listed no matter how impractical. After all the ideas are listed, evaluate each idea
bringing to light possible improvements that can be made to the design of the product.
For example, how can we improve a telephone design?
 Forced Relationship Technique: - The forced relationship technique takes a fixed
element, such as the product or some idea related to the product, and forces it to take
on the attributes of another unrelated element.This forms the basis of a free flowing list
of associations from which hopefully new ideas will emerge. As before, judge the value
of the ideas after the process is complete. For example, suppose we wish to design a
weed-cutting device. This will be the forced object. Suppose we randomly choose an
automobile wheel as the other element. Some of the ideas that may occur based upon
the automobile wheel are:
i. A round weed cutter.
ii. A rubber weed cutter.
iii. A weed cutter that rolls.
iv. A weed cutter that has spokes.
v. A weed cutter that has air in its tires.
vi. A weed cutter that has brakes.
vii. A weed cutter that will not break.

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 Different Point of View: - People sometimes stretch their minds by adopting different
points of view. Imagine a similar problem located on a strange planet or in free fall. Try
to identify with the stone that is to be crushed, or the fruit that is going to be peeled.
Pretend that common materials or components are not available or that certain
exceptional ones are. Try to project how nature would do it. The methods are endless.
4. Overcoming obstacles to creative thinking: - Here are some specific actions and attitudes
that can be employed to overcome obstacles to creative thinking:
1. Avoid placing unnecessary constraints on the problem being solved.
2. Search for different ways to view the problem, avoiding preconceived beliefs and
stereotypical thinking.
3. Recognize that there are non-engineering solutions to many problems. Consider
approaches that other disciplines might use.
4. Look for relationships that are remote and solutions that are unusual and
nontraditional. Most creative thought involves putting experiences and thoughts into
new patterns and arrangements.
5. Divide complex problems into manageable parts and concentrate on solving one part
at a time.
6. Allow time for incubation, after periods of intensive concentration.
7. Be open to a variety of problem-solving strategies.
5. Moving from ideas to preliminary designs (including modeling): - For engineers to move
from ideas to a preliminary design, they must sort through the possible solutions and
determine which ones are unworkable and which might have promise. The promising ideas
are then molded and worked into plans. Preliminary designs evolve through analysis and
synthesis. Analysis is breaking apart the whole and studying its individual components.
Synthesis involves putting together many facts, laws, or principles into a whole idea that will
accomplish some result or solve a problem. There are many techniques an engineer might
use to determine if an idea has promise. Preliminary sketching or analysis may show that the
idea is a bad one. Laboratory tests may need to be run on a component to see if it will work
in a given situation. Perhaps a large research project may need to be undertaken to examine
the validity of a process, or its consequences if used as a solution. The engineer must
critically examine and study possible solutions, and constantly eliminate poor or
inappropriate solutions. To facilitate the design process, engineers often rely on models. A
model simplifies a system or process so that it may be better studied, understood, and used
in a design. There are three common models used in engineering: mathematical, simulation,
and physical.
 Mathematical models usually consist of one or more equations that describe a physical
system. Many physical systems can be described by mathematical models. Such models
can be based on scientific theories or laws that have stood the test of time, or they may
be based on empirical data from experiments or observations. Mathematical models are
usually employed for simple systems. The difficulty in deriving the equations for
complex systems outweighs their usefulness.
 Computer simulation models allow engineers to examine complex systems. Such
models may incorporate many empirically based mathematical models as part of the
total simulation model. A computer program is developed to describe a system, and this
model may then be subjected to many different simulated operating conditions.

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 Physical models have long been used by engineers to understand complex systems.
They probably represent the oldest method of structural design. Physical models have
the advantage in that they allow an engineer to study a device, structure, or system with
little or no prior knowledge of its behavior or need to make simplifying assumptions. Full
scale models are sometimes built, but most often they have been scaled down
anywhere from 1:4 to 1:48.
Examples of studies made with physical models include:
1. Dispersion of pollutants throughout a lake.
2. Behavior of waves within a harbor.
3. Underwater performance of submarines of different shapes.
4. Performance of aircraft by using wind tunnels to simulate various flight conditions.
6. Evaluating and selecting a preferred solution: - There are many criteria that engineers use to
evaluate the value of a solution or design, which may depend on the nature of the problem. If
the solution involves a product, great importance may be placed on safety, cost, reliability,
and consumer acceptability. Many designers use prototypes to test the operation of the
design. The designer could then identify any weak areas of the design and attempt to improve
upon them. No idea should be discarded solely on the basis of one prototype or one test.
Many great designs have been discarded prematurely and many working prototypes have
failed to give acceptable products.
Indirect evaluation can be used as well, to evaluate a design. Scale models can be used to
testaircraft design at a fraction of the cost of building a prototype. Computer simulations
andmathematical models may not be accurate enough to allow understanding of all the
complexitiesof component interference or turbulence, but they still may be used to
approximate the design ofthe first scale model for wind tunnel testing.
7. Preparing reports, plans, and specifications (Project Planning): - After selection of the
preferred design, it must be communicated to those who must approve it, support it, and
translate it into reality. This communication may take the form of an engineering report, or a
set of pla s a d spe ifi atio s. Pla s a d spe ifi atio s are the e gi eer’s ea s of des ri i g
to a manufacturing division or to a contractor sufficient detail about a design so that it can be
produced or constructed. Engineering drawings, written and oral communications, and
scheduling and planning a design project are very important in implementing a design smoothly
and efficiently.
Phase II. Embodiment Design
Structured development of the design concept occurs in this engineering design phase. It is the
place where flesh is placed on the skeleton of the design concept. An embodiment of all the
main functions that must be performed by the product must be undertaken. It is in this design
phase that decisions are made on strength, material selection, size, shape, and spatial
compatibility. Beyond this design phase, major changes become very expensive. This design
phase is sometimes called preliminary design. Embodiment design is concerned with three
major tasks product architecture, configuration design, and parametric design.
Product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with dividing the overall design system
into subsystems or modules. In this step we decide how the physical components of the design
are to be arranged and combined to carry out the functional duties of the design.
Configuration design of parts and components: Parts are made up of features like holes, ribs,
splines, and curves. Configuring a part means to determine what features will be present and

