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Second Language Academic Writing: A Study of Teachers' Beliefs and

Pedagogical Practices in Senior High School

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The Asian EFL Journal
March 2019
Volume 21, Issue 2.3

Senior Editors:
Paul Robertson
Published by the English Language Education Publishing

Asian EFL Journal

A Division of TESOL Asia Group
Part of SITE Ltd Australia

http://www.asian-efl-journal.com

©Asian EFL Journal 2018

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception no

reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of the Asian EFL Journal Press.

No unauthorized photocopying

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the Asian EFL Journal.

editor@asian-efl-journal.com
Publisher: Dr. Paul Robertson
Chief Editor: Dr. Paul Robertson
Associate Production Editor: Ramon Medriano Jr.

Assistant Copy Editor: Eva Guzman

ISSN 1738-1460

2
 Table of Contents

Foreword Ramon Medriano Jr. ……………………………………………………………………...…... 5

Research Articles

Bonjovi Hassan Hajan, Brenfel Castillo-Hajan and Arlyne C. Marasigan …………….....………. 9

Second Language Academic Writing: A Study of Teachers’ Beliefs and Pedagogical Practices in Senior
High School

Brenfel Castillo-Hajan, Bonjovi Hassan Hajan and Arlyne C. Marasigan ………........................… 36

Construction of Second Language Writer Identity in Student Persuasive Essays: A Metadiscourse
Analysis

Conrado F. Vidal Jr. ………………….…………………………………………………...……...…..… 61

Mapping reading strategy orchestration of tertiary ESL students

Bryan M. Nozaleda and Yzzel T. Agorilla …………………………………………………………...... 87

Connecting Time and Space: Examining the Perspectives and Motives of Distance Learners and
Teachers to Open Learning and Distance Education

Olivia G. Rosario and Ruth N. Maguddayao…….................................................................................... 102

Code Switching of English Language Teachers and Students
in an ESL Classroom

Annie Mae C. Berowa and Richard S. Agbayani ………………………………............................... 123

The MTBMLE Policy: Attitudes Among Teachers on the Ground

Lucas Kohnke and Andrew Jarvis ………………………………………………….............................. 142

Developing Mentorship Provisions for Academic English Success

Joel Mayo Torres and Ericson Olario Alieto …….………………………………….............................. 158

Acceptability of Philippine English Grammatical and Lexical Items among Pre-service Teachers

Husni Idris, Mohamad S Rahman and Masruddin ……………………………….............................. 182

The Effect of Blended Learning to the Students’ Achievement in English For Specific (ESP) Class At
Islamic Education Study Program In Indonesia

Masruddin and Alex Sander ………...……………………………………………….............................. 200

The Efficacy of Pre Service Teacher Training Camp in Developing Students’ English Teaching Skills at
English Education Study program in Indonesia

Beatriz G. Clemente and Conchita M. Temporal ……...………………………….............................. 216

Gender-Fair Language Competence of Teacher Education Faculty

3
Jimmylen Z. Tonio and Jennibelle R. Ella …………...…………………………….............................. 231
Pre-service Teachers’ Attitudes toward the Use of Mother Tongue as Medium of Instruction

Shanty Halim …………………………………………...…………………………….............................. 254

Analysis of Indonesian-English Code-Switching Performed by the English Lecturers in PNUP
(Politeknik Negeri Ujung Pandang)

Alma Bangayan-Manera …..…………………………...…………………………….............................. 273

Textual Analysis of School Graffiti

Evy Clara, Komarudin, Ubedilah, Ahmad Tarmiji Alkhudri……..……………….............................. 286

Financial Management Strategy and Economy Independency in the Fishermen’s Households of Banten

Chelito Malamug …..…………………………...……………………………......................................... 302

Difficulties of English Major Students in Dealing with Figurative Language in Poetry

Melanie F. Lear …..…………………………...……………………………............................................ 317

Lived Experiences of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education Teachers in Teaching Diverse
Pupils in Zamboanga City

4
Foreword

The third issue of Asian EFL Journal’s March Edition presents studies in academic writing and
reading, code-switching, mother tongue-based education, academic English and teaching
strategies.

Writing teachers play a critical role in determining students’ successes and failures in their
academic endeavors and Hajan, Castillo-Hajan and Marasigan explored the beliefs of teachers
about L2 academic writing and whether these beliefs manifest in their instructional practices in
dealing with teaching academic writing.

Castillo-Hajan, Hajan and Marasigan’s paper looked into the aspect of academic writing by
studying the construction of writer identity in persuasive eesays of ESL students. It was further
pointed out that the use of “self-mention” in persuasive essays constitutes a metalinguistic feature
that secures writers’ identity.

Reading is one of the macro-skills that should not be ignored in the classroom. Vidal explored the
use of language strategy in L2 reading tasks to identify patterns and degree of strategy
orchestration.

With much of learning and teaching experience now incorporates technology, Nozaleda and
Agorilla examined the holistic experience of individuals who were involved in open learning and
distance education. It was found out that online learning platforms still need to improve on
standardization of learning modules and learning platforms and in the employment of qualified
and trained teachers.

5
Rosario and Maguddayao explored the understanding of teachers and students toward the use and
practice of code-switching in an ESL classroom. It was further proven in the study that code-
switching is a viable useful technique in allowing students to clarify and convey more information
in any classroom interaction.

The implementation of K-12 program in the Philippines made possible the implementation of the
mother tongue-based multilingual education in the early years of education. Berowa and
Agbayani’ s paper is a presentation of suggestions to improve the implementation of this policy.

Mentoring is an impactful strategy to develop students’ skills and knowledge and Kohnke and
Jarvis investigated the motivations of students in joining university English language mentoring
scheme. The study revelead that mentorship had enhanced students’ perceptions of their language
skills and that it was an avenue to develop their conversational English skills.

Torres and Alieto explored the extent of acceptability of the lexical variances of Philippine English
among pre-service basic education teachers and found out that American English is still the
preferred model in classroom pedagogy, yet Philippine English is gaining thrust and acceptability
in ESL classrooms which is an indication for its establishment as a legitimate variant of the
language.

It is assumed that the application of online and offline activities in a class is expected to provide
better outcome as compared to the traditional brick-and-mortar class. Idris, Rahman and
Masruddin experimented on the use of blended learning in an ESP class in Indonesia. It was found
that students improved their understanding and interest in learning English.

Masruddin and Alex Sander’s study tried to check the efficacy of pre-service English Teacher
Training Camp program in developing students’ skills in TEFL. Since the program focused much

6
on enhancing the teaching skills of pre-service teachers, it was found to be an effective avenue to
acquire skills and knowledge in English pedagogy.

Gender sensitivity in language is now being pushed as another language competence as it

counteracts gender normativity in linguistics. Clemente and Temporal’s study aimed to determine
the gender-fair language competence of faculty members in a state university and it was found that
respondents understand the use of gender-fair language to avoid any implicit or explicit
discriminatory language against genders.

Tonio and Ella examined the attitudes of pre-service teachers in the use of mother tongue as a
medium of instruction in the first three grades in the primary school level. It was further noted that
the use of mother tongue in the classroom enable teachers to express their thoughts clearly and
would make lessons more interesting to students.

In any bilingual community, code-switching is not a foreign phenomenon and Halim explored the
reasons for lecturers in switching codes in an Indonesian university. It was found that lecturers see
it necessary to switch code, from Indonesian to English since the syntax of the latter is simpler
compared to the former.

With writings everywhere, from toilet walls to classroom desks, Bangayan-Manera received
motivation to investigate the reasons why students perform graffiti and found that this is the best
means to vent out their emotions and thoughts as they find the formal avenue as limiting.

Clara, Komarudin, Ubedilah and Alkhudri’s study aimed at understanding financial management
in fishermen’s household and how English training programs from the government develop better
financial decision making and group solidarity.

7
Understanding figurative language is a pre-requisite for students to pass their literature class.
Malamug studied the difficulties encountered by students in dealing with poetry. The researcher
also examined the figures of speech that students find difficult to understand and the strategies
they believe can develop their learning process.

Since there is an increasing movement around the globe to support mother tongue instruction in
the early years of a child’s education, Lear investigated the lived experiences of MTBMLE
teachers in teaching diverse pupils. It was found that some materials are still not contextualized to
the local setting therefore creating problems in delivery.

Ramon S. Medriano, Jr.

Associate Production Editor

Asian EFL Journal

Pangasinan State University

8
Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Second Language Academic Writing: A Study of Teachers’ Beliefs and Pedagogical

Practices in Senior High School

Bonjovi Hassan Hajan

Philippines Normal University, Philippines
bonjovihajan36@gmail.com

Brenfel Castillo-Hajan
Philippines Normal University, Philippines
brenfelcastillo36@gmail.com

Dr. Arlyne C. Marasigan

Philippines Normal University, Philippines
casperarlyne01@gmail.com

Bonjovi Hassan Hajan is a MAEd in English Language Teaching candidate at the Philippine
Normal University, and a faculty member of Senior High School Division at José Rizal University.
His research interests include teacher cognition, academic writing, discourse analysis and corpus
linguistics.

Brenfel Castillo-Hajan is a faculty member in the College of Arts and Sciences at the National
Teachers College. She is a candidate for MAEd in English Language Teaching at the Philippine
Normal University. She considers academic writing, discourse analysis and corpus linguistics as
her research interests.

Arlyne C. Marasigan is an assistant professor at the Philippine Normal University. She holds a
PhD in Educational leadership and Policy major in Comparative Education from Beijing Normal
University under Chinese Government Scholarship. Her research interests focus on Global
Citizenship Education, Rural Education, Green Chemistry, and Science Teaching Material
Development.

9
Abstract

Education practitioners such as teachers play an imperative role in translating learning among
students and understanding their belief systems and practices is central in the reshaping of
educational policy and instructional practice. This study employed a case study design to explore
teachers’ beliefs and pedagogical practices in teaching second language (L2) academic writing in
the context of senior high school. Two purposively selected teachers who were teaching academic
writing courses in a polytechnic school in the Philippines participated in the study. Drawing from
semi-structured interviews, the study revealed that the teacher participants held complex belief
systems about the nature of writing and the process of teaching academic writing. While the
participants shared a variety of beliefs about L2 academic writing, findings from non-participatory
classroom observations showed that they tended to adhere strictly to these beliefs when enacting
classroom instructions. Moreover, the participants indicated that time, class schedule, class size
and school facilities were among the factors that constrained them from translating their beliefs
into instructional practices. The study has practical implications to L2 writing pedagogy.
Recommendations for future research are also discussed in this paper.

Keywords: Teachers’ Beliefs, Pedagogical Practices, Academic Writing, Senior High School

1. Introduction
The increasingly globalized world of the 21st century continues to grow by leaps and
bounds and education has to be recalibrated in order to meet the rising needs of the workplace for
students who soon would-be professionals. Suwaed (2011) notes that the most crucial role of all if
one talks about meeting the demands of the global market today is perhaps that of English teacher
for English language is “the language of science, technology and communication” (p.11). In the
Philippines, although English language has gained high prestige over the past few years (Global
English, 2012), there remains strong controversy regarding the status of Filipino students as second
language (L2) learners. According to Lasala (2014), writing skills of Filipino secondary senior
students were significantly lower as compared to their oral abilities though both skills were found
to be within the bounds of being acceptable. This finding was observed in all four linguistic
components of English language such as grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. In

10
addition, a more recent study by Pablo and Lasaten (2018) revealed that Filipino Grade 11 Senior
High School (SHS) students are experiencing difficulties in all areas in writing academic essays.
The preponderance of students’ difficulty was attributed to the lack of variety of ideas, lack of
connectives, incorrect word usage, poor sentence constructions and lack of citations. Still, Filipino
college students are weak in writing and most of them embody negative attitudes towards writing
(Hernandez, Amarles & Raymundo, 2017).
The new K to 12 curriculum in the Philippine educational system is espoused to develop
students’ skills holistically. For English language education, the curriculum framework focuses on
the full development of communicative competence and multiliteracies of the students (see K to
12 Curriculum Guide-English, 2013). A number of important principles that constitute effective
teaching of language arts and multiliteracies emphasize developing communicative competence
and critical literacy, drawing on informational texts and multimedia in order to build academic
vocabulary and strong content knowledge, emphasizing writing arguments,
explanatory/informative texts and narratives, providing explicit skill instruction in reading and
writing (K to 12 Curriculum Guide-English, 2013, p. 4).
It can be argued that writing as one of the macro skills owns a prime spot in the teaching
and learning of English language in the Philippines. In fact, at the senior high school level which
is the new 2-year addition into the basic education, several writing subjects such as English for
Academic and Professional Purposes (EAPP), Reading and Writing, Research in Daily Life, and
Practical Research are required of students to complete before they can graduate. Saladino (2009)
pointed out that writing in English is crucial in the total growth of literacy education and
communicative skills among Filipino learners. More often than not, the ability to write paves the
way to student’s academic success. In fact, “writing has become a requirement in civic life and in
the global community” (Pablo and Lasaten, 2018, p. 47). However, writing in a language that is
distinct from one’s native tongue can be a challenging task to the many, especially the Filipino
learners where English is considered as a second language (Myles, 2002). Writing is a highly
complex process because it entails a myriad of skills. Beyond work of cognition, writing is an
intricate mental construction requiring “careful thought, discipline and concentration” Grami
(2010, p. 9).
Remarkably, teaching writing becomes even more difficult for teachers who are not even
writers themselves. According to Griffiths (2008), in a context where there is little immersion to

11
the target language, the role of the writing teachers is the most challenging one. These said, writing
teachers play a critical role in determining students’ successes and failures in their academic
endeavors. Hence, an exploratory study into what beliefs teachers hold about L2 academic writing
and whether these teachers’ beliefs are realized through their instructional practices is instrumental
in strengthening the teaching of academic writing in the senior high school. The findings of this
study hope to bring in useful insights necessary for classroom teachers, education practitioners,
and curriculum developers to design informed instructional decisions and sound teaching practices
for the continuous improvement of quality education. In addition, the study will enrich existing
body of knowledge in the field of second language teaching which education specialists from other
contexts may find relevant and useful.

2. Research Objectives

This study explores senior high school teachers’ beliefs in teaching L2 academic writing
and the extent to which these beliefs are translated into actual teaching practices. The research also
attempts to look at factors influencing these ESL teachers in putting their beliefs into classroom
practices. Specifically, answers are sought on the following research objectives:
1. determine beliefs senior high school teachers hold about teaching L2 academic writing;
2. assess the extent to which teachers’ beliefs correspond to their pedagogical practices; and
3. ascertain factors that constrain the teachers when translating their beliefs into pedagogical
practices.

3. Literature Review
3.1.The Concept of Teacher Beliefs

Research into teachers’ beliefs in language teaching has been flourishing for the past few
decades. However, the notion of belief as a term is still relatively confusing (Savasci-Acikalin,
2009). Pajares (1992) noted that the term belief is one of the most difficult construct to define
because it “does not lend itself to empirical investigations (p.308)”. Borg (2003) characterizes
beliefs as part of “teacher cognition” referring to “the unobservable cognitive dimensions of
teaching—what teachers know, believe, and think (p.81).” Beliefs are “complex, inter-related
system of often tacitly held theories, values and assumptions that the teacher deems to be true, and
which serve as cognitive filters that interpret new experiences and guide the teacher’s thoughts

12
and behavior” (Mohamed, 2006, p.20). In addition, Pajares (1992) pointed out that beliefs are some
kind of hidden characteristics that are revealed only through one’s words and actions.

