E3S Web of Conferences 67, 03044 (2018)

https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20186703044
3rd i-TREC 2018

Transformerless SoC-based current control switching battery

charger for e-vehicle: design and analysis
Purnomo Sidi Priambodo1,*, Yosua Adriadi1 and Taufiq Alif Kurniawan1
1Department of Electrical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia

Abstract. Electric-based vehicles become a necessity in the future to dramatically reduce the effects of
pollution. There are various devices involve in the operation of electric vehicles, one of which is a battery
charger. This paper discusses the design steps, circuit and ripple performance analysis associated with
building a battery charger system. The analysis shows the differences between RL and RC circuits in
controlling the output voltage average and the ripples. It shows how RLC mixed circuit improve performance
in both controlling the output voltage average and the ripple suppression.

1 Introduction of the existing electric vehicles in the market nowadays

are based on battery technology. So, it became an interest
Global warming effects have driven nations around the to develop some components of battery-based electric
world become more aware that the reduction of pollution vehicles, one of which is a battery charger.
must be resolved as soon as possible and suppress it to the Battery charger becomes an important instrument
lowest level. Supported by the mature of electric and component in battery-based electric vehicles. There are at
electronics technology, it is predicted that in the next 50 least three main parameters in battery charging process
years the combustion-based vehicles will disappear or be will be discussed here, i.e. battery capacity, battery
transformed into a much more efficient and non-pollutive charging speed and filling method. The larger the battery
electric-based vehicles [1]. It is not simple to replace capacity, the more energy backup of the vehicle and the
100% of fossil-fuel based vehicles to the 100% of electric more distance it can reach. However, the consequence, for
based vehicles. It requires preparation of various charging electricity to large battery size will require more
infrastructures to support this replacement. In between, time than the small capacity one. Battery charging speed
the hybrid vehicle technology has emerged to bridge the is one of the disadvantages of the first generation battery-
implementation of 100% electric based vehicles. There is based electric vehicles. Battery charging speed limits are
a report that the efficiency of hybrid vehicle is almost 2-3 more determined by the battery character limitations than
times compared to the full-combustion vehicles [2]. the charger current delivery capability. Charger can be
Various automotive industry has come to enliven the made for any current capacity, however, battery speed is
market with a variety of electric vehicle products, from generally determined by Charge Rate (CR) battery in
small size of motorcycles, cars and even buses. Amperes. For instant, battery capacity of 12V 65 Ah
Based on technology trends, electric vehicles can be battery, if it has CR 13A, it will take about 5 hours to fully
grouped based on (1) battery technology, (2) fuel cell charge the battery. For CR 65 A, it will take 1 hour [4]. In
technology and (3) mini nuclear reactor technology [3]. general, CR is limited by the internal resistance of the
Of the three technologies, only the two early technologies battery at charging state, which is a function of state of
are predicted will compete as the main technology charge (SoC). Hence, the ability of CR is a function of the
supporting electric vehicles in the future, because nuclear SoC. Generally, the maximum CR is specified by the
technology is considered not environmental clean. Of the battery manufacturer. Obviously, SoC is divided into 3
first two technologies, namely battery-based and fuel-cell, regions. SoC from 0 to 70% is called as empty, 70% - 90%
both have advantages and disadvantages. One is called half full and 90% to full is called full condition.
disadvantage of battery-based electric vehicles compared In an empty SoC condition, the internal charging
to fossil-fueled vehicles and fuel-cell-based electric resistance of the batteries is relatively low compared to
vehicles is the time needed to charge the battery for longer the full SoC condition. So, in the condition of the empty
vehicle mileage. In addition, the weight of the battery SoC is possible to do large CR (charging current) with
itself is much heavier when compared to other fuel-based relatively small heat emissions, compared to the same CR,
vehicles. However, due to the longer maturity of battery but at full SoC condition. In order to avoid excessive heat
technology and getting lower price, the battery-based emission, it must be arranged CR in accordance with the
vehicles become more favorable in the last decade internal charging resistance battery as a function of SoC.
compared to fuel-cell based electric vehicles. Hence, most