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how those features are to be arranged in space relative to each other. While modeling and
simulation may be performed in this stage to check out function and spatial constraints, only
approximate sizes are determined to assure that the part satisfies the PDS. Also, more
specificity about materials and manufacturing is given here. The generation of a physical model
of the part with rapid prototyping processes may be appropriate.
Parametric design of parts:Parametric design starts with information on the configuration of
the part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerances. Final decisions on the
material and manufacturing processes are also established if this has not been done previously.
An important aspect of parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and system for
design robustness. Robustness refers to how consistently a component performs under variable
conditions in its service environment.
1.5.3 Phase III. Detail Design
In this phase the design is brought to the stage of a complete engineering description of a
tested and producible product. Missing information is added on the arrangement, form,
dimensions, and tolerances, surface properties, materials, and manufacturing processes of each
part. This results in a specification for each special-purpose part and for each standard part to
be purchased from suppliers. In the detail design phase the following activities are completed
and documents are prepared:
1. Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these are computer-
generated drawings, and they often include three-dimensional CAD models.
2. Verification testing of prototypes is successfully completed and verification data is submitted.
All critical-to-quality parameters are confirmed to be under control. Usually the building and
testing of several preproduction versions of the product will be accomplished.
3. Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be completed. The bill of materials for
all assemblies will be completed.
4. A detailed product specification, updated with all the changes made since the conceptual
design phase, will be prepared.
5. Decisions on whether to make each part internally or to buy from an external supplier will be
made.
6. With the preceding information, a detailed cost estimate for the product will be carried out.
7. Finally, detail design concludes with a design review before the decision is made to pass the
design information on to manufacturing.
Phases I, II, and III take the design from the realm of possibility to the real world of practicality.
However, the design process is not finished with the delivery of a set of detailed engineering
drawings and specifications to the manufacturing organization. Many other technical and
business decisions must be made that are really part of the design process. A great deal of
thought and planning must go into how the design will be manufactured, how it will be
marketed, how it will be maintained during use, and finally, how it will be retired from service
and replaced by a new, improved design. Generally these phases of design are carried out
elsewhere in the organization than in the engineering department or product development
department. As the project proceeds into the new phases, the expenditure of money and
personnel time increases greatly.
1.5.4 Phase IV. Planning for Manufacture
A great deal of detailed planning must be done to provide for the production of the design. A
method of manufacture must be established for each component in the system. As a usual first

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step, a process sheet is created; it contains a sequential list of all manufacturing operations that
must be performed on the component. Also, it specifies the form and condition of the material
and the tooling and production machines that will be used. The information on the process
sheet makes possible the estimation of the production cost of the component high costs may
indicate the need for a change in material or a basic change in the design. Close interaction with
manufacturing, industrial, materials, and mechanical engineers is important at this step.
The other important tasks performed in phase IV are the following:
1. Designing specialized tools and fixtures.
2. Specifying the production plant that will be used (or designing a new plant) and laying out
the production lines.
3. Planning the work schedules and inventory controls (production control).
4. Planning the quality assurance system.
5. Establishing the standard time and labor costs for each operation.
6. Establishing the system of information flow necessary to control the manufacturing
operation.
All of these tasks are generally considered to fall within industrial or manufacturing
engineering.
Phase V. Planning for Distribution:
Important technical and business decisions must be made to provide for the effective
distribution to the consumer of the products that have been produced. In the strict realm of
design, the shipping package may be critical. Concepts such as the shelf life of the product may
also be critical and may need to be addressed in the earlier stages of the design process. A
system of warehouses for distributing the product may have to be designed if none exists. The
economic success of the design often depends on the skill exercised in marketing the product. If
it is a consumer product, the sales effort is concentrated on advertising in print and video
media, but highly technical products may require that the marketing step be a technical activity
supported by specialized sales brochures, performance test data, and technically trained sales
engineers.
Phase VI. Planning for Use
The use of the product by the consumer is all-important, and considerations of how the
consumer will react to the product pervade all steps of the design process. The following
specific topics can be identified as being important user-oriented concerns in the design
process: ease of maintenance, durability, reliability, product safety, and convenience in use
(human factors engineering), aesthetic appeal, and economy of operation. Obviously, these
consumer-oriented issues must be considered in the design process at its very beginning. They
are not issues to be treated as afterthoughts. Phase VI of design is less well defined than the
others, but it is becoming increasingly important with the growing concerns for consumer
protection and product safety. More strict interpretation of product liability laws is having a
major impact on design. An important phase VI activity is the acquisition of reliable data on
failures, service lives, and consumer complaints and attitudes to provide a basis for product
improvement in the next design cycle.
Phase VII. Planning for Retirement of the Product
The final step in the design process is the disposal of the product when it has reached the end
of its useful life. Useful life may be determined by actual deterioration and wear to the point at
which the design can no longer function, or it may be determined by technological