3.2.Teachers’ Beliefs and Classroom Practices in Language Teaching

Teacher beliefs have been steadily found to have a profound impact on instructional
decisions (Borg, 1998, 2003; Borg & Phipps, 2007, Farrell and Lim, 2005; Kuzborska, 2011).
Breen, Hird, Milton, Oliver, and Thwaite (2001) accentuated that these beliefs are indispensable
as they “influence how the teacher orchestrates the interaction between learner, teacher, and
subject matter in a particular classroom context with particular resources” (p. 473). In a case study
of an experienced and a novice English language teachers, Farrell and Bennis (2013) have shown
strong evidence of language teachers holding certain teaching beliefs which are not always realized
in the classroom. They indicated that teaching practices of an experienced teacher were more
clearly correlated to his beliefs as compared to the novice one. Nurusus, Samad, Rahman, Noordin
and Rashid (2015) through a quantitative inquiry support this result noting that years of teaching
experience is a factor with strong influence over the beliefs of teaching grammar. In particular,
they found out that teachers with less than 7 years of teaching experience put a little importance
on feedback giving to students and foster language production.
Suárez Flórez, and Basto Basto (2017) explore the relevance of pre-service teachers’
beliefs about teaching EFL and their potential changes. The results disclosed that most of the pre-
service teachers’ beliefs changed once they faced the reality of the classroom teachings. On
reflecting language teaching practice in polytechnic schools in Malaysia, Abdullah and Majid
(2013) concluded that perception towards students is a primary source which shapes the language
teaching practice of the experienced English lecturers. The authors also indicated that this striking
finding could be related to the fact that polytechnic students’ language proficiency is low and that
teachers need to take extra efforts in order to respond to the needs of such kind of students.
A case study in Hawaii by Yoshihara (2012) reveals some insightful findings about
teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices. The study unveiled that, although the participants hold
different teaching beliefs, they share one in common, that is, meeting students’ demands and needs.
These teachers’ beliefs were found to have been shaped by their life experiences including class
status, learning experiences, teaching experiences, and mentors. Khonamri and Salimi’s (2010)
investigation on the interplay between EFL high school teachers' beliefs and their instructional

13
practices regarding reading strategies in Iran pointed out that teachers recognized the significant
role reading strategies play in reading comprehension and that it is essential to teach reading
strategies in reading classes. In addition, Farrel and Yang (2017) by exploring one female English
for Academic Purposes (EAP) teacher in the context of teaching speaking have witnessed
convergence of beliefs and classroom practices. Like what previous studies have shown, however,
occasions where teaching beliefs diverge with practices were also discovered. Reasons for the
occurrence of divergence were attributed to the programme prospects, the need to sustain the
instructional flow of the class, and the novice teacher’s insufficiency of teaching experiences in an
EAP programme.

3.3.Teachers’ Beliefs and Classroom Practices in L2 Academic Writing

Studies inquiring teachers’ beliefs in various fields of applied linguistics and English
language teaching has provided us with a key understanding of classroom realities, successes and
failures. However, as Borg (2003) pointed out, more research into teachers’ beliefs has leaned
towards native contexts, not to mention areas like speaking and writing have not been the subject
of scrutiny until recently.
In a case study in Ethiopia by Melketo (2012), mismatch between university teachers’
stated beliefs and classroom practices evidenced due to certain contextual factors such as class
time, students’ expectations, teaching the test rather than teaching the subject and focusing on
classroom management concerns. Suwaed (2011) in her Libyan investigation displayed a number
of interesting findings regarding teachers’ cognition and classroom instructions in teaching
writing. Main findings unearthed that culture plays an integral part in the way teachers know,
believe, and think about teaching writing. Al-bakri (2015) embarked on a case study of EFL
teachers’ beliefs, practices, and challenges focused on written corrective feedback (WCF) and
found that both teachers’ general beliefs about life and their educational beliefs have impact on
their WCF practices. Similarly, teachers’ beliefs about their role as teachers, teaching and learning
and their students were discovered to be factors affecting their WCF practices.
In addition, Shi, Baker and Chen (2017) from a systemic functional lens with emphasis on
informed genre approach to improve Chinese students’ writing communicative competence
disclosed that professional training in Systemic Functional Linguistics genre pedagogy carries a
positive impact towards teachers’ cognition about teaching writing among six Chinese College

14
English teachers. Applying ethnographic qualitative method, Wu and Hung (2011) on examining
a teacher’s beliefs in an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course has proposed a framework
for EAP teaching practice and a circular model addressing important phases and components
which emerged from teacher’s beliefs. The framework incorporates five elements: instructional
foci, scaffolding, in-class learning activities, corporate learning cycle, and evaluation with three
major focal points: critical thinking, academic writing, and thesis writing. Yang and Gao’s (2013)
investigation of four experienced EFL writing teachers in China has pointed out notable findings
about the link between beliefs and practices in teaching writing. Specifically, they saw consistency
in three teachers as regards beliefs and practices in writing instruction although one teacher was
found out to have some degree of inconsistency between his beliefs and instructional practices.

3.4.Teachers’ Beliefs and Classroom Practices in the Philippine L2 Contexts

In the Philippines, research into L2 teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices has been
scarce until recently. Gutierrez (2004) explored the case of one secondary school teacher as regards
the interplay of beliefs and classroom practices. As a result, she saw consistency in what the teacher
holds as her beliefs and in what she demonstrates as her instructional practices. For instance, the
use of Socratic method (patiently leading students to the discovery of the answers) by the teacher
in the teaching-learning process approves her belief that learning is self-discovery. In 2010, Barrot
investigates the teaching beliefs and practices of five experienced ESL teachers. She found out
that although there are consistencies between teachers’ beliefs and practices, some degree of
divergence was observed. For example, two teacher participants in the study were aware and
agreed to the existence of multiliteracy but failed to practice it in their respective classrooms.
Another distinguishing divergence was that all the teachers confirmed that they were fully aware
and agreed to the notion of differentiation and reflective learning, but then failed to execute them
in the actual classroom situations. In connection, Maestre (2016) uncovered that there are
discrepancies between teachers’ beliefs and practices in using the CLT approach. For example, the
teachers claim that they employ CLT; however, their beliefs about CLT when asked do not
conform to CLT principles. Consequently, this ambiguity resulted in teachers providing activities
unrelated to CLT approach.
Meanwhile, Zipagan and Batang (2011) through a quantitative investigation of secondary
ESL teachers’ belief systems and practices yield some useful findings emphasizing that both

15
teachers’ beliefs on the use of the learners’ mother tongue and relating to the learners’ culture
significantly affect their practice use of it when performing certain classroom tasks. In addition,
they uncovered that most English teachers give priority to locally-produced materials; however,
the employment of learning activities established on English-speaking countries was found to be
beneficial and important in the teaching and learning process in the Philippines.
Applying a mixed-method approach, Cirocki and Caparoso (2016) indicated that Filipino
ESL teachers hold various beliefs about motivating learners to read in second language. Among
these beliefs include creating a positive atmosphere in the classroom, challenging students to love
reading through provision of reading materials with high difficulty, allowing students to read a
wide array of texts that are interesting, etc. Lastly, Gabinete (2017) exposed that access to
technology and availability of instructional materials may also prove to be crucial factors in
helping teachers to teach and assess the mentioned skill. The study ended with an urgent call to
reinforce school or government support in order to take viewing comprehension in basic education
to the next level in order to meet the growing demands of the 21st century.
Nonetheless, little if any studies are available in the Philippine contexts which can provide
clear reference to teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices as regards L2 academic writing. Hence,
an exploration on teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices in L2 academic writing is indispensable
to provide deeper understanding on the complex relationship between teachers’ beliefs and
teaching practices. If we are to develop and strengthen skills in English especially in the light of
the K to 12 curriculum, then considering expanding research focus in second language teaching is
imperative since good teaching practices are guided with theories that are based empirically.

4. Methodology
4.1.Research Design

This study applied a qualitative research method to explore senior high school teachers’
beliefs and classroom practices in L2 academic writing. An exploratory case study was employed
as a qualitative research design in this paper. The use of exploratory case study in this research
could be effective since the researchers attempted to provide the in-depth analysis of one or more
cases (Creswell, 2014). In addition, the employment of a case study as a design in this study
proves to be beneficial because description and explanation are sought rather than prediction based

16
on cause and effect (Merriam, 1988, as cited in, Faizah, 2008). This type of approach enables the
researcher to venture into the data gathering without any pre-established instruments (Clark &
Creswell, 2010) and discover the individual’s experiences in reference to desired topics (Faizah,
2008) which provide multiple sources of data being gathered to meet the objectives of the study.

4.2.Participants and Sampling

A convenience sampling technique was employed in selecting the subjects for the study.
Dörnyei (2007) defined convenience sampling as a variant of non-probability sampling in which
members of the target population are selected for the purpose of the study when certain practical
criteria such as accessibility, geographical proximity or the willingness to participate are met.
Moreover, “captive audiences such as students in the researchers’ own institution are prime
examples of convenience sampling” (Dörnyei, 2007). In addition, this sampling strategy was
favored in order to obtain an in-depth description of a focused individual in a population (Clark &
Creswell, 2010). The subjects of the study were two English as Second Language (ESL) teachers
teaching L2 academic writing courses at the senior high school in a polytechnic school in Pasig
city, Philippines. In order to protect participants’ identity, pseudonyms, Maria and Brenda were
assigned. During the time of the study, Maria was teaching Practical Research I-Qualitative
Research Writing while Brenda was teaching Practical Research II-Quantitative Research Writing.

4.3.Data Collection

The data gathering was conducted during second semester of the academic year 2017-2018.
Collection of data from the participants lasted for about 30 days through semi-structured interviews
and non-participatory classroom observations. Semi-structured interview is an extremely useful
tool for researchers who are scrutinizing areas that are familiar to them (Dörnyei, 2007). Non-
participatory observations are preferred to participatory because they are unobtrusive (Creswell,
2013). Both the interviews and the observations were audio-taped using an A1416 iPad and a Core
i3 Lenovo laptop. Classroom observations were conducted on a random basis a week after the
interviews. Two classes of different sections held by each participant were observed. In addition,
the researchers kept field notes during each classroom observation in order to ensure that the
participants’ teaching practices are completely captured.

17
 4.4.Instrumentation

The primary research instrument was an interview questionnaire developed by the

researchers after reviewing related studies on teachers’ beliefs and practices in teaching academic
writing. The interview guide underwent validation by 3 experts in the field of languages and
research. The questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first part entails the participants’
demographic profile. The second part is the interview questionnaire itself where 10 specific
questions regarding academic writing, feedback practices, previous writing experiences, and
instructional practices are listed. There were 15 questions initially and after the validation process,
only 10 interview questions were retained. The other 5 questions were removed due to validity
reasons.

4.5.Data Analysis

Data were analyzed through transcription and coding. First, the researchers transcribed all
interview data word for word. Then, they coded the data in order to identify recurring themes under
each category. To determine the extent to which teachers’ beliefs match with classroom practices
as regards teaching academic writing, they transcribed data taken from classroom observations,
identified recurring topics and analyzed them together with the themes identified in the interviews.
The researchers referred their data analysis on classroom observations to the field notes made. In
so doing, they could guarantee strong evidence to back up an underlying theme in order to ensure
that the study obtains the highest level of accuracy due to the findings being drawn from multiple
sources of information (Clark & Creswell, 2010). Furthermore, the interpretations of data were
referred back to the participants for their perusal of the truthfulness thus ensuring internal validity
of the present study (Clark & Creswell, 2010).

5. Results and Discussion

5.1.Teachers’ Stated Beliefs in Teaching L2 Academic Writing

The primary objective of this study is to explore teachers’ beliefs in teaching academic
writing. From the summary of the interview transcripts, several recurring themes are identified.

18
 5.1.1. Teachers holding similar views about the nature of teaching academic writing

During the interviews, the participants generally expressed quite parallel views about the
nature of academic writing and the process of teaching it. They recognized that teaching
academic writing is a complex process as it entails a composite of skills.
Well, teaching academic writing is a…a very complex process, in terms of you, as a
teacher, you know how to strategize effectively in terms of the lessons that you will be
teaching inside the classroom and…of course…this is writing….(Brenda)
Well, for me, academic writing is not just one skill but it is a collection of skills, so meaning
to say, if you are going to teach academic writing, you also need to hone their critical
thinking skill… so simply collection of skills. (Maria)

Notably, both the participants approved that teaching academic writing is a multifaceted
skill where teachers should help students not only to write but also develop other skills necessary
for writing. This finding lends support to cognitive model of writing by Flower and Hayes (1980)
and Hayes and Flower (1980) which describes writing as an intricate phenomenon holding three
separate components, i.e. writer’s long-term memory, task environment and writing process. This
is also consistent with Grami’s study (2010) which underscored that writing is more than just work
of cognition but a complicated psychological construction that needs “careful thought, discipline
and concentration” (p. 9). If writing is a difficult task to do, then teaching academic writing
becomes even more difficult for teachers who are assumed to play two important roles at the same
time, being the writer and the teacher

5.1.2. Learners’ motivation influencing teachers’ academic writing instruction

One of the recurring themes that this study found is concerning how learners’ needs and
motivations play crucial role in determine instructional success. The participants stated that they
use different means to build on their students’ needs and motivate them to write.

I personally believe my students are good when it comes to writing but they are not
motivated enough. So, what I do is I would let them watch videos and write something
about what they’ve watched. I found this effective in motivating them. (Maria)

I see them differently, I need to handle first their abilities, and their, ah, readiness in terms
of writing academic genres, especially with persuasive essay. I really have to think of ways
on how I could be able to attach the lessons into real-life scenarios, like for example,
ahmm, societal issues like martial law, ah, social media….(Brenda)

19
 Interestingly, this finding connects with Nargis’ recent study (2018) which concluded that
teacher’s belief in students can “diagnose the learners’ needs to master the foreign language…,
develop a good atmosphere environment in teaching and many kind of teaching strategies…and
determine the right teaching strategies by looking at the students difficulties” (p. 63). The use of
instructional videos in language classroom is also consistent with Baratta and Jones’ (2008) study
where they discovered that the use of films can arouse students’ interests and help them learn to
write effectively. The impact of using moving image in the writing classroom also links to the
research conducted by Burn and Leach (2004) noting how stimulating moving pictures can be in
classrooms increased literacy. The idea of connecting lessons to real-life situations like what
Brenda does substantiates Whitaker’s (2012) claim, “when students write about issues, needs,
problems, or subjects they find important and relevant to their lives, we {teachers} improve the
odds for their engagement, as well as the likelihood that they will strive to write well” (p. 4).

In addition, Brenda shared “I really have to engross more of how efficient or how effective,
ahmm, approaches in writing should be… in a particular way that I could be able to motivate them
as well that they can also write as best as they could”. As writing can be a daunting task to many
students, teachers’ strategies in handling writing classes are important in keeping students
motivated to write. Lopez (2010) stresses out that teachers must be mindful of the students’ needs
to foster favorable learning experiences which transport a sense of belonging. Keeping track with
students’ needs not only provides relevant learning experiences to students but also guarantees
success in meeting the learning outcomes.

5.1.3. Teachers’ written corrective feedback heightening learners’ motivation towards

writing

Feedback plays a crucial role in improving writing skills among L2 learners (Magno &
Amarles, 2011). Of note is that Brenda steadily provides valuable comments regardless of what
outputs her students submitted. She shared that students are always excited to hear something about
their work from their teacher so she would indicate ‘see me’, ‘very good’, or ‘talk to me’ on
students’ papers. According to Brenda, whether her students’ outputs are desirable or not, it is
always important to let them know that their works are being valued. Similarly, Maria regards
feedback as a powerful tool in enhancing students’ writing proficiency. She revealed that her

20
students love to read encouraging words and they love to be corrected. The viability of feedback
in writing is well documented by Ferris (1999). The author endorses that feedback has a
tremendous effect on students’ writing abilities. Furthermore, the finding also provides strong
support to a recent study by Tee and Cheah (2016) which approves that feedback is essential in
writing instruction, however, for it to be effective, feedback provided to students should be “clear,
timely and loaded with information regarding their writing performance.” (p. 100).

5.1.4. Teachers’ previous writing experiences shaping their beliefs in teaching L2 writing

Maria stated that she was a senior writer of her school paper during college and currently
taking her master’s degree where she does a lot of paper work. Her passion towards writing is a
result of the many strategies she learned as a student. Maria hinted that for successful writing, it is
indispensable that one familiarizes the rudiments of language. During the interview, she also
shared that she loves reading grammar books. Apart from this, Maria also pinpointed how reading
stories can be a tremendous help in enhancing her writing. Meanwhile, Brenda shared that she is
an experienced writer of various genre as she was also immersed in writing during her college days
since she was an English major student. Her professors would task them with numerous writing
activities—both academic and creative which allowed her to further enhance her writing skills.
She also noted that she was able to publish her undergraduate thesis because she said she was given
enough exposure how to write effective academic paper. Both of them insinuated that, as teachers,
it I essential to share her personal write ups with students. Whitaker (2012) notes that teachers,
being writers may have the advantage in empathizing with students about their experiences in
writing. Undoubtedly, this finding clearly advances Borg’ (2003) claim that teachers’ experiences
as learners can inform cognitions about teaching and learning.