*
Corresponding author: p.s.priambodo@ieee.org

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E3S Web of Conferences 67, 03044 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20186703044
3rd i-TREC 2018

This paper discusses the design steps, circuit and the τ (2 to 3) second delay the value of R1 and C1 on Fig-
ripple performance analysis in order to build a 2 must meet the requirement.
transformerless SoC-based current control switching
battery charger system for 100 VDC battery system. The
analysis shows the differences between RL and RC circuit
in controlling the output voltage average and the ripples.
It shows how RLC mixed circuit improves the charging
performance in both controlling the output voltage
average and ripple suppression.

2 Theoretical, design and analysis

We designed this battery charger with several features,
such as: transformerless, soft-switch and electronic
switching [5-8]. As is common in modern battery
chargers, this system does not use transformers for step-
up or step down to the desired DC charging voltage for Fig. 2. Soft-switch circuit.
compact and low cost reason. This system directly
performs the rectifying process of AC source voltage i.e.
electric utility 220 VAC 50 Hz. The desired DC charging 2.3 Main rectifier circuit
voltage and current are adjusted by the electronic
switching system with the duty-cycle arrangement. In our The output voltage of the main rectifier circuit is the input
developed battery charger system, the duty cycle for the switching circuit. It should be designed in such a
switching control is conducted by the PWM generator way that the output voltage ripple as low as possible.
circuit, which gets input control from the value of the SoC Therefore, the design of the filter capacitor on the main
battery being charged. rectifier circuit should be based on its maximum load. The
electric circuit model of the main rectifier circuit is in the
following Fig-3, where the switching circuit is
2.1 Battery charger circuit represented as 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 :
The following Fig-1 shows the overall schematic block of
the battery charger system.

Fig. 3. Electric circuit model for the main rectifier

circuit.

Output 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂−𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (t) or Vc(t) as a with and without capacitor

𝐶𝐶1 is illustrated in the following Fig-4.
Fig. 1. Battery charger circuit.

2.2 Soft-switch circuit:

Soft-switch pre-charging circuit is used to avoid rush
current at turn-on time, the beginning of charging process
and capacitor C1 at main rectifier still empty. At the turn-
on time, the C1 capacitor is charged through the RSS (soft-
switch resistance), such that the charging current can be
limited. After some time (2-3 seconds), C1 is filled up at
certain sufficient safety level, the RSS is then by-passed by
the controlled relay Soft-switch pre-charging circuit. The
Soft-switch circuit is shown on Fig-2 below.
Delay switching time to bypass pre-charging resistor Fig. 4. Full-wave rectifier output ripple noise illustration.
is determined by time constant τ = R1C1 of Fig-2. The
delay is about 2 to 3 seconds which allows the rectifier The Output of bridge rectifier diode is a full-wave
main capacitor C1 on Fig-1 to be partially filled. To meet rectifier, if not filtered by capacitor, then:

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E3S Web of Conferences 67, 03044 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20186703044
3rd i-TREC 2018

𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2
(𝑉𝑉 − 0.7), where rd and RLo are and how the system performs, all is analyzed in the
2𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝜋𝜋 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 following description.
static diode resistance and load resistance, respectively. 2 The battery load can be illustrated as RLoad, then the
rd means 2 series diode resistances in a charging loop. If RLoadLC filter circuit can be described as two synergistic
it is filtered by capacitor 𝐶𝐶1 then: filters, RLoadL and RLoadC. Both filters have similarity
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 properties in controlling the amount of ripple noise, but
𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 2𝑟𝑟 (𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 0.7). Where the value of 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 different in controlling the output voltage of Vo. Briefly
𝑑𝑑 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
we describe the similarities and differences between those
is √2𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 _rms or 311-V. In order to suppress the output
two filter types. First, we analyze the filter that contains
ripple, it requires that time constant 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶1 ≫ 0.5 𝑇𝑇, only the L and RLoad components (RLoad represents the
where T is the time period of the electric source (0.02 sec).
battery load) like the following Fig-6. It is given the input
The peak to peak ripple magnitude to the maximum
parameters of switching voltage of V, frequency f (period
voltage output of full-wave rectifier filtered by 𝐶𝐶1 is T) and duty cycle of d, then Vo(t) is illustrated in Fig-7.
written in the following formula:
1
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 % = 𝑥𝑥 100% (1)
2𝑓𝑓𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶1
For a half-wave rectifier filtered by 𝐶𝐶1 is written as:
1
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 % = 𝑥𝑥 100% (2)
𝑓𝑓𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶1
where f is 50 Hz and RLo is the equal load resistance.