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o soles e e, i whi h a o peti g desig perfor s the produ t’s fu tio s either etter or
cheaper. In consumer products, it may come about through changes in fashion or taste.
Design tools and resources:
Today, the engineer has a great variety of tools and resources available to assist in the solution
of design problems. Inexpensive microcomputers and robust computer software packages
provide tools of immense capability for the design, analysis, and simulation of mechanical
components. In addition to these tools, the engineer always needs technical information, either
in the form of basic science/engineering behavior or the characteristics of specific off-the-shelf
components. Here, the resources can range from science/engineering textbooks to
a ufa turers’ ro hures or atalogs. Here too, the o puter a play a ajor role i
gathering information.
Computational Tools:
Computer-aided design (CAD) software allows the development of three-dimensional (3-D)
designs from which conventional two-dimensional orthographic views with automatic
dimensioning can be produced. Manufacturing tool paths can be generated from the 3-D
models, and in some cases, parts can be created directly from a 3-D database by fusing a rapid
prototyping and manufacturing method (stereo lithography) paperless manufacturing! Another
advantage of a 3-D database is that it allows rapid and accurate calculations of mass properties
such as mass, location of the center of gravity, and mass moments of inertia. Other geometric
properties such as areas and distances between points are likewise easily obtained. There are a
great many CAD software packages available such as Aries, AutoCAD, Cad Key, I-Deas, Uni-
graphics, Solid Works, and Pro-Engineer, to name a few.
Standards and Codes:
A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve
uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality. One of the important purposes of a standard is to
limit the multitude of variations that can arise from the arbitrary creation of a part, material, or
process.
A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and construction of
something. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency, and
performance or quality. It is important to observe that safety codes do not imply absolute
safety. In fact, absolute safety is impossible to obtain. Sometimes the unexpected event really
does happen. Designing a building to withstand a 120 mi/h wind does not mean that the
designers think a 140 mi/h wind is impossible; it simply means that they think it is highly
improbable. All of the organizations and societies listed below have established specifications
for standards and safety or design codes. The name of the organization provides a clue to the
nature of the standard or code. Some of the standards and codes, as well as addresses, can be
obtained in most technical libraries or on the Internet.
The organizations of interest to mechanical engineers are:
1. Aluminum Association (AA)
2. American Bearing Manufacturers Association (ABMA)
3. American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
4. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
5. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
6. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
7. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

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8. (ASHRAE)
9. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
10. American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
11. American Welding Society (AWS) ASM International
12. British Standards Institution (BSI)
13. Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
14. Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)
15. Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE)
16. International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
17. International Federation of Robotics (IFR)
18. International Standards Organization (ISO)
19. National Association of Power Engineers (NAPE)
20. National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
21. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
Uncertainty:
Uncertainties in machinery design abound. Examples of uncertainties concerningstress and
strength include
1. Composition of material and the effect of variation on properties.
2. Variations in properties from place to place within a bar of stock.
3. Effect of processing locally, or nearby, on properties.
4. Effect of nearby assemblies such as weldments and shrink fits on stress conditions.
5. Effect of thermomechanical treatment on properties.
6. Intensity and distribution of loading.
7. Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality.
8. Intensity of stress concentrations.
9. Influence of time on strength and geometry.
10. Effect of corrosion.
11. Effect of wear.
12. Uncertainty as to the length of any list of uncertainties.
There are mathematical methods to address uncertainties. The primary techniquesare the
deterministic and stochastic methods. The deterministic method establishes adesign factor
based on the absolute uncertainties of a loss-of-function parameter anda maximum allowable
parameter. Here the parameter can be load, stress, deflectionetc.
Design factor is given by following relationship
Nd = (loss-of-function parameter /maximum allowable parameter)

Reliability:
Reliability is the probability that a system, component, or device will perform without failure for
a specified period of time under specified operating conditions. The discipline of reliability
engineering basically is a study of the causes, distribution, and prediction of failure. If R ( t) is
the reliability with respect to time t , then F ( t ) is the unreliability (probability of failure) in the
same time t . Since failure and non-failure are mutually exclusive events is given by following
equation.

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Figure 1 (a) Distribution of time to failure; (b) cumulative distribution of time to failure.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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