5.1.5. Writing teachers playing different roles in L2 writing instruction

As to the role they play in L2 writing instruction, the participants expressed different
stance. Maria stressed that her role in her writing classes is more of a facilitator. She stated all her
students have potentials in terms of writing, and she is there only to guide them through to unleash
those potentials. On the contrary, Brenda underscored that she plays as a coach in her writing
classes. She emphasized that she motivates her students, speaks with them personally, and coaches
them what to do even if it means failures or successes. The difference in the roles Maria and Brenda

21
play in their writing classroom may probably have been established by their previous experiences
as language learners who once were student writers, their educational backgrounds and
professional trainings. In Borg’s (2003) Teacher Cognition Framework, it is outlined that
schooling and professional coursework are two vital components that can possibly impact
teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning. Additionally, Gabinite (2017) echoed that teachers’
early education influenced Filipino teachers’ ability to assess students’ viewing skills.

5.1.6. ‘One size does not fit all’ or ‘no best’ strategy in teaching L2 academic writing

The participants regard the principle of learning which states that students learn in different
ways.
There is no best strategy in terms of teaching writing or academic writing in particular.
First of all, ah, you need to know the students’ level, their abilities and their motivation in
writing. Since I’m teaching in polytechnic school and most of the students are not very well
versed in terms of academics, so I really have to engross more of how efficient or how
effective, hmm, approaches in writing should be. (Brenda)

Just like what I said before, one size does not fit all…so, I’m applying different
strategies…For example, to Automotive students…So…I need to speak slowly for them to
understand our topic and the repetition…it’s very important…the repetition. (Maria)

From the statements above, it can be seen how much the participants recognize students’
needs and learning styles. The concept of ‘one size does not fit all’ by Maria or ‘no best strategy’
by Brenda in teaching academic writing resides in Tomlinson’s (1999) differentiated instruction.
Ferguson, Tilleczek, Boydell, Rummens, Cote and Roth-Edney (2005) show that, “when teachers
recognize diversity in their students, in terms of how and what they identify with and how they
learn, and when this recognition is reflected in how teachers teach, students are free to discover
new and creative ways to solve problems, achieve success, and become lifelong learners.” Each
student is a unique individual and brings with him cultural identities which teachers need to address
and if these cultural identities are not considered by teachers in their instructions, the students may
feel unsupported and thus are unable to fully unleash their potentials. Also, providing customized
instructions also allows for a wide variety of learning experiences for students which surely
increase their creativity.

22
 5.2.The Interplay Between Teachers’ Stated Beliefs and Pedagogical Practices

The second research problem that the study attempted to seek answers is the extent to which
teachers’ stated beliefs influence their classroom practices. Data from classroom observations
reflected teachers’ actual writing instructions which may provide pragmatic evidence to support
or disavow their stated beliefs.

5.2.1. Maria’s Teachers’ Beliefs and Pedagogical Practices

From the two classes the researchers observed, they noticed that Maria was being
consistent in informing students of the learning targets for the day at the beginning of each session.
She utilized PowerPoint presentation to deliver her lessons and her learning objectives were
presented to the class through the slides. This practice is aligned with her belief, “I need to inform
them {my students} about the importance of studying academic writing for them to also appreciate
the subject itself.” Jones (2005) elucidates this point stating that the learning outcomes—the tasks
students are assumed to accomplish—need to be clearly articulated to students in order to
encourage them to be part of the learning process. The author notes that if we are to make students
learn and achieve the goals, then two-way communication is imperative to unlock students’
potentials. In addition, Maria’s belief on motivating her students was reflected on the way she
asked motive question at the beginning of the lesson.
So, last time, we talked about the importance of research. Now, this is the question. As a
student, what do you want to research on and why? Any volunteer? (Maria, observation
#2)
However, it should be noted that she did this part only to the second class the researchers
observed, Grade 11 Automotive. As noted earlier during the interview, her Automotive students
struggle to understand her and often find it effective to have instructions repeated. This variation
in teaching technique approves her statement on the idea of ‘one size does not fit all’ teaching
strategy. In a more practical sense, it illustrates how much she adheres to her belief about
considering the nature of the students. Meanwhile, Maria integrated technology in her lessons
through which she makes use of PowerPoint presentation every time she teaches (as far as my two
observations). However, the researchers often found her reading the slides with very limited
explanations she gave. Chesser (2012) on her paper “Can Technology Replace Teachers?” argues
a teacher that while technology is an excellent apparatus to engross students effectively and

23
competently with information, it should be borne in mind that it by all means does not replace
teachers.
In the two classes the researchers observed, Maria was having similar lesson on the
introductory concept of research. As part of her strategies, Maria prepared asked her students to
do role play presentation she had assigned the other day. The presentation covered the importance
of research in students’ daily lives and the students presented their work in groups. Although this
is a qualitative research class, Maria showed how fun writing can be. This practice is undoubtedly
tied to her testimonial that writing should be fun and engaging.

5.2.2. Brenda’s Beliefs and Pedagogical Practices

Brenda holds a strong belief about creating a positive atmosphere before staring the class.
During the two classes the researchers observed, they saw that Brenda set the mood of her students
before she began her discussion by making them arrange their chairs, sitting up properly and
requesting one student to lead the prayer for the whole class. On the first observation, Brenda
proceeded to reviewing her students regarding the previous lesson after the preparation.
Before I'll continue discussing our last topic, I'd like to have a quick recap on what we
discussed last day. I think the last topic we had is all about levels of measurement. Now,
who can give me the levels of measurement? (Brenda, observation #1)

After the review, Brenda gave the class a short activity immediately where students were
made to determine the levels of measurements expressed in each statement. This was an
individualized activity. Providing personalized activity where students decide on their own without
the help of their peers echoes Brenda’s contention about addressing uniqueness of her individual
students. However, Khan (2009) on her comparative study between group work and individual
work in ESL classrooms opposes this practice who concluded that interaction is motivating for
students, i.e. when students work in groups, they tend to gain confidence to think of what to express
rather than how to express. Additionally, Wu and Hung (2011) supports this idea stating that
dynamic classroom interactions among students encourage knowledge construction, ranging from
critical awareness to underlying literacy.
On the second class observation, Brenda was introducing a new lesson, Sampling
Techniques. She reminded the class of the deadline submission for their review of related
literature. Then, Brenda went on discussing the lesson for the da. During the discussion, Brenda

24
drew out an example where students can entirely relate. She made use of the school’s name and
its total population and expound the process of drawing sample from there (see excerpt below).
Let’s say we have 1000 students in this school and we need to get a 333 sample out of that
population. Now, for stratified random, we have strata. In this school, we have dual
training system students, senior high school students, bachelor of technical teacher
education students who are our strata and we will take sample from each stratum…
(Brenda, observation #2)

In this case, Brenda’s account on the importance of providing topics where students see
relevance and have direct application to real life situations is markedly mirrored. This incidence
boils down to her belief on learners’ motivation, a theme which she had reiterated earlier during
the interview. Interestingly, this practice relates to what Theall (2004) stated, “Applications of
theoretical material in real-life situations make content easier to understand, and that the
relevance of content is demonstrated by real-life examples” (p. 1).
Moreover, for the whole time the researchers were observing, Brenda demonstrated
positive appraisal towards students’ verbal responses during class interaction. Although there
researchers were unable to collect her students’ outputs due to time constraints to see how she
provides written feedback, this somehow provides an initial support to her assertion on positive
feedback provision.

5.3.Factors Constraining Teachers When Translating Their Beliefs Into Classroom

Practices

From both interview transcripts and classroom observation data, a number of important
factors which seem to constrain teachers when translating their beliefs into pedagogical practices
were discovered. One of the salient factors found to have a strong influence over teachers
translating their beliefs into classroom teaching is time. Both the participants agreed that time is a
prime force which instigated the delay in their lessons knowing writing is a tedious process.
Hmm, well, there are so many factors wherein you need to consider, of course, that is
writing. As I said, it is a very long process. You cannot be able to expect a student to write
within an hour. (Brenda)
It happens actually. The time was too short, like for example, if you want to…if you want
to teach for two hours and only you have one hour. (Maria)

Likewise, time was also seen as a distressing factor when Brenda told her students after the
activity (during the first observation) that she would continue with the next lesson the following

25
meeting because it was already time for dismissal. Likewise, Maria illustrated a similar case where
she had to dismiss the class and the last group who was supposed to present their role play would
have to do it the next meeting.
Connected to time is the scheduling of classes. Brenda said that if a writing class were
scheduled after lunch, students would find it boring and they would be sleepy during the class
hours. This finding corroborates Melketo’s (2012) study which he found time as the primary
contextual factor leading Ethiopian university teachers to teach in ways opposed to their stated
beliefs. Alzaanin (2014) also reported similar finding among Palestinian writing teachers. Strong
evidence of time as a constraining factor in enacting teachers’ beliefs has been extensively noted
in numerous research in the field (e.g. Andrews, 2003; Burns & Knox, 2005; Li & Walsh, 2011;
Mak, 201, as cited in, Melketo, 2012).
Apart from the scheduling of the writing class, the nature of students also affected the
participants. Maria stated that for her students, it is their behavior and their educational
backgrounds that influence her teaching the most.
For example, you planned to give them activity, and you want them to finish that activity
asap, but some of them find it hard to finish that activity so you always have to adjust you
have to understand their educational background, their knowledge, intellectual capacity
in terms of writing. (Maria)

Notably, it can be understood how Maria works out to fit his teaching into the needs of her
students. This statement was demonstrated in her Automotive class where she had to incorporate
motive questions, something she did not do in her Computer Programming students. On a similar
occasion, Brenda also highlighted how she adapts to the levels of her Automotive students by
making necessary modifications in her teaching strategies. Findings on the nature of students as
interceding factor in writing classroom have been reported from different perspectives (e.g. Zhang,
2017; Alzaanin, 2014).
Apart from the nature of students, Brenda claimed that the number of students in the class
is also an important element to consider. She added that when there are more students in one class
than the other, it will cause her more preparations because the activities she employed to a small
class, for example, may not be effective for a class that is composed of numerous students.
Although Brenda advances the idea of individual differences, her concern with preparations still
has to do with time in general. This finding proves Faour’s (2003) finding, as cited in (Jamalzadeha

26
& Shahsavar, 2015) that several factors such as schools' socioeconomic status, class size, and grade
level can influence teachers' beliefs and classroom practices considerably.
Lastly, Both the participants recognized how much importance technology has on their
work as teachers who need to prepare daily tasks for their students. In particular, there was an
instance where Brenda was unable to use the pre-installed projector in the room where she had the
class because the unit was not functional. This is similar to Cuayahuitl and Carranza (2015) found
where institutional factors such as the length of courses and lessons, the school facilities, among
others appeared to the most powerful in the teachers’ lessons. A more recent study conducted in
the Philippine context by Gabinete’s (2017) also disclosed similar findings where access to
technology and availability of instructional materials affected teachers in teaching and assessing
the students’ viewing skills.

6. Conclusion

In conclusion, teachers hold complex belief system about the nature of writing and the
process of teaching academic writing. There is strong evidence that writing teachers’ beliefs
correspond well to their pedagogical practices. However, certain factors such as time, class
schedule, class size, nature of students, and school facilities are important considerations if
teaching academic writing has to thrive successfully. Writing is a complex process, a product of
multifaceted skills which demands not only good writers but good writing teachers packed with
understanding and skills on how to strategize instructions for students. Students’ needs and
motivations are primary attentions in selecting methods of teaching. The best teaching method for
academic writing is that which responds to students’ writing needs. Positive feedback is key in
triggering students love for writing. For L2 academic writing instruction to be meaningful and
successful, it is a must that teachers are writers themselves. Moreover, writing teachers may play
different roles in the classroom provided that the goal is to help students overcome the fears of
writing and consequently become writers themselves.

7. Pedagogical Implications and Directions for Future Research

In the light of the findings and the conclusion of the study, a number of pedagogical
implications for L2 academic writing can be considered. First, the study generally underlines how

27
important L2 teachers’ beliefs are in shaping their classroom practices and, in turn, effecting
learning. The correspondence between teachers’ stated beliefs and pedagogical practices found in
this research implies that teachers need to engross themselves in professional trainings in order to
continuously improve on their beliefs as beliefs are invaluable bedrocks of teachers’ instructional
decisions (Borg, 2003). Second, academic writing teachers need to establish close relationship
with their students in order to understand their struggles, needs and motivations as writing can be
an extremely complex process, more so for ESL learners. Third, curriculum experts are suggested
to rethink on the length of time to be allotted specifically for academic writing courses, especially
in the context of senior high school where there is bulk of writing subjects offered. Scheduling of
writing classes is one important aspect in this category which needs further deliberation as well.
Last, schools must be supportive of their teaching practitioners in keeping up with their functions
by providing enough facilities such as provision of LCD projectors, computer laboratories, etc.
which are beneficial for both the teacher and students.
Nonetheless, for a more encompassing result, the following limitations are noted. Only two
senior high school teachers from a Polytechnic school were purposively considered for
investigation in which data obtained may have issues generalizing the result. Other subjects which
fall under academic writing category such as English for Academic and Professional Purposes
(EAPP) and Reading and Writing were not part of the study coverage which may engender rich
data regarding teachers’ pedagogical practices. Also, only two classroom observations were
carried out for each participant and these observations occurred roughly around the beginning of
the semester which may have failed to capture substantially teachers’ actual practices in their
academic writing classes. In addition, using simulated recall after the observations and document
analysis of students’ written outputs could have provided supplementary information for a much
stronger finding. If we are to provide more pragmatic evidence on the configurations of teachers’
beliefs and the extent to which these beliefs interlock with pedagogical practices in the context of
L2 academic writing in senior high school, then an investigation which incorporates large number
of participants from different schools covering different academic writing subjects where data are
drawn from multiple sources is indispensable.

28
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teaching EFL and their potential changes. PROFILE Issues in Teachers’ Professional
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Retrieved from http://www.ideaedu.org/Resources-Events/Teaching-Learning-
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Teaching Writing.
Wu, G. C. H., & Hung, D. C. H. (2011). Exploring a teacher’s beliefs in an EAP Course: A
qualitative perspective. Taiwan International ESP Journal, 3(1), 31-64.
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 Appendix A: Interview Questionnaire

Part I- Participants’ Demographics

Name: _____________________________ (optional)
Gender:
Male
Female
Course Finished:
Education
Non-education
Area of Specialization:
English
Non-English
Educational attainment:
Bachelor’s Degree
Bachelor’s Degree with Master’s Units
Master’s Degree Holder
Master’s Degree Holder with Doctorate Units
Doctorate Degree Holder
Length of Service:
1-5 years
5-10 years
10-15 years
15-20 years
20 years and above
Part II- Interview Guide

1. What is academic writing from your own perspective?

2. Can you share your experiences with writing in general before you became a teacher?

34
3. Did your experiences in writing influence how you teach academic writing? If so, in what
way?
4. What are your beliefs on feedback practices in academic writing classes?
5. What type of feedback to student writing do you consider most important as a teacher?
Why?
6. What type of feedback to student writing do you think your students consider as useful?
Why?
7. How do you develop academic writing skills among students? What specific strategies do
you usually take in teaching the subject?
8. Can you share an instance where you conducted a successful writing in class? Why do
you think it was successful?
9. Can you also share about a writing activity you have recently conducted in class which
you felt was not really successful? Why do you think it was not successful?
10. What roles do you play in the classroom as a teacher of academic writing? How
important are these roles to your students’ learning?

35
 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Construction of Second Language Writer Identity in Student Persuasive Essays: A

Metadiscourse Analysis

Brenfel Castillo-Hajan
Philippines Normal University, Philippines
brenfelcastillo36@gmail.com

Bonjovi Hassan Hajan

Philippines Normal University, Philippines
bonjovihajan36@gmail.com

Dr. Arlyne C. Marasigan

Philippines Normal University, Philippines
casperarlyne01@gmail.com

Brenfel Castillo-Hajan is a faculty member in the College of Arts and Sciences at the National
Teachers College. She is a candidate for MAEd in English Language Teaching at the Philippine
Normal University. She considers academic writing, discourse analysis and corpus linguistics as
her research interests.