2.4 Switching circuit

Fig. 6. RL Filter.
The switching circuit is shown in detail in Fig-5 below:

Fig. 7. V(t) of RL Filter.

Moreover, RLoad is named as R. Note that for Fig-7, line b
𝑅𝑅
to a is governed by (1 − 𝑒𝑒 − 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) term, while line a to b is
𝑅𝑅
(1−𝑑𝑑)𝑡𝑡
Fig. 5. Single MOSFET switching circuit for DC to DC governed by (𝑒𝑒 − 𝐿𝐿 ) term. The maximum ripple value
converter. a and the lowest b of RL filter circuit of Fig-6 and -7 are:
𝑅𝑅
− 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1−𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
Furthermore, the VDC voltage generated by the main 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅 (3)
− 𝑇𝑇
rectifier circuit will be set in such a way as to be able to 1−𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
charge the battery with a controlled current. To control − (1−𝑑𝑑)𝑇𝑇
𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
− 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(1−𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 )
charging voltage and current, the switching method is 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅 (4)
− 𝑇𝑇
1−𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
applied using a single MOSFET, by adjusting the 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
switching frequency and duty cycle. The switched current For 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≪ 1, then 𝑒𝑒 − 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≅ 1 − 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ( 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)2 ,
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
then filtered by using RLC circuit or called Snubber moreover, we can rewrite:
circuit. The switching driver circuit is not discussed here. 𝑅𝑅
𝑇𝑇𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷2
In later derivation, we show how using higher frequency 𝑑𝑑− 𝐿𝐿 2
switching will help to reduce the size of L and C2 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅 (5)
𝑇𝑇
component values compared to the one using a lower 1− 𝐿𝐿
2
frequency for the same level of reduction noise ripple. In and
other words, the use of higher frequency is effective for 𝑅𝑅
𝑇𝑇(2−𝑑𝑑)𝑑𝑑
suppressing ripple noise. The duty cycle setting is to 𝑑𝑑 − 𝐿𝐿 2
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉 (6)
control the output VDC, such that the output current can be 𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅
1 − 𝐿𝐿
controlled. 2

In this design, we use 10-kHz switching frequency Output voltage is the average of a and b:
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
that is considered to be optimal. How the Switching and 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑑 (7)
2
filter circuit (often referred to as Snubber circuit) works

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E3S Web of Conferences 67, 03044 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20186703044
3rd i-TREC 2018

The ripple of RL filter is: 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =

𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
= 𝑎𝑎 {1 −
1 (1−𝑑𝑑)𝑇𝑇
} = 𝑎𝑎 {1 −
1 (1−𝑑𝑑)
}
𝑅𝑅 2 2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
2 𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
(𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏)
× 100% = × 100% (8) (13)
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2− 𝑇𝑇
𝐿𝐿
Eq-7 shows that RL filter control the average output (1−𝑑𝑑)
For 𝑇𝑇 → 0 and 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 ≪ 𝑅𝑅, 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉 (14)
voltage is linear to the duty cycle d, while Eq-8 shows that 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
the ripple is almost linear to 𝑇𝑇 value, for ( 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 < 1). The ripple of RC filter is:
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅
Smaller ratio and 𝑇𝑇 will reduce the ripple. (𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏)
(1−𝑑𝑑)
𝑇𝑇
𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = × 100% = 1(1−𝑑𝑑)𝑇𝑇 × 100%
If the filter consists only C and RLoad (R) (where RLoad 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 1−
2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
or R represents battery load) as shown in the following (15)
Fig-8, where switching with voltage V, frequency f By assuming
(1−𝑑𝑑)
𝑇𝑇 → 0 and 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 ≪ 𝑅𝑅; then the ripple is
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
(period T), duty cycle d and Vo(t) are illustrated on Fig-9. (1−𝑑𝑑) (1−𝑑𝑑)
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ≅ 𝑇𝑇 × 100% = × 100% (16)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Where 𝑓𝑓 = 1/𝑇𝑇 is the switching frequency.