Bonjovi Hassan Hajan is a MAEd in English Language Teaching candidate at the Philippine
Normal University, and a faculty member of Senior High School Division at José Rizal University.
His research interests include teacher cognition, academic writing, discourse analysis and corpus
linguistics.

Arlyne C. Marasigan is an assistant professor at the Philippine Normal University. She holds a
PhD in Educational leadership and Policy major in Comparative Education from Beijing Normal
University under Chinese Government Scholarship. Her research interests focus on Global
Citizenship Education, Rural Education, Green Chemistry, and Science Teaching Material
Development.

Abstract
Academic writing is not a lifeless communicative endeavor. It is an interactive process where both
writers and readers negotiate meanings in many complex ways. In the case of persuasive essays,
students should venture to manifest stance and identity rather than just write to transport ideas.
This paper looked into this important aspect of academic writing by examining the construction of

36
writer identity in ESL students’ persuasive essays. Data were drawn from 50 persuasive essays
written by Filipino senior high school students in a polytechnic school. Using Hyland’s (2004a)
Model of Interpersonal Metadiscourse, analysis revealed that students employ self-mention across
all samples in displaying their identity as writers. Findings also underscored the employment of
other interpersonal metadiscourse elements such as hedges, attitude markers, boosters, and
engagement markers in student essays. The study echoes the following implications to L2
academic writing pedagogy: (1) L2 teachers may consider explicit instruction of metadiscourse
markers in the classroom if students are to become effective writers; (2) students should be taught
pragmatic functions of personal pronouns to help them carry out their stance in such a highly
academic world of writing; and (3) more importantly, L2 writing teachers should employ more
real-life and authentic writing activities which can foster the development of critical thinking skills
and understanding of various contextualized linguistic elements. Moreover, directions for further
research are provided in this research.

Keywords: writer identity, interpersonal metadiscourse, second language, academic writing,

senior high school

1. Introduction
Writing is a productive performance of expending words in a written form which entails
innumerable challenging skills among learners. Academic writing is a complex process that when
students create texts, they are assumed to communicate a variety of implications and meanings in
an academic style without simply presenting. As reported by Davies (1999), academic writing is
regarded as a tough and neglected skill area among Japanese EFL learners with which it is
considered the least competent ability in developing critical thinking skills (Kroll, 1990).

In the Philippines, Pablo and Lasaten (2018) identified several areas where senior high
school students have difficulties in academic writing ranging from content and ideas, organization,
vocabulary and word choice, formality to referencing. They concluded that more exposure to
academic writing texts is imperative to improve the quality of students’ writing outputs. A study
by Hernandez, Amarles and Raymundo (2017) also revealed that College Filipino students
demonstrate weakness and negative attitudes towards writing. Furthermore, Martin (2001) on
investigating self-representations in reflective essays found that college freshman students appear

37
to portray themselves as passive subjects in the writing process. They seem to underuse
expressions of ability, obligation, intent, and certainty, which are determiners that warrant agency.
Suggestion is that Filipino student writers should be encouraged to employ more personal
pronouns especially first person in their writing to gain greater ownership of ideas. It is through
this sense that this paper is put forward to situate how Filipino ESL students create their identity
as writers in the context of academic writing. This study aims at investigating writer identity in
senior high school students’ persuasive essays through a metadiscourse analysis. Specifically, it
seeks to (1) identify dominant metadiscoursal feature in student persuasive essays; and determine
how and what kind of writer identity of students is constructed by the dominant metadiscoursal
feature.

2. Literature Review
2.1.Identity in Academic Writing
The concept of ‘identity’ in writing has been used interchangeably in research across
cultures, time and space. Its multidisciplinary nature has carried the notions of self, person role,
persona, position, subject, and plurality that encompass the four interconnected features of
selfhood: autobiographical self, discoursal self, authorial self, and possibilities for self-hood in the
socio-cultural and institutional contexts (Ivanič, 1998). Meanwhile, in an attempt of mirroring how
second language acquisition shapes identity and self, Gay (2013) exemplified that the formation
of one’s identity requires an understanding of social phenomenon where the individual not only
creates his own reality but builds his perceptions of individuality and acceptance in socio cultural
contexts. Hyland (2005b) strongly acclaimed that writing is not an inanimate communicative
process where readers on the other hand see themselves as receptors of knowledge. Writing, in its
very nature, should always be interactive since it lives with the people’s interests, stance, beliefs,
viewpoints, moral, and values. In dwelling more into the reading-writing process, it is evident that
the language, the author, the reader, and the socio-cultural context engender an important aspect
in understanding a text. While language and culture serve as the soul and background of any
writing genre, the author and the reader are the ‘clown actors’ who give and translate meaning to
lifeless thoughts and ideas dancing through the rhythm of a musical entity. In this sense, the
readers’ fathom of responsibility to untangle meaning within a text is shifting cognitive
understanding to sociocultural outlook (Gee, 1992; John-Steiner, Petoskey, & Smith, 1994).

38
Therefore, it is significant to stress that the conceptualization of meaning by readers in a text is
influenced by how the author deliberates the role of the society to control perceptions and
understanding relating to reader’s prior knowledge and experiences (McKinley, 2010). The written
texts present the identity of the language, its symbolic forms and visual components to be
interpreted and deciphered accordingly by the demands of the author. Furthermore, as Hyland
(2002a) stated, academic writers’ identity is influenced and situated by the environment where
they write and the knowledge of who their target readers are. Writing cognition is presumably
constructed by the society as a whole and not just embedded within the social context (Lewis,
2000).

The construction of writer identity in L2 academic writing has been implicitly evident in
classroom settings. Though it has been undoubtedly guarded as a significant factor in assisting
students’ writing process in fabricating academic genres, writer identity is subtly created in not
just echoing the ‘what’ factor which merely pertains to the output, but also explicitly on the ‘how’
student writers illuminate their own identity in terms of taking their stance and claims in the text.

Apart from the extensive discourse analysis and the study of pragmatics in various context,
writer identity through pronominal usage has gained significant attention from scholars in the
spectrum of ESL/EFL teaching-learning processes. Hyland (2002a) unveils that Hongkong L2
writers’ underuse authorial pronouns and determiners in representing themselves in the discourse
is influenced by writer’s skepticism in the notion of authority and loyalty to rhetorical effects.
Restraining their role in the research and adopting a less independent stance compared with native
writers, HongKong students clearly speak within the misconceptions and distinctions of
understanding as to what the functions of metadiscourse will be. More often than not, the focus
given to ESL writing contexts nowadays has been intensely shown on how students can produce
systematized content that is significant and meaningful. Writing is not all about putting
information across as dictated by style guides from the textbooks and from the teachers. Writing
should be thought of an opportunity for students to represent themselves, that is, the writing
material should leave an impression about the writer (Hyland, 2002b).

In the Philippine ESL setting, the same is true about the insufficient use of pronominal
markers. Martin (2011) reveals that Filipino student writers prefer to employ fewer first person
pronouns. Although the corpora in the aforementioned study include Tagalog, student written

39
essays in English yield similar result—that is, first-person referencing is least frequently used
making Filipino student writers passive subjects or agents in the writing per se regardless of the
languages. In this regard, the author suggested that language teachers must devote their teaching
more on the usage of personal pronouns, so students will be able to take a sense of ownership in
the ideas expressed and represent themselves quite well in the text.

Other recent studies involving different foci on L2 students’ written essays in the
Philippines include those of Masangya and Lozada (2009) and Gustilo and Magno (2012).
Masangya and Lozada (2009) deal with the investigation on the relationship between the language
exposures and errors in English essays of high school students. In this study, they discover that
students with high English exposure have significantly less frequency in their errors in terms of
wrong case, fragmentation, parallelism, punctuation, and verb tenses. However, with specific
reference to verb form, preposition, and spelling, students with high exposure are found to have
significant higher frequency in errors compared to those with low English exposure. The
significance of this finding is that, since errors are quite inevitable and it takes time to correct them,
much more exposure to authentic contexts where English is used is needed among Filipino ESL
students. Whereas, Gustilo and Magno (2012) disclose that word choice and capitalization errors
are factors impacting essay scores which deviates from Sweedler-Brow’s (1993) finding that it is
sentence-level errors which play a significant role in essay scores. In this regard, it is suggested
that further studies be conducted to validate the conflicting findings. In lieu of pedagogical
implications, Gustilo and Magno (2012), despite disparity in findings, maintain that more focus
should be given on vocabulary and, while many language teachers are open with the idea of
emerging World Englishes in composition writing, emphasis on accuracy in terms of written texts
should still be considered beneficial. In addition, Almaden (2006) using topical structure analysis
(TSA) reports that parallel progression is the most frequently used in the paragraphs, followed by
the extended and sequential progressions. She further reveals that extended sequential progression
is the least used. Interestingly, her findings show that Filipino ESL students, despite being L2
learners who are bilinguals, could write in the same pattern as do natives who are monolinguals.
She relates this finding to the consistent use of English language in the Philippine context and the
fact that English is strictly used as medium of instructions.

40
2.2.Interactional and Interactive Metadiscourse
Due to its pragmatic role in a written discourse, metadiscourse has appealed with
significant attention and interest in the field of language research. Researchers like Vande Kopple
(1985), Crismore, Markkanen & Steffensen, (1993) and Hyland (2005a) categorized
metadiscourse into different classes to describe its functions in written discourse. Vande Kopple
(1985) classified metadiscourse into textual and interpersonal domains. The ‘textual domain’
guides writers connect their propositions in a cohesive manner and the ‘interpersonal’ gives writers
the opportunity to convey the intended meaning of the sentences. The textual metadiscourse is
illustrated through the use of ‘text connectives’ and ‘code glosses’ while the ‘interpersonal
metadiscourse’ is realized through the use of ‘illocutionary markers’, ‘validity markers, narrators,
‘attitude markers’ and ‘commentary’. With this, Vande Kopple (1985), Crismore et al. (1993) and
Hyland (2005) described metadiscourse into two functional domains: interactive and interactional
metadiscourse.

Through the use of computers and accessibility of information nowadays, the study of
metadiscourse has shifted into newer dimensions with the use of large corpora samples. To point,
Hyland (1999) conducted a comparative study comparing the number of uses of metadiscourse in
textbooks and research articles where he discovered that the latter has gained more number of
interpersonal metadiscourse. On a similar vein, Hyland (2004b) explored postgraduate research
artifacts which revealed that the number of metadiscourse employed in doctoral theses is far more
obvious in occurrences than masters’. Interestingly, Intaraprawat and Steffensen (1995) noted that
good essays normally receive more metadiscourse than that of underrated essays as good essays
project substance and relevance on the subject being discussed.

Aside from previous studies exploring on the two domains of metadiscourse, other
language researchers are moving into specific features. Wu (2007), for example, highlighted the
uses of engagement resources in high and low-rated undergraduates’ geography essays. Harwood
(2005) concentrated on the use of self-mention with the use of inclusive and exclusive pronouns.
Additionally, Hyland (2001a) pinpointed the importance of audience’s communicative
engagement in academic reasoning and dealt on exclusive pronouns and self-citations as well
(Hyland, 2001b).

41
2.3.Metadiscourse Across Academic Genres
The main impetus of scrutinizing the occurrences and functions of metadiscourse in written
discourse is concerning the promotion of how metadiscourse can be a big help for readers in
defining and structuring their notions to different approaches in academic genres. For instance, in
the cross-linguistic study of English and Persian editorials, Kuhi and Mojood (2014) disclosed that
genre conventions influenced the writer’s choices in employing metadiscourse which are evident
in the distribution of these features across English and Persian newspaper editorials. To prove the
discipline and ethno-linguistic aspects, some differences were found between the two sets of data
with which, the interactional category has proved to be the predominant feature which mirrors the
construction of persuasion in this type of genre. Similarly, Zarei (2011) conducted a comparative
study in metadiscourse elements in humanities and non-humanities researches which lays down
the difference of employability of metadiscourse features favoring Persian research articles.
However, humanities researches which include Applied Linguistics tend to focus more on
textuality that relies mainly on interactive metadiscourse as an outflow of reader’s involvement.
Meanwhile, Sukma and Sujatna (2014) explored the interpersonal metadiscourse markers in
Indonesians’ editorial articles. Results affirmed that only few of metadiscourse categories were
employed and attitude markers ranked first followed by commentaries, hedges, certainty markers,
and attributors.

Jimenez (2013) examined a web-based discourse genre by applying a dialogic framework

to the study of interpersonality. This genre fits to the sphere of travel and tourism, where the
interface of writers-readers (or wreaders—a term coined by Landow in 1994) attempts at
persuading others through positive and negative views. Findings indicate the following
descriptions of the traveler forum: (1) the stance voice, irrespective of the wreader's turn in the
thread, is usually demonstrated through self-mentions and hedges, creating authority and personal
discourse with credibility to gain thoughts and evaluations of a nonbusiness nature; (2) the
engagement voice displays an ostensibly constant and apparently generic weakness in the wreader;
and (3) the most recurrent interpersonal markers that help readers' alignment are personal
pronouns/commitment markers and directives. In this respect, the engagement voice attains the
traveler forum purpose, having constant reader involvement in evaluations, judgments, and advice
and establishing harmony and peer-to-peer communication.

42
 In a much nearer dimension, in the Philippine contexts, metadiscourse research has also
found its way in the field. Tarrayo (2014) examined the view of 20 investigative journalism blogs
published in the official website of the Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism (PCIJ) blogs
and found that interactive and the interactional metadiscourse in Philippine investigative
journalism blogs are undoubtedly remarkable where interactive metadiscourse received the highest
occurrences than interactional metadiscourse in the two sub-categories. Results advanced that
Filipino writers are more conscious in terms of allowing the ideas to flow coherently using
prepositions to aid the readers in understanding the texts. Similarly, in an attempt to investigate
the intertwining relationship of language and culture through metatext categories, Tarrayo (2011)
made use of the results-and-discussion sections of 15 research articles (RAs): Philippine-English
variety ESL Ras and EFL RAs Taiwanese-English and Iranian-English varieties. Findings show
that although the entire corpus has larger number of previews, Philippine-English RAs has the
highest frequency of preview and review metatext categories. Tarrayo concluded that Filipino
writers possess “writer-responsible” attitude as compared to other nationalities.

2.4.Metadiscourse in Persuasive/Argumentative Essays

Persuasive essays, also known as argumentative essays are genres of writing that require
student to inspect a topic to accumulate, produce, assess evidence, and establish a stance on the
topic in a concise manner. Persuasive essays are one of the common writing genres that students
are tasked to produce as classroom writing activities (Hyland, 2009) and usually considered the
most sophisticated type of writing due to their complexity (Johns, 1993) comprising the writer –
reader interaction (Hyland, 2004a). Kuteeva (2011) affirmed that argumentative essays are
predominantly a social norm that requires the writer to hold the reader’s anticipations of how ideas
are coherently and cohesively interconnected, as well as the proficiency of the linguistic features
that are used to convey meaning (Morgan, 2011).

Hyland (2004) argues that apart from composing texts that denote external veracity, writers
also used language to plausibly characterize their output as themselves and formulate social
relations with readers. This mirrors the importance of writer-reader interaction in a persuasive
essay that knowledge of metadiscourse being one of the interactional writing tools is of paramount
importance in developing the skills and styles of L2 student writers. To Hyland (2004), “the ability
of writers to control the level of personality in their texts, claiming solidarity with readers,

43
evaluating their material, and acknowledging alternative views, is now recognized as a key feature
of successful academic writing” (as cited in, Tarayo, 2014, p. 36). Though a similar study was
conducted by Rahimivand and Kuhi (2014) exploring discoursal construction of identity in
academic writing employing 30 research articles, gaps remain in our understanding as regards
authorial presence in academic writing produced by EFL and ESL learners. In particular,
knowledge of metadiscoursal features presented within academic writing by senior high school
students is almost scarce since remarkably the K to 12 is a new established curriculum program in
the Philippines with varying education settings. Moreover, while there have been a number of
investigations into self-mention and personal pronoun used in published student academic essays
(e.g. Hyland 1999, 2001; Harwood 2005), there is hardly ever any study that has directly examined
writing produced by ESL learners in senior high school which is the mainstream focus of this
paper.

3. Theoretical Framework
Metadiscourse analysis has been extensively studied in different academic genres of
English language. The proliferation of research works in the field has engendered several
frameworks; however, this study adopted Hyland’s (2004a) model on metadiscourse over others
because the categorization is concise and comprehensive (Vazquez-Orta, Lafuente-Millan, Lores-
Snaz, & Mur-Duenas, 2006, as cited in, Tan & Eng, 2014).

According to Hyland (2005a), the writer makes use of interactive metadiscourse as

linguistic devices to direct the reader through the text. With the interactive metadiscourse, writers
establish a more cohesive and coherent content. The interactive dimension covers various
subcategories such as transition markers, frame markers, endophoric markers, evidential and code
glosses. In addition, Hyland’s model underscored the second dimension of metadiscourse which
is the interactional category. This dimension is recognized by Vande Kopple’s (1985) and
Crismore et al.’s (1993) as interpersonal metadiscourse. Regardless of the differentiation in
categorization, its role in the writing discourse is alike; that is, the interactional dimension is
employed to express the writers’ affective aspects or reactions to the propositional content and to
establish a reader-friendly atmosphere with the intended audience. This metadiscourse domain
encompasses subcategories such as hedges, boosters, attitude markers, engagement markers and
self-mentions (See Figure 1 below).

44
 CATEGORY FUNCTION EXAMPLES
INTERACTIVE HELP TO GUIDE THE RESOURCES
READER THROUGH THE
TEXT
TRANSITIONS Express relations between the In addition; but; thus; and
main clauses
FRAME MARKERS Refer to the discourse acts, Finally; to conclude; my
sequences or stages purpose is
ENDOPHORIC MARKERS Refer to information in Noted above; see Fig.; in
another part of the text Section 2
EVIDENTIALS Refer to information from According to X; Z states
other texts
CODE GLOSSES Elaborate propositional Namely; for example; such
meanings as; in other words
INTERACTIONAL INVOLVE THE READER RESOURCES
IN THE TEXT
HEDGES Withhold commitment and Might; perhaps; possible;
open dialog about
BOOSTERS Emphasize certainty of close In fact; definitely; it is clear
dialog that
ATTITITUDE MARKERS Express writer’s attitude to Unfortunately; I agree;
proposition surprisingly
SELF-MENTIONS Make explicit reference to the I; we; my; me; our
author(s)
ENGAGEMENT MARKERS Explicitly build relationship Consider; note; you can see
with reader

Figure 1. An Interpersonal Model of Metadiscourse (Hyland, 2004a)

4. Methodology
4.1. Corpus of the Study
This qualitative analysis utilized 50 persuasive essays on societal problems highlighting
key topics such as Extrajudicial Killings, Martial Law in Mindanao, Overpopulation, Social
Media, and Youths of Tomorrow. The articles were written by Grade 11 senior high school
students as part of the requirements in Reading and Writing subject. Since it was impossible to
obtain similar data from students in terms of the degree of writing interest, the length of the essays
which passed the criterion of 250-word count and above served as the prime consideration in the
selection of the learner corpus. Of the 150 student persuasive essays, only 50 were considered to

45
be the data with 10 articles representing each key topic (See Table 1 for a breakdown of the corpus).
The researchers regarded each key topic as important since topics are diverse in nature and may
uncover various linguistic evidences from students that are helpful in realizing the study’s purpose.

Table 1. Breakdown of the Learner Corpus

Key Topics on Persuasive Number of Essays Used Word Count

Essay
Martial Law 10 6, 923
Extra-Judicial Killings 10 3, 477
Social Media 10 2, 855
Overpopulation 10 3, 472
Youths of Tomorrow 10 11, 109
Total 50 27, 836

4.2.Procedure

This study is an analysis of the use of metadiscourse structures in student persuasive essays
following Hyland’s model of interpersonal metadiscourse (2004a) which has been considered most
comprehensive and pragmatically grounded means of exploring interpersonal features in written
texts (Vazquez-Orta, et al., 2006, as cited in, Tan & Eng, 2014). This framework is seen
progressing and can adapt to any relevant studies revolving around metadiscourse categories.
According to Rahimivand and Kuhi (2014, p. 1495), “this model overcomes many of the
limitations of other models and tries to move beyond exterior and superficial forms or assays about
metadiscourse as a self-sufficient stylistic scheme” in which evidentials, hedges, boosters, self-
mentions and attitude markers are analyzed. Considering Ivanič’s (1998) model of identity, which
is also used significantly in the study, can give a thorough understanding of the issues about
constructing L2 writer’s identity.

The corpus was collected from students as part of their requirements in an English class.
After collecting the corpus, essays were carefully read and examined. Frequency count was done
through a concordance tool called AntConc (3.4.4w) and analysis was done manually. To add the
validity of the results, the researchers invited two teacher-researchers who were language teachers
from the same school to assist in coding the metadiscourse features found in student persuasive
essays. Both the researchers and the teacher coders discussed if decisions on individual markings

46
are differed. However, it is important to note that it is very difficult to identify metadiscoursal
features since words chosen by the writer do not always suggest one pragmatic interpretation
(Hyland, 1996b). This supports the idea of language as a creative human activity in which, writers
are expected to have a wider scope of vocabulary to help readers perceive the intended meaning
of the texts. As such, categories of metadiscourse can be treated and realized through linguistics
in various forms (Rahimivand and Kuhi 2014), however, a context-sensitive analysis should be
carried out since metadiscourse features are multifunctional (Tarrayo, 2014) which, in this study,
only expressions suggesting metadiscourse characteristics were selected and analyzed as
metadiscourse.

5. Results and Discussions

5.1.Interactive and Interactional Metadiscourse in Student Persuasive Essays
Metadiscourse as defined by Crismore etal. (1993) refers to writer’s direction and
involvement for how readers should read, analyze, and assess the ideas presented. That is, in this
context, it could be comprehended that, writers dictate the reaction of their readers. In contrary to
the former view, Hyland (2005a) has seen metadiscourse as ‘self-reflective expressions’ through
which the reader and the writer are engaged to interact within the text. This statement is parallel
with Vande Kopple’s (1985) textual and interpersonal categorization of metadiscourse by
classifying metadiscourse features into interactive and interactional, where interactive devices play
to “guide the reader through the text and interactional resources include the reader actively in the
progress of the text” (Thompson, 2001, p. 58). Hence, while interactive metadiscourse is used to
structure a text coherently, the interactional category designates the writer’s voice through personal
note cohesively.

Table 2 below presents the metadiscourse features used in student persuasive essays.
Remarkably, the data showed that the student essays employed more interactional features
(66.79%) than interactive (33.21%). It appears that student L2 writers are sensitive in making their
ideas strong, organized, and cohesively presented as interactional features build a notable sense of
ownership of thoughts through the development of the text. Students tend to actively engage their
readers in a way that a sense of writer identity is projected, and at the same time, a collaborative
reading community is assumed. This result supports the claim of Kuhi and Mojood (2014) which
states that interactional metadiscourse is overtly argumentative in nature, i.e. highlighting the

47
explicit construction of textual persona. However, this is inconsistent with Hinds’ (2001) finding
which found native English writers to be more favorable on the use of interactional devices such
as hedges, attitude markers and boosters. Additionally, this finding challenges the idea of Morgan
(2011) that L2 writers show preference for interactive metadiscourse features to interactional
resources. As far as rhetorical styles are concerned, Hyland (2005b) argued that Asian writers
overuse frame markers (firstly, secondly, finally) which is a sub-category of interactive features,
while Swedish (Aijmer, 2002), and Chinese (Hyland 2005b) tend to rely freely on the modal verb
will versus the can and could by Germans, and may by French (Aijmer, 2002).

Table 2
Frequency of use of Interactive and Interactional Metadiscourse in Student Persuasive Essays
Metadiscourse Category Frequency Percentage Total Percentage
Interactive Features
Transition 51 46.78 15.66
Frame Markers 22 20.18 06.76
Endophoric Markers 1 0.94 0.03
Evidentials 19 17.43 05.84
Code Glosses 16 14.67 04.92
Total 109 33.21
Interactional Features
Hedges 22 10.13 06.76
Boosters 21 9.67 06.43
Attitude Markers 7 3.25 02.18
Engagement Markers 55 25.34 16.87
Self-Mentions 112 51.61 34.55
Total 217 66.79
Grand Total 326 100

Among the five features under interactional metadiscourse, the use of self-mentions
overrides the frequency (51.61%) which almost doubled the list of all interactional resources total
count. Since, it is viewed that the metadiscoursal analyses can provide ample evidences on how
writers build reader-relationship through academic genre, it means that when students are to write
an argumentative article, they are anticipated to take position, lead, and persuade readers to take
their stance using the four elements of persuasion namely: claim, reasons, arguments, and
counterarguments (Pena and Anudin, 2017). With this, Wilson and Sperber (2004) added that,
argumentative writers should know their audience well so they can assess their claims properly

48
brought by the topic discussed on hand. Moreover, understanding social norms, relationship with
readers, and the purpose of writing help achieve rhetorical goals in writing an essay (Hyland,
1998).

Also, the data revealed that the total number of engagement markers ranked second in terms
of the frequency of use (25.34%). The former result appeals to the thoughtfulness of writers which
provides an evaluation that readers’ inclusion in the subject discussion is of paramount importance
as the arguments unfold. The students tend to demand readers’ participation and delve into reading
engagement all throughout. Meanwhile, attitude markers were the least favored interactional
metadiscourse (3.25% only). This shows that student writers did not find attitude markers or
sentiment devices a strong feature. Though it mirrors intensity of ideas given, student slightly
stressed its significance in underpinning writer identity. This evidence is supported by Rahimivand
and Kuhi (2014) who discovered similar result in the case of ESL/EFL research articles. As
evidenced, this report relays that student persuasive writers stress significance of both projecting
identity in writing as well as involving readers actively in the texts.

As regards the interactive metadiscourse features, transition was ranked first (41.78%).
Hyland (2004b) stated that metadiscourse includes “unpacking decisions writers make in creating
discourse itself rather than the events and processes that they participated in” (p.140). Transitions
are being used to connect the chronological points in the arguments while expressing relationship
with sentences in a paragraph. The use of this transitional interactive metadiscourse feature
provides the text an edge to be qualitatively-impacting. Thus, in writing persuasive essays, the
employability of transition signals the reader what to expect next in the text and dictates readers
to change or to maintain anticipation with the previous understandings.

5.2.Interactional Metadiscourse Features in Student Persuasive Essays

The following tables reflect the analysis of the10 different metadiscourse features found in
student persuasive essays as anchored on Hyland’s (2004a) interpersonal model of metadiscourse.
Again, it should be noted that the analysis was manually contextualized in nature to match the
validity of the expected results and to surpass the notion of no one pragmatic meaning yields one
single interpretation (Heng & Tan, 2010).

49
Table 3
Frequency of Hedges Used in Student Essays
Form of hedges Frequency
Could 5
Can 5
Might 4
May 3
Would 2
Maybe 1
Seem/Seemed 1
Is believed 1
Grand Total 22

The use of hedges in student persuasive essays is relatively less frequent. However, it is
obvious that students used a variety of hedges in their articles. Most evident hedges used are could,
can, and might. The result indicates that although students are most likely to share inputs with less
commitments and anticipations in expressing their statements, they appear to be cautious and
modest in giving their views to preserve their identity. This may be due to the notion that
persuasive essays are more into reasons and takes up less commitments because writers merely
play as a dispenser of thoughts informing readers of the stance they take regarding a certain issue.
In contrary, William (2007) points out the need to use more hedges for writing to be a successful
one. As such, Rahimivand and Kuhi (2014) argue that through the use of hedges, writers can
anticipate possible oppositions while appearing not to be too assertive, which is a valuable element
to hold writer’s position (Hyland 1996a, 1998; Moreno 1998, & Salager-Meyer 1994).

The use of hedges in student persuasive essays are presented in the following extracts:

(1): At the very least, it is possible that soldiers could misinterpret their orders and
miscommunicate their authorities through power out of ignorance. (ML)

(2): The government and powerful leaders keep this private from the society to avoid the
breakdown of ideologies and might lessen the faith in religion. (OP)

(3): A simple post of a teenager about global warming can inform many about the effects
of it and more or less, a reader of the post may start to change his un-eco-friendly ways.
(YT)

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Table 4
Frequency of Boosters Used in Student Essays
Form of Boosters Frequency
Truly 6
Must 5
Should 4
Surely 2
Of Course 2
Legally 1
In Fact 1
Grand Total 21

As can be gleaned from the table above, the use of boosters was downplayed in terms of
the number of occurrences which displays a very slight difference only as compared to the number
of hedges. It is surprising that students see this feature as not obligatory in taking propositions and
stance. Persuasive essays are supposed to be reflections of reasons and arguments of writers. As
Rahimivand and Kuhi (2014) confirms that boosters or certainty markers are complex
metalinguistic devices that strengthen authoritative persona in various functions. The most evident
use of boosters are truly, must, and should.

See extracts (4), (5), and (6) for the reference:

(4) Many minors commit crimes because they think they can get away with it. Legally, they
can. (YT)

(5) We must do our best to help the youths to go through the right direction. (YT)

(6) Of course, the issue of privacy remains to be unsettling topic but we already have
milked it and stressed on it more than enough times. (OP)

Table 5
Frequency of Attitude Markers Used in Student Essays
Forms of Attitude Markers Frequency
Especially 5
More Importantly 1
Unfortunately 1
Grand Total 7

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 Interestingly, this result corroborates Burneikaite’s (2008) study which accentuated that
the dominant reason why attitude markers are objectively less preferred because this feature
represents reluctance and lack of confidence of writers in establishing their voice in their outputs.
This does not mean that feelings or affective stimuli of students do no longer exist when writing,
however. It simply indicates that, in the academic world especially in the realm of persuasion,
emotional sentiments must always be controlled by reasons. Following below are extracts that
served as the evidence.

(7) With this, the situation then was clearly different, especially by the terms situated for
its declaration. (ML)

(8) Unfortunately, many teenagers commit suicide just so, they can escape from problems.

Table 6
Frequency of Self-Mentions Used in Student Essays
Form of Self-Mentions Frequency
I 35
We 48
Our 10
Us 10
My 6
Me 2
Grand Total 112

Interestingly, self-mentions are distinctly illustrated the most visible representation of

constructing writer identity in persuasive essays. The prevalence of self-mentions promotes the
writer and his/her work in academic community which holds the overwhelming part of this study.
Harwood (2005b) supports the use of self-mentions or promotional devices in projecting authority
in writing, authorial self. This is consistently supported by Hyland (2002) claim, "self-mention
constitutes a central pragmatic feature of academic discourse since it contributes not only to the
writer’s construction of a text, but also of a rhetorical self (p.1110).

Hell, Verhoeven, Tak and Oosterhout (2005) exposed that the use of first person singular
and plural, and third person singular is seen more dominant in narrative texts than in expository
counterparts whereas impersonal pronouns are favored in expository than in narrative texts. In
contrary, Martin (2011) revealed that Filipino student writers have a tendency to employ fewer

52
first person pronouns. The result was evident in both Filipino and English essays where first-person
referencing is least favored. This implies that the students are more inclined with self-
representation than with having a feeling of otherness (Partington, 1993). They tend to create
individual identity while managing to establish solidarity and foster an atmosphere of oneness.
Extractions (9), (10), and (11) below justify the points.

(9) Such utterances from my parents strike my heart and soul. Telling me to become
studious and be more pro-active in my academics. I have always thought that maybe
they’re just worried for my future, if not, my reputation in general. If so, I try to attain
excellence in the work I do. However, as the average student that I am, I do not take this
too much into consideration – until now. (EJK)

(10) I believe in the meaning of Martial Law that is meant to give the military control over
its coverage area when the civilian government could no longer function. (ML)

(11) I would like to express to those affected by this calamity that I am thinking of them
and wish to send them my love and prayers. I know that we will rise together stronger and
united as a country and as a people.