Eq-14 shows that RC filter cannot be able to control the

average output voltage linear to the duty cycle. While Eq-
(1−𝑑𝑑)
16 shows that the ripple is close to 𝑇𝑇 value, for
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
(1−𝑑𝑑) (1−𝑑𝑑)
𝑇𝑇 ≪ 1. Smaller ratio and T will reduce the
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
ripple.
Hence, we can conclude that to control the output
Fig. 8. RC Filter. voltage and to minimize the ripple effectively, we should
combine RL and RC in a RLC circuit called snubber filter
to suppress switching transient. RL circuit function is
both, to filter ripple as well as averaging the output
voltage based on duty cycle, while RC circuit function to
filter the ripple only. If both are combined as in Fig-5
above, then we will get the output filter that is Vo as
written in Eq-7:
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑑
It shows that RL filter can control the output linear to the
duty cycle d.
Fig. 9. V(t) of RC Filter. While the output ripple performance is cascading results
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of both filter types, i.e. RL and RC.
−
On Fig-9, note that line b to a is governed by (1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶
) 𝑅𝑅 (1−𝑑𝑑)
(1−𝑑𝑑) By assuming 𝑇𝑇 & 𝑇𝑇 → 0 and 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 ≪ 𝑅𝑅; then the
− 𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
term, while line a to b is governed by (𝑒𝑒 ) term. The 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
ripple is:
maximum ripple value a and the lowest b of RC filter 𝑅𝑅
2 𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 (1−𝑑𝑑)
circuit of Fig-8 and -9 are: 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ≅ { 𝑅𝑅 × 𝑇𝑇} × 100% (17)
2− 𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐿𝐿
1
− 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1−𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉 1 1 (9) 3 Conclusions
−(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(1−𝑑𝑑)+𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑)𝑇𝑇
1−𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖
1 1
𝑒𝑒
−𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(1−𝑑𝑑)𝑇𝑇 − 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(1−𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ) We have designed and theoretically analyzed a battery
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉 1 1 (10) switching charger system. As discussed above, the output
−( (1−𝑑𝑑)+𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑)𝑇𝑇
1−𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖
voltage setting and subsequent current charging are
For
1 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≪ 1, then 𝑒𝑒 −𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≅ 1 − 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ( 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)2 ,
1 1 controlled by the PWM switching generator, which
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 receives the input from the SoC of the charged battery.
and we can rewrite: From the analysis of the circuit above, we conclude that
1 RL serves to output averaging and simultaneously
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑟𝑟 1 (11) filtering the ripple, while RC only works for filtering the
1+ 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅 1−
𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ripple only. If both RL and RC are used in a single circuit
1
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎 {1 − (1 − 𝑑𝑑)𝑇𝑇} (12) RLC Snubber filter, we will get overall high performance
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
in controlling voltage and current output, while
Output voltage is the average of a and b: simultaneously suppressing ripple noise due to switching
effectively.

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E3S Web of Conferences 67, 03044 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20186703044
3rd i-TREC 2018

This research is funded by Hibah Publikasi Internasional

Terindeks Untuk Tugas Akhir Mahasiswa (Hibah PITTA) TA
2018, 2507/UN2.R3.1/HKP.05.00/2018, Universitas Indonesia.

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