Table 7
Frequency of Engagement Markers Used in Student Essays
Form of Engagement Markers Frequency
You 40
We 15
Grad Total 55

It can be seen from the table above that engagement markers ranked second in establishing
writer identity in student persuasive essays. This shows that student writers develop a writing
strategy to bring readers into the text in an unfolding dialogue (Hyland, 2004a). Using the pronoun
you enables the students to link the past knowledge and experiences of readers to strengthen the
interaction between the speaker and the audience in the speech event. The following extract could
prove the effective use of an engagement marker, in a form of rhetorical question, which aims to
call readers’ participation and engagement in giving insightful arguments. The use of You showing
the uniformity of ideas or a ‘shared knowledge’ between the writer and the reader is also notable.

53
 (12) Did you ever wonder or ask yourself, why NASA needs a vast exploration outside the
world? What is their purpose? What is the benefit? (OP)

(13) How can you tell if you are using social media appropriately and wisely? (SM)

(14) Did you see? Do you see what is happening today? (OP)

(15) Open your eyes; Clear your mind. Let everything sink in and realize that we are in
danger. The future held by the teenagers is in jeopardy. How can we progress if people
like such are executed, killed and accused without real and solid evidences? Even if so,
where is the proper due process? (EJK)

Indeed, metadiscourse owns a prominent rank in second language academic writing. It has
been proven that explicit instruction about metadiscourse has a positive impact on students’ writing
experiences (Crismore, 1984; Perez-Llantada, 2003; Simin & Tavangar, 2009; Xu, 2001, as cited
in Tarrayo, 2014). Through explicit classroom instruction, students will be able to try to employ
mostly on metadiscoursal elements to present a more acceptable piece of writing within the socio-
rhetorical framework of academic picture within their target communities (Hyland, 2005b). In
other words, by introducing metadiscourse in L2 academic approach, student moves out from
simple sharing information to context-rich interaction (Dafouz-Milne, 2008, as cited in, Tarrayo
& Duque, 2011) as it carries social meaning by displaying the author’s dispositions and identity
and by marking how he/she expects his/her readers to react to the ideational material.

6. Conclusion
This study concluded that the use of self-mention by students in persuasive essays
constitutes a metalinguistic feature that promotes, establishes, equips, and secures their writer
identity. The predominance of self-mention as a sub-category of interactional metadiscourse allows
student writers to achieve interaction of readers personally where they can construct their
metadiscoursal identity, i.e. authorial self not only to represent the text but more importantly
position themselves as writers. Furthermore, the strategic use of personal pronouns as engagement
markers is overwhelming in the study as clearly exemplified through rhetorical questions
attempting to evoke participation and engagement among the readers. This is useful for student
writers should know how to label their readers as interlocutors in order to attain persuasive and
argumentative insights while creating a highly communicative engaging reading environment.

54
Hence, it can be concluded that such distinct feature of personal pronouns unquestionably helps
shape writer identity in student persuasive essays. Nonetheless, it is significant to note that attitude
markers are considered to be the least frequently used interactive metadiscourse element. The
underuse of attitude markers or sentiment markers approves the dominance of reason over
emotional perception in academic writing. Thus, attitude markers are seen to be impersonal feature
that weakens authoritative voice and personal involvement of writers. In an academic world
especially in the parlance of persuasion, overtaking emotions by arguments means eradicating
“impressionalism” (Rahimivand and Kuhi, 2014, p. 1499) and highlighting opinionated schemes.
In addition, the underuse of hedges is remarkable in the study which shows that students are
cautious and modest in giving their views regarding certain topics while the less frequency of
boosters is surprising in that students’ authoritative persona in their persuasive essays were not
truly reflected.

In conclusion, the role of metadiscourse in discoursal construction of student identity lies

in its intermediary nature in the sense that, with special use of its elements like evidentials, hedges,
boosters, self-mentions, engagement markers and attitude markers, students can reflect their
principles and uniqueness as a writer. This being said, factors that affect the use of metadiscourse
markers when developing an academic argument may reside on the type of academic genre, the
translation of various writing experiences through cultural norms, and linguistic choices.

7. Pedagogical Implications and Recommendations

Based on the foregoing findings and the conclusion, this study offers some pedagogical
implications useful for second language academic writing instruction. There is no question that
metadiscourse markers are important ingredients in L2 academic writing. For an effective use of
these markers, L2 teachers should directly teach them to students as explicit instruction of
metadiscourse significantly enhances quality in student writing (see Dastjerdi & Shirzad, 2012;
Yaghoubi & Ardestani, 2014). It is also imperative that teachers pay equal attention to the teaching
of personal pronouns in the writing classes. Students should be taught the pragmatic functions of
personal pronouns to help them carry out their positions in such a highly academic world of
writing. Enough exposure on the different uses of personal pronouns is deemed necessary if the
goal is to strengthen representation skills of students in different written discourses (Martin, 2011).
Moreover, L2 writing teachers should employ more real-life and authentic writing activities which

55
can foster the development of critical thinking skills and familiarization of contextualized
linguistic elements to transfer significant student writing experiences in the classroom.

However, a much deeper qualitative analysis of large and varied learner corpora is
important to reach at a more conclusive result. Future studies may also investigate other persuasive
essays that tackle other topics such as politics, sports and business. Lastly, since writing is culture-
bound, a contrastive rhetoric analysis on metadiscourse can be a rich information showing the
distinction of functions between metadiscourse categories of different languages situated within
the broad field of academic writing.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Mapping reading strategy orchestration of tertiary ESL students

Conrado F. Vidal, Jr.

Olivarez College - Philippines

Abstract
Although extensive research has identified the learning strategies of students learning
second or foreign languages, several concerns remain unexplored. One of these concerns is
identifying localized strategic behavior (Cohen, 2007) or specific strategies selected for a task.
Thus, this study investigated the use of language strategy in L2 reading tasks of six participants to
identify emerging patterns and degree of strategy orchestration. The participants, enrolled in
Communication Arts 2, were equally grouped as either proficient or less proficient. Method
triangulation was used to analyze data from the reading stages: pre-reading, while-reading, and
post reading. Data from think-aloud protocol (TAP), the main data gathering procedure, was
complemented by other data gathering procedures: stimulated recall interview, and observations.
The participants used varied strategy quantity and types. However, more proficient participants
have richer strategy repertoires compared to less proficient participants who have limited strategy
inventory. In addition, proficient participants have better metacognitive awareness, which enable
them to produce better strategy clusters and chains. Findings indicated the need of research to
further understand the role of metacognition on strategy orchestration.

Keywords: language learning strategies, strategy orchestration, emerging reading strategy

patterns, reading strategy chains and clusters

Introduction

Often, tertiary students are required to do voluminous readings on their courses as part of
the academic training. Reading is a process in which students interact with texts meaningfully;

61
they utilize a set of tactics or techniques to comprehend the text. These sets of tactics are more
commonly known as learning strategies. Rebecca Oxford, a front runner in language learning
strategy (LLS) research defined learning strategies as specific actions taken by the learner to make
learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable
to new situations (1990, p. 8).

The publication of Joan Rubin’s article “What the Good Language Learner Can Teach Us”
in 1975 heralded language strategy research (Greenfell and Macaro, 2007). In this article, Rubin
(1975) noted that the primary characteristic of good language learners was their creative
employment of strategies in learning a new language. Language learning strategies (LLS) play an
important role in second language learning. LLS experts such as Rebecca Oxford, Andrew Cohen,
J.O Malley and Anna Chamot underscored the importance language learning strategies in the
arsenal of successful L2 learners.

The most general finding among the researchers on language learning strategies is that the
use of appropriate LLS leads to improved proficiency or achievement in overall or specific
language skills (Oxford, 1989; Cohen, 1996, Rossiter 2003). Relating this to the parable on
teaching men to fish instead of giving them fish, the use of appropriate LLS enables students to
take responsibility for their own learning by improving learner autonomy and independence.

Teachers often provide students advice on how to improve language skills. Teachers’
suggestions will be more effective if they have a comprehensive knowledge of students’ learning
strategies. As Fleming and Walls (1998) would put it, an understanding and awareness of learning
strategies on the part of the teachers and students may provide valuable insights into the process
of language learning.

According to Oxford (1990) learning strategies have certain features. First, learning
strategies allow learners to become more self-directed. This is important because learners will not
always have teachers around to guide them as they use the language outside the classroom. (9 -14)

Second, learning strategies are problem oriented, since these strategies are tools to be used
to solve problems, or to accomplish a task, or to meet an objective. For example, a learner can use
reasoning or guessing strategies to understand a reading text better.

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 Third, learning strategies are action-based, for they are specific actions taken by the learner
in order to enhance their learning. Furthermore, the choice of strategy depends upon the task with
some strategies appropriate for more than one task.

Next, LLS involve many aspects of the learner, not just cognitive, as some strategies are
beyond cognition. Besides cognitive functions, strategies also include metacognitive, emotional or
affective and social functions as well.

Furthermore, learning strategies are not always observable to the human eye. For example,
while many aspects of co-operating with someone else to achieve a learning goal are observable,
it is impossible to observe a learner act of making associations.

Also, learning strategies are often conscious efforts used by learners to take control of their
learning. However, after a certain amount of use and practice, learning strategies, like any other
skill or behavior, can become automatic.

Another important feature of LLS is flexibility: they are not always found in predictable
sequences or in precise patterns. Individual learner can choose, combine and sequence the
strategies in a way he or she wants. But in some cases, such as in reading a passage, learners use
some strategies in a predictable way. For example, learners first preview the text length, text title,
skim or scan the first and last sentences, and then read it more closely by using L1 translation,
background knowledge, etc.

Research supports the effectiveness of using L2 learning strategies. More so, various
studies have shown that successful language learners often use strategies in an orchestrated
manner, which Oxford (2011) termed as strategy chain. Successful language learners select
strategies that work together in a highly-orchestrated way that fit the requirements of the language
task. A combination of strategies often has more impact than single strategies. When used together,
language strategies improve proficiency or level of achievement in specific language tasks.

Better language learners are more capable of employing metacognitive skills than poor
learners. According to Anderson (2002) the five components of metacognition are: preparing and
planning for learning, selecting and using learning strategies, monitoring strategy use,
orchestrating various strategies and evaluating strategy use and learning.

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 Researchers have been interested in LLS orchestration as early as 1985 when Chamot
already observed “combination” of strategy use for single language tasks. She conducted a
descriptive study among 70 ESL students with the primary purpose of identifying the different
strategies used by the subjects. Using class observation guides and interview guides, 638 instances
of learning strategies were reportedly used. While there were new strategies, many of the reported
strategies matched those already identified by the literature. These strategies were classified into
cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective.

In 2005, Andrew Cohen, a noted LLS researcher, published the results of a survey he
conducted among 19 strategy experts. The list of respondents included the who’s who in the field
of language strategy – Neil Andersen, Anna Chamot, Andrew Cohen, Do Coyle, Claudia
Finkbeiner, Christine Goh. Suzanne Graham, Carol Griffiths, Peter Gu, Veronica Harris, Ernesto
Macaro, Martha Nyikos, Rebecca Oxford, Joan Rubin, Osamu Takeuchi, Larry Vandergrift,
Qiufang Wen, Cynthia White and Lawarence Zhang.

The instrument was a questionnaire consisting of eleven sections dealing with many issues
on LLS. One of the sections of the questionnaire dealt with strategy cluster and chain. When asked
about this issue, there was a consensus among experts that strategic behavior fall along a
continuum of a single action to a sequence of actions (Cohen, 2007). Furthermore, there was an
agreement on the following issues:

a. A strategy used singly cannot function well.

b. The use of strategy clusters is task-dependent
c. Metacognitive strategies are used to evaluate strategy clusters.
This consensus among LLS experts correlates with Macaro’s (2004) proposed features of
strategies. First, he emphasizes that for a strategy to be effective in promoting learning or improved
performance, it must be combined with other strategies either simultaneously or in sequence to
form strategy clusters and chains.

Second, strategies are both situation -specific and transferable to other situations Macaro
(2004). Strategies are transferred to similar tasks when learners perceive similarities between the
new and former tasks. Also, he emphasized that evaluation of strategy effectiveness is undertaken
not in isolation but against the background of the relative effectiveness of strategy clusters.

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 Third, a strategy cluster is evaluated by a metacognitive strategy or a series of
metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies are attached to strategy clusters to regulate
conscious cognitive activity (Macaro, 2004). Strategy clusters are complex that from time to time
strategies are added or disregarded through ongoing monitoring and evaluation. Strategy clusters
involve a high-level of planning and orchestration which is the result of metacognitive strategies.
In fact, Macaro (2001) sees that metacognitive strategies aid learners combine and orchestrate
strategies effectively in any given situation.

For example, if a learner needs to determine the meaning of the word ‘antiquity’, he may use
word analysis, recognizing that “anti” is a prefix. However, ‘anti’ is not a prefix in the word. Thus,
the strategy won’t work in this case. When the learner finds out that word analysis does not help
him figure out the meaning of the word, he turns to another strategy such as context clues.

Vast literature on language learning strategies has identified several factors correlating
strategy choice and use (Oxford, 199; Oxford & Nyikos, 2011). Among these factors are: gender,
proficiency level, ethnicity, motivation, personality traits, and age. These factors are discussed, in
turn.

Some studies have investigated the relationship between gender and LLS choice and use.
These studies reported higher frequency of strategy use by females than males. Lee (2003)
surveyed 325 Korean EFL secondary students using Oxford’s Strategy Inventory of Language
Learning (SILL). Results revealed higher LLS use by females in all six strategy categories:
memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, social and affective. In 1996, Dreyer and
Oxford (in Osamu, Griffiths and Coyle, 2007) reported that females used social and metacognitive
strategies more often than males.

Similar findings were noted in a study conducted by McMullen (2009) among Saudi EFL
students. The survey among 165 respondents reported that the 94 female students reported higher
LLS use than their 71 male counterparts.

In all of the studies reviewed, a higher level of proficiency has been associated with better
use of strategies. In a study conducted by Shamais (2003) among Arab-speaking English majors
in An-Najab University in Palestine, a positive correlation between strategy use and proficiency

65
level was revealed. Similar findings were disclosed in a study done by Bremner in 1999. Higher
proficient learners used more strategies, especially cognitive and metacognitive.

Cohen (1987) undertook a survey on the way learners relate to teacher feedback on
compositions, revealing that poorer writers had limited repertoire of strategies for processing
teacher feedback. Using Oxford’s SILL, Wu (2008) found that more proficient Chinese EFL
learners used cognitive, metacognitive and social strategies more often than affective, memory and
compensation strategies. Furthermore, the study showed that cognitive strategies had the strongest
relations to English proficiency, especially in reading and listening proficiency. The strong
relation between cognitive strategies and English proficiency suggests that cognitive strategies are
a good predictor of English proficiency

Among 18 Singaporean pupils, flexibility and appropriateness of reading strategies are

affected by level of proficiency (Zhang, Gu, Hu, 2008). High proficient learners were better LLS
users than low proficient learners.

Cultural values affect a learner’s attitude about learning. Nachiengmai (1998) observed
that in his native Thai culture, respect for parents and the elderly and the more qualified people
caused learners to be non-participative in class. Asian students preferred strategies involving rote
memorization and language rules than communication strategies (O’ Malley and Chamot, 1990).
Politzer (in Lee, Ibid) found that Hispanics and Asians differ strongly in the kinds of strategies
they use in language learning. Hispanics choose more social and interactive strategies, while
Asians opted for rote memorization.

The preference of rote learning in vocabulary learning strategies among Chinese was
confirmed in a study done by Li (2005). Drawing data from 100 Chinese EFL students in the
English department of a university in Northeast, China, results indicated that the subjects held
highly positive belief about rote learning – repetition, memorization, and practice. Six factors were
identified as reasons for the preference, namely: Chinese educational and cultural background,
EFL environment, traditional habits, national examination demand, Chinese linguistic background
and inability to try out other strategies.

Another variable examined with respect to its relation to LLS use is motivation. General
findings point that learners who are more motivated use a wider range and strategies and use these

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strategies more often. Chang and Huang (1999) found out that among their 46 Taiwanese
respondents, use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies were highly associated with intrinsic
motivation; while extrinsic motivation account for the use of memory and affective strategies.

Aside from motivation, positive attitude directly correlates with the frequency of LLS use.
Ming (2007) found that Chinese students who regarded English learning as a difficult task
prevented them from taking positive measure to improve their vocabulary learning strategies.
Learners with negative attitude showed low use of vocabulary management, vocabulary activation
and dictionary use.

Self-efficacy refers to personal judgments of performance capacities in a given domain of

activities (Schunk in Rossiter, 2002). People with high efficacy are confident to perform since they
judge themselves capable of managing the activity Also, they avoid activities which they believe
are beyond their abilities. In addition, people who have a stronger sense of self-efficacy tend to
exert more effort to meet challenges and tend to make decisions on when and how to use strategies
to manage the challenge of the tasks. Wong (2005) found that high self-efficacy pre-service
teachers reported more frequent use of a greater number of language learning strategies than did
low self-efficacy pre-service teachers.

Students of different stages of L2 learning used different strategies, with certain strategies
often being employed by older (Oxford, 1990 and Lee, 2003) and more advanced language learners
(Lee, 2003) A study done by Chamot, et al (1987, in Lee 2003) discovered that cognitive strategy
use decreased and metacognitive strategy use increased as language course level increased; but
social and affective strategy use remained low across all course levels.

Studies indicate that situational variables exert influence on the use of strategies. Strategy
choice is also task-dependent. Generally, Kang (1997) noted, students used memory strategies for
vocabulary learning, compensation strategies for listening and reading comprehension tasks and
metacognitive strategies for listening and writing tasks. It also appears that strategies for test taking
are determined by the nature of the tests (Roizen, 1983). Also, the level of difficulty of the language
task is a factor for strategy preference (Oxford, Cho, Leung and Kim, (2004).

Educational and teaching environment also influences students’ learning (Lin and Wenden,
(1998). The subjects of the study agreed that the fear caused by junior and senior high school has

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a negative influence on their university English learning. In 1990 Watanabe examined the effects
of staying overseas on LLS use by Japanese EFL students. Analysis of the data obtained showed
that staying abroad had a favorable effect by providing students with opportunities to develop
strategies of learning English through communication.

As to the relationship between personality and LLS choice, Ehrman and Oxford (1989 in
Osamu, Griffiths and Coyle, 2007)) found that extroverts used two categories of strategies,
namely: affective and visualizations. Introverts, on the other hand, made use of searching for and
communicating meaning. In another study by Ehrman and Oxford (1990), extroverts showed
strong preference for social strategies, while introverts use metacognitive strategies more
frequently. Extroverts are more willing to take risks and may benefit from their involvement in
communication, while introverts may be more comfortable with form-focused activities that
ensure accuracy than communicative-focused activities.

Despite the vast research made in this area of L2 learning, LLS is some LLS areas are
relatively unexplored, one of which is LLS used in combinations, which experts termed as LLS
orchestration. The limited studies on strategy orchestration prompted this researcher to explore the
considerable potential in investigating the topic as all language learners employ LLS of varied
types, quantity, quality and level of effectiveness.

Statement of the Problem

This study mapped the different language learning strategy chains and clusters of
respondents in L2 reading tasks. Specifically, these questions were posited:

1. What are the patterns of language learning strategies that emerged from the reading tasks?
2. How different / similar is strategy orchestration among the two groups of learners?

Method

The qualitative action case study was used to map the language learning strategy clusters
and chains of students in two L2 reading-writing tasks. Nunan and Bailey (2009) define action
case study as “an investigation carried out by a classroom practitioner in his or her professional
context.” (p. 165).

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 Six students equally grouped as proficient or less proficient were chosen as participants for
the study. These students were enrolled in Communication Arts 2 during the first semester of
academic year 2017-2018.

Two authentic expository texts from The Philippine Daily Inquirer were selected.
According to Chamot, et al. (1990), authentic materials provide a wide variety of written passages
with different patterns of rhetorical organizations and writing styles. The text were selected based
on text structures, text readability, and text difficulty, which was calculated using the Flesch
Reading Ease test.

The first text, Stuck in a Sandbox (RT1), by Amaris Grace Cabason described Filipino
sportsmanship, and then uses facts, reasons and examples to support her main idea.
Counting Friends (RT 2) by Johaira C. Wahab describes friendship through an enumeration
of the friends she has had, contrasted friends to allies and gives an extended definition of
friendship.

Since most strategies are internal mental processes (White, Schramm and Chamot, 2007),
the research relied on learners’ accounts. Self-report was used to document learners’ use of LLS
(Cohen, 1998 and Chamot, 2004). Data from participants’ self-recall were collected using the
following instruments: Think a-loud protocol, stimulated recall interview, observation, and
strategy journal.

Think-a-loud protocol (TAP), the main data gathering instrument, has been used
extensively in strategy studies especially in reading (Chamot, 2004). In this method, the students
verbalize the process as they are engaged in the tasks.

Observation was used in conjunction with think- a-loud protocol while the students
completed the reading tasks. The procedure documented nonverbal communication which think-
aloud protocols were not able to account for.

Stimulated recall interview technique provided flexibility in seeking clarification and

elaboration from the participants. They were interviewed as they watched segments of the
videotaped TAP and were asked to analyze the tasks. The videos were replayed to the participants
to stimulate their recall their actions and verbal protocols during the reading tasks.

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 A pilot try-out, involving three participants, was conducted before the start of the actual
study. The try-out assessed the methodology so that possible problems that might occur during the
conduct of the study could be anticipated. Revisions on the procedure of the data gathering based
on the evaluation of the pilot study were made before the actual study.

Numerical count of the different strategies used by the participants and numerical
difference among participants’ strategies employment were also analyzed using percentage and
ranking.

However, such simple counting did not capture how a strategy was used and how the
strategy chains and clusters were orchestrated. Hence, qualitative analysis was employed to
examine the think a-loud protocols.

Method triangulation was employed to improve the validity and reliability of the research.
Golafshani (2003) stresses that triangulation strengthens a study by using several kinds of methods
and data, including both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The collection of different types
of data will permit the comparison of outcomes of the various kinds of data collection (Nunan and
Bailey, 2009).

The data gathered from the think a-loud protocols were coded and segmented. After the
data were coded, the cognitive processes were reconstructed as chains and clusters of strategies.
The segmentation scheme enabled the researcher to have in-depth understanding of the processes
and interaction between the participants and the texts. Two reading strategies coding schemes
were adapted for the study: Davis and Bistodeau (1993) Ozek & Civelek, (2006) Reading Coding
Schemes. These coding schemes were adapted as classifications of the strategies were considered:
reading phases and general categories of reading strategies.

Also, the qualitative nature of the data raised concerns from on reliability of codified
strategies (Manchon, de Larios ad Murphy, 2007). Hence, the coded strategies were tested for
intra-rater and inter-rater reliability.

The researcher did a second coding of the protocols, two weeks or 14 days after the first
coding. The two coding were compared, and consistency was calculated at 92%. Inconsistencies
in the coding were reviewed and revised. After resolving the inconsistencies, an inter-rater
reliability test was done.

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 The inter-rater’s coding was compared with that of the researcher’s. The percentage of
agreement between the researcher and the inter-rater was 82.5%. Discrepancies in the coding were
resolved through discussion with the inter-rater and consensus was reached.

After which, coded strategies were catalogued according to strategy types: bottom up, top
down and metacognitive. The procedure is shown in the figure below.

Results

Problem 1: What are the patterns of language learning strategies that emerged from the
reading tasks?

Participants (PAR) have shown preference for some strategies as 9 emerging LLS patterns
were documented. The summary of these preferences is listed in the following table.

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 Table 1. Summary of emerging patterns of reading strategy

Emerging Patterns PAR PAR PAR PAR PAR PAR

1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Combining Inference with:
a. Rereading
b. Vocabulary strategy
c. Background Knowledge
2. Combining Rereading & Translating to L1
3. Using Metacognitive Strategies
4. Combining Commenting, Assessing &
Questioning about the Content w/ other
strategies
5. Relying on Dictionary Use
6. Using Single Strategies
a. Inference
b. Translating to L1

Two emerging patterns were present in the repertoire of all participants: using translating
to L1 singly combining rereading and translating in L1, which is consistent with Chamot, et al
(1987, in Karimian and Talebinijab, 2013) finding that translation strategy is a base for learners
L2 comprehension. More so, the use of L1 could lower affective filter (Krashen, 1985) as
participants became more confident with their reading comprehension.

All of the participants paired two bottom-up strategies: rereading and translating to L1.
Participants used rereading as a compensatory or repairing strategy (Walcyzk, 2000) when faced
with decoding difficulties. Also, it was easier for the participants to reread the text before
translating in L1. However there seemed to be an over-reliance as the pattern constituted an entire
LLS chain. This was observed particularly with less proficient readers.

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 However, over-reliance on translation could be counter-productive (Laio, 2006, Erler and
Finkbeiner, 2007) leading to inappropriate transfer of L1 features to L2 to cause grammatical
mistakes and mistranslation. This was observed with PAR 6 who generally used direct translation.

Proficient participants PAR 1, PAR 2 and PAR 3 combined inferencing, a top down
strategy, with other strategies. PAR 1 and 3 combined inferencing with bottom up strategies,
namely vocabulary strategies and rereading. PAR 1 and PAR 2 combined 2 top down strategies:
inferencing and using background knowledge. Nassaji (2006) noted that language proficiency
correlates with the use of inferencing strategies: proficient learners are more effective in inferring
conclusions.

PAR1 and PAR 2 have two other emerging patterns: using metacognitive strategies and
combining commenting, assessing or questioning the content of the text with other strategies. By
pairing these strategies with other strategies, they made predictions and hypothesis about the text
content. PAR 1 and PAR 2 checked initial predictions, refocused on the content of the RT’s and
amended the hypothesis when needed (Ozek & Civelek, 2006).

Less proficient participants, PAR 4 and PAR 6, heavily relied on a single VLS: using the
dictionary for a difficult word. Although dictionary use is important in language learning (Prichard,
2008), other VLS were not employed: they were not yet automatized. In fact, there were some
instances that less proficient participants could not understand definitions culled from the
dictionary. On the other hand, PAR 3, a proficient participant, has a strong confidence on
dictionary use, preferring it over other VLS that she knows.

Problem 2: How different / similar is strategy orchestration among the two groups of
learners?

Grenfell and Macaro (2007) stressed that complex tasks would need strategy clusters
evaluated by metacognitive strategies. PAR 1 had the most strategy chains, 96 chains; followed
by PAR 2 with 71 strategy chains. Although a less proficient learner, PAR 6 used 75 strategy
chains for the two reading texts. PAR 3 used a total of 63 strategy chains and PAR 5 forty-seven
strategy chains. PAR 4 used the least strategy chains, 44. The summary is given in Table 54

73
 Table 3. Summary of Strategy Chains

PAR 1 PAR 2 PAR 3 PAR 4 PAR 5 PAR 6

Number of Strategy Chains 96 71 63 44 47 75

Longest Strategy Chain 20 19 7 13 6 10
Average strategies in a chain 4.4 5 3.3 4.5 3 4.4
Occurrences of metacognitive 16 12 4 1 0 2
strategies

The longest strategy chain, composed of twenty strategies, was used by PAR 1 in the text
below:

RT 1 : into private life. It seems as if they have scrapped the word “losing” from their
vocabulary, and are intent on finding excuses, if only to spare themselves the agony

Seven types of strategies were used: 2 bottom up strategies, 4 top down strategies and 1
metacognitive strategy. To assist comprehension, PAR 1 separated the text into 3 segments.

The segments are:

Segment One : into private life

Segment Two : It seems as if they have scrapped the word “losing” from their
vocabulary,
Segment Three: and are intent on finding excuses if only to spare themselves the agony

She identified the importance of the second segment by translating to L1 the word
“losing.”. She reread the word and connected her comprehension with the previous text by
rereading “and retreat.” She explained the reason in the interview below:

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PAR 1 : Nahirapan ako intindihin etong part na ito. Alam ko naimportante ito sa message ng binasa
ko. Mahirap ito intindihin kasi connected siya sa ibang parts. May malalim sa meaning ang
part na ito. Kaya medyo naging mahirap sa akin. Pinutol-putol ko ang pagbabasa kasi mas
madaling intidihin pag pina-iksi ko. (It was difficult to understand this part and I know this
is important. It has a deeper meaning that’s why it was difficult for me. It is was easier to
understand if I segmented this part.)

After inferring the meaning of the second segment, she reread segment 1 and related it to
background knowledge. She explained:

PAR 1 : Nasabi ko na parang showbiz and mga natalong candidates kasi nagpapa interview
sila sa tv at parang tele-nobela, madrama sila. (Loosing candidates are like show business
personalities; they are interviewed and it’s like watching a tv soap opera, full of drama.)

PAR 1 reread and translated to L2 the entire segment; then reread segment three.
Encountering an unfamiliar word, “agony,” she then reread the word. After inferring that agony is
pagtanggap in L1, she reread the segment; repeatedly rereading agony 3 times. The reason for
doing so was verbalized by PAR 1:

PAR 1 : Nahirapan ako intindihin ang “agony” kasi di ko alam ang meaning. Tapos related
pa ito sa election. Kaya sinubukan kong hulahan ang word. (I found difficulty in
understanding agony since I don’t know the meaning. And it’s related to the elections;
that’s why I tried to guess the word.)

Although rereading slowed down PAR 1’s reading speed, it helped her understand the word
“agony” by relating it to background knowledge and inferring its meaning. She still doubted the
inference, and for the third time, she reread segment 3. After using two bottom up strategies,
translating the segment to L1 and rereading the segment, she revised her inference of agony to
nagtatanggol. However, she still doubted her comprehension of the text.

The use of “commenting on own behavior and process” indicated the participant’s lack of
comprehension which is needed for high-level processing of the text as well as regulating other
comprehension processes. PAR 1 orchestrated the reading strategies in relation to task demands.

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She monitored the process of comprehension, evaluated the effects of the selected strategies, and
adjusted strategies when needed. She was able recognize if a strategy was not effective by using
another strategy. The strategy orchestration is shown in the following LLS chain:

RT 1 : into private life. It seems as if they have scrapped the word “losing” from their
vocabulary, and are intent on finding excuses, if only to spare themselves the agony

Strategy Chain 1 Strategy Type TAP

RS1. Translating or restating the Bottom Up Pagkatalo (lost)
text to L1
RS2. Rereading the text Bottom Up Losing
RS3. Connecting new information Top Down Hmmm… sabi dito kung sinu-sino
with previously stated content daw iyong mga taong nanumpa, di
mga tao tao nanumpa, di marunong
tumanggap ng pagkatalo (Hmmm…
it says here a lot of people are
sworn to office, not people, people
sworn, can’t accept defeat)
RS4. Rereading the previous text Bottom Up And retreat
RS5. Making inference about the Top Down di sila umaamin ng kasalanan nila.
content of the text Do not know eh. Di sila umaamin ng
pagkakamali nila, mga kasalanan
(they don’t admit their faults. Don’t
know. They don’t admit their
mistakes, their faults)
RS6. Rereading the text Bottom Up into private life…
RS7. Relating the text to Top Down Oo nga, kasi sa election nga minsan
background knowledge about the showbiz nga eh. Kung anu-
topic ano …(Yes, because it’s the
elections, sometimes show business)
RS8. Rereading the text Bottom Up it seems they have scrapped the
word losing
RS9. Translating or restating the Bottom Up di nila, parang wala sa bokabularyo
text in L1 nila ang pagkatalo (loosing is not in
their vocabulary)

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 RS10. Rereading the text Bottom Up and are intent of finding excuses, if
only to spare themselves the agony.
RS11. Commenting on one’s Metacognitive Agony? Agony, di ko alam iyon, Di
behavior and process ko na maintidihan, ah. Basahin ko
ulit (agony? agony, I don’t know
this. I can’t understand. I’ll read
again.)
RS12. Rereading the text Bottom Up Agony…
RS13. Making inference about the Top Down siguro agony, pagtanggap? (I
content of the text suppose agony is acceptance)
RS14. Rereading the text Bottom Up If only to spare themselves the
agony, agony, agony of having to
accept…
RS15. Questioning, assessing, Top Down ano kaya ibig sabihin? (What does it
commenting on the information in mean?)
the text
RS16. Rereading the text Bottom Up are intent of finding excuses only to
spare themselves of the agony…
RS17. Translating or restating the Bottom Up sabi kasi dito.. di nila alam ang word
text in L1 na loosing at lagi silang may mga
excuses. (It says here… they don’t
know the word loosing and they
always have excuses)
RS18. Rereading the text Bottom Up if only to spare themselves the
agony
RS19. Making inference about the Top Down Ah, nagtatanggol ng sarili nila. (Ah,
content of the text they are defending themselves)
RS20. Commenting on one’s Metacognitive Iyon ba iyon? Parang mali yata ang
behavior and process interpretation ko. (Is this it? I think
my interpretation is wrong.)

Initially, PAR 1 translated to L1 (RS1) the word losing then reread the word (RS2). Next,
she connected previously stated information (RS3) to improve her comprehension. Chunking
another important segment for rereading (RS4), she made a partial inference (RS5) of the text. She
related to her background knowledge on elections in the Philippines (RS7) the segment she

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previously reread (RS6). After a series of rereading and translating (RS8,9 and 10), She recognized
a difficult and unfamiliar word, agony (RS11). Focusing on the word, she reread (RS12) it then
inferred its meaning (RS13). To commence testing his hypothesis on agony, PAR 1 reread the text
(RS14) and asked what the text could mean (RS15). She made use of a series of translating and
rereading (RS16, 17, 18) in other to come up with a second hypothesis (RS19). After the attempts
to comprehend the text, she still doubted (RS20) her inference.

The same could be deduced in the use of metacognitive strategies in the two reading tasks
as 16 incidents were documented. This corroborated with the results of previous studies indicating
the use of metacognitive strategies by proficient learners (Anderson 2002, Upton, 2009, Zhang
and Wu, 2009). However, not all the strategy chains included metacognitive strategies. Aside from
not always observable (Oxford, 1990), complete metacognitive strategy use might not have been
captured in PAR 1’s TAP

Generally, strategy chains and clusters are employed in complex tasks like reading
comprehension. Throughout the reading processes, the participant made use of strategy chains.
The success of bringing together more than one strategy depends on metacognitive strategies. PAR
1 also used metacognitive strategies in shorter chains

PAR 2’s longest chain, with 19 strategies, was also monitored by a metacognitive strategy
which was used twice: commenting on one’s behavior or process. Striking also was PAR 2’s use
of the metacognitive strategy with commenting, assessing or questioning about the content of the
text. In using this top down strategy, PAR 2 focused on the problem on hand and as she planned
how to attend to the problem.

In the four instances PAR 3 used the metacognitive strategy “commenting on own behavior
or process”, she was able to monitor her comprehension as she planned the next strategies to
employ.

However, the longest chain used by PAR 4, a less proficient learner, mainly composed of
three series of rereading and translating, preceding the development of inferences. He did not
evaluate his processing of the information as no metacognitive was used.

Similarly, the longest chain of PAR 6 had no metacognitive strategy: a series of five pairs
of rereading and translating in L1. The strategy chain primarily involved surface-structure

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processing as he segmented the text into five short phrases. This buttressed Hassenfeld’s (1977,
in Erler & Finkbeiner, 2007) observation that less proficient readers lost track of the main
meaning as they read or translated in short phrases.

RT 2 : When I was in college, or more precisely when I shifted out of Interned to take an
AB course in UP Diliman, Caloy, an Interned batch mate in UP Manila, asked me,
grinning: “So, do you have many friends now?” I told him, “Well, here I don’t need
friends, I only have allies. That’s all I need.

Strategy Chain Strategy Type TAP

1. Translating or restating the Bottom Up Noong nasa kolehiyo pa lang ako, (when
text to L1 I was still in college)
2. Rereading the text Bottom Up or more precisely when I shifted out
3. Translating or restating the text Bottom Up noong lumipat ako (when I transferred)
to L1
4. Rereading the text Bottom Up of Interned to take an AB course in UP
Diliman, Caloy, an Interned batch mate
in UP Manila, asked me, grinning: “So,
do you have many friends now?
5. Translating or restating the text Bottom Up Tinanong ako kung marami akong
to L1 kaibigan sinabi ko, di ko kailangan ng
maraming kaibigan, (I was asked if I
have many friends, I said, I don’t need
many friends)
6. Rereading the text Bottom Up “I don’t need friends, I only have allies.
That’s all I need.”

7. Translating or restating the Bottom Up Kailangan ko lang ng allies, (I only need

text to L1 allies)
8. Using the dictionary for an Bottom Up Allies … (Uses dictionary). Connection,
important word membership
9. Translating or restating the text Bottom Up Kailangan ko lang ng koneksyon, (I only
to L1 need connection)
10. Rereading the text Bottom Up That’s all I need

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 The participant’s overdependence on these two bottom up strategies clearly shows his very
limited internalized strategies. His lack of confidence in using other strategies made him relied on
translation. This observation confirms Upton and Lee-Thomspon (2009) findings that less
proficient learners often use the mother tongue in direct translation and less in the metacognitive
level. That is, PAR 6 employed translation basically as a decoding strategy.

The use of metacognitive strategies by PAR 4 and PAR 6 was not helpful in their reading
comprehension. PAR 4 used a metacognitive strategy only once while PAR 6 twice, behaviors
which might indicate that both participants have not yet proceduralized the strategies. Oxford
(1990) stated that a strategy needs to be automatized in order to be effective. There was no
documented use of metacognitive strategy by PAR 5 signifying that it may not yet part of her
strategy repertoire.

Discussion

Both proficient and less proficient participants actively engage in strategy use in the two
reading tasks. However, the groups differ in strategy quantity and types. Proficient participants
have richer strategy repertoires which allow them to employ better strategies. Less proficient
participants, because of their limited strategies, repeatedly use the same strategies. More so, both
groups show preferential use of some strategies which Oxford (1990) called bedrock strategies,
perhaps for different reasons. Proficient participants’ dependence on some strategies might be of
high level of confidence in these strategies which they have repeatedly used in various contexts.
Less proficient participants, on the other hand, usually used the same strategies because of limited
repertoires.

Both groups show preference for using bottom up strategies, specifically

rereading and translating or restating in L1. However, less proficient participants rely
more on text based or bottom up strategies in attempt to gain understanding of the reading
texts. They seem to focus more on decoding text-based elements of the reading texts
because their proficiencies could not automatically process these elements. Less
proficient participants tend to check over the sentences they do not understand by
translating directly to L1 to and confirming their understanding in L1.

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 On the other hand, more proficient participants used more top down strategies like
inferring, using background knowledge and questioning, assessing and commenting on the
content. Also, proficient participants selection of reading strategies may be due to better
metacognitive knowledge. They are more cognizant of the reading processes, their own strategy
repertoires, and the actual use of these strategies to maximize text comprehension (Zhang, 2002)

Proficient participants have better metacognitive regulation (Oxford, 2011) than their less
proficient counterparts. Proficient participants were able to produce better strategy chains, in terms
of quantity, variety, and quality via metacognitive strategies. Using metacognitive strategies,
proficient participants seem more conscious of the strategic processes of the reading tasks, of their
strategy repertoires and the actual utilization of their strategies. Grenfell and Macaro (2007)
consider metacognition as the orchestrating mechanism for effective combining of strategies in
any given learning situations.

Through metacognitive strategies, a LLS phenomenon which this researcher terms as

strategy scaffolding is observed - the harmonizing nature of strategies working together in patterns
or chains leading to achievement of planned language tasks. LLS orchestration involves the on-
line shredding and adding of strategies as students, through metacognitive awareness, monitor,
evaluation and revision of strategies. Likened to the construction of a building, learners need to
scaffold strategies to address the demands of learning tasks. Strategy scaffoldings are built above
each other via LLS clusters and chains as leaners engage in more complex tasks.

Hence, it is imperative to improve LLS repertoire and metacognitive awareness of learners

through explicit LLS instruction for them to build stronger LLS scaffoldings. In doing so, students
will have more strategies in their arsenal and will have the metacognitive awareness to use these
strategies effectively.

Pedagogical Implications

Consciousness of LLS among students should be part of instruction for them to

become better second language learners. The use of appropriate LLS enables students to take
responsibility for their own learning by improving autonomy, independence and self-direction

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(Oxford and Nyikos 1989 and Lee 2003). Learning strategies need to be internalized so that they
can be utilized in different learning situations. This can be done through explicit LLS training.
Strategy Based Instruction models have been developed by Chamot and O’ Malley (1994), Oxford
(1990) and Greenfield and Harris (1999). Upon inspection, these models contain almost the same
steps: preparation, teacher-modeling, implementation, evaluation and expansion. For teacher who
are not yet familiar with LLS training, this researcher proposes the inclusion of a pre-LLS training
phase: teacher strategy training.

Before teaching learners how to use strategies effectively, the teacher should be adequately
knowledgeable in LLS instruction. Training on how to implement strategy instruction should be a
part of the faculty development program. Untrained teachers who will implement for the first time
SBI may create problems rather than solutions. However, LLS training may be unavailable due to
the lack of experts and materials. An alternative to teacher-strategy training is for teachers to read
on available research and literature. Several books are available in the market and a plethora of
research articles can easily be downloaded from the internet.

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About the author

Teaching for more than twenty-five years, his research interests include language learning
strategies, second language acquisition and learning. He is presently affiliated the Center for
Research, Publication and Extension of Olivarez College, Philippines. He earned his post
baccalaureate degrees- graduate diploma, masters and doctorate from the Philippine Normal
University.

e-mail Address: radividal@yahoo.com

Affiliation: Olivarez College, Dr. Aracadio Avenue, Paranaque City, Philippines

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Connecting Time and Space: Examining the Perspectives and Motives of Distance Learners
and Teachers to Open Learning and Distance Education

Bryan M. Nozaleda* and Yzzel T. Agorilla**

*College of Human Kinetics
Cagayan State University
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
bnozaleda@gmail.com
**Isabela State University, Jones Campus

Bio-profile:

Bryan M. Nozaleda is presently teaching Professional Education Subjects at Cagayan State

University. He finished Master of Science in Teaching and now doing his dissertation focusing on
Science Education. Back in his college years, he was awarded Magna Cum Laude and had an
outstanding theses presentation in his Masters. He is a researcher in the university and have been
attending and presenting his researches in local and international conferences.

Yzzel T. Agorilla is a graduate of Bachelor in Secondary Education Major in General Science in

2012 and obtained her Master of Arts in Education with Specialization in Science Education in
2015 both at Philippine Normal University, Isabela Campus. She was a Science and ICT teacher
at Santiago City National High School for four years and a part-time Science instructor at
Philippine Normal University North Luzon Campus. At present, she is pursuing her Doctor of
Philosophy Major in Science Education at Cagayan State University – Andrews Campus,
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan and currently a permanent Instructor at Isabela State University-Jones
Campus.

Abstract

Several benefits are offered to individuals involved in distance education. To the learner, open
learning and distance education (OLDE) means more freedom of access, and thereby a wider range
of opportunities for learning and qualification. The barriers that may be overcome by distance
learning include not only geo-graphical distance but also other confining circumstances, such as

87
personal constraints, cultural and social barriers and lack of educational infrastructure. It is
imperative, therefore, to examine the experiences of individuals involved in OLDE in the
Philippines. Although open universities are gaining popularity in the global educational arena, its
popularity in the country remains elusive. This study documented the holistic experience of
individuals who are and were involved in open learning and distance education. In-person
interviews were conducted and recorded using a video camera in a quiet and in a neutral location.
After thorough analysis, the study found out that both students and teachers perceive distance
education as an avenue for self-improvement and a successful measure to provide quality
education. Though, based on their individual experiences, in order to become a successful distance
education learner, one must possess intrinsic motivation to finish the course. Students and teachers
view open learning and distance education as an avenue for socialization and appreciation of varied
cultures, beliefs and traditions since they have the opportunity to meet other learners across the
nation and across the globe. However, reforms and improvements should be met such as improving
the telecommunication services in the country, standardization of the learning modules and
learning platforms, appointing and hiring of qualified and trained teachers. OLDE therefore
presents promising substitute in obtaining a higher education degree.

Keywords: Open Learning, Distance Education, OLDE

Introduction

Under the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV mandates that quality education at
every level should be made accessible to all Filipinos, including self-learning, independent, and
out-of-school youth programs. This legal mandate alongside the rapid growth of technology which
breaks limits and boundaries between and among people across the different nation in different
fields proliferated an alternative form of education that is beyond the physical classroom. Thus,
the open learning systems, such as the Open Universities, and distance education ideology has
thrived in the Philippines over recent years. This is considered as one of the most rapidly growing
fields and means of education; such that it changes the approaches used; the delivery system;
faculty requirements; and the need to respond to the rare breed of students which are being catered
to by this type of educational arrangement.

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 The terms open learning and distance education (OLDE) characterize methods that
motivate opening access to the provision of education or training, liberating learners from the
restrictions of time and place; thus, offering flexible learning. Its potential impact on all education
delivery systems has been greatly accentuated through the development of Internet-based
information technologies and in particular the World Wide Web (UNESCO, 2002).

Specifically, Open learning is “a philosophy of learning that is quality-assured, open to

people, methods, places, and ideas, and is highly flexible and learner-centered, enabling the latter
to learn at the time, place and pace which satisfy the person’s circumstances and requirements.”
Distance education, on the other hand, refers to “a mode of educational delivery whereby the
teacher and learner are separated in time and space, and the instruction is delivered through
specially designed materials and methods using appropriate technologies (Castolo & Chan, 2013).

Distance education is offering solutions to the need of making college and graduate
education accessible and thus, catalyzing mass higher education. This is essential in achieving the
country’s socio-economic goals and demands of globalization. OLDE can also become the answer
to these problems as cited by Castolo and Chan (2013); the difficulty in synchronizing schedules
brought about by the complexities of modern society; the dispersal and remoteness of students due
to the archipelagic configuration of the country; and increasing the student population.
Consequently, the said challenges are some of the striking reasons why higher education
institutions in the Philippines and students searching for schools for their graduate and
undergraduate education have welcomed this new system in contemporary education.

Since OLDE has received the spotlight in recent years in higher education, there is indeed
a rapid expansion of researches in open and distance education. The main issues of research studies
were enrolment trends, learner’s characteristics, policy, planning and management, problems faced
by distance learners, the role of multimedia, and economics of open and distance education.

Srivastava (1995) examined the expansion of higher education in India by comparing the
effectiveness of distance education and traditional education. He found that distance education
course was relevant to the individual needs of the learners and was growing faster than
conventional education. There has been a significant increment of enrolment through the distance
mode among the disadvantaged group such as the rural people, women, scheduled castes and

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scheduled tribes. The motivating factor amongst the distance learners was improving qualifications
and social status, and getting better jobs.

According to UNESCO (2002), several benefits are offered to individuals involved in

distance education. To the learner, open and distance learning means more freedom of access, and
thereby a wider range of opportunities for learning and qualification. The barriers that may be
overcome by distance learning include not only geographical distance but also other confining
circumstances, such as personal constraints, cultural and social barriers and lack of educational
infrastructure. For the student, it is often a cheaper alternative to pursuing a course through
conventional methods. Since many people cannot afford to leave their work in order to study, it is
important that distance education and training may be combined with work. Distance and open
learning may also mean a more learner-centered approach, allowing greater flexibility and choice
of content as well as more personal organization of the learning program.

The current and emerging communication and information technologies provide unique
opportunities to continue the professional development of teachers and other educators. The Web
provides teachers with incredibly rich instructional and information resources to enhance their
instruction and professional skills and the possibility of on-demand, just-in-time professional
development without leaving their classrooms. The Web also provides opportunities for online
mentoring and support of novice teachers during their first year of teaching and to develop online
communities of practice. Virtual Web-based environments for teachers now enable them to seek
help from other teachers, locally, nationally, or globally in solving classroom problems, sharing
lesson plans and materials, interacting with experts in particular fields, and in planning
collaborative curriculum development projects. The latter may be particularly important in nations
in which educational expertise in specific knowledge domains or instructional practices is scarce
and distributed.

Distance education may also play a major role in upgrading the knowledge and skills of
teacher educators both in higher education and educational agencies. Web-based resources and
tutorials may assist teaching faculty and teacher educators in upgrading their knowledge and skills
in areas such as the new technology tools for learning in order that they may infuse and model the
use of technology in the courses they offer to future teachers.

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 Open and distance learning has indeed made a revolution on thinking and practice in the
entire educational system, in terms of how students learn, the teaching process, and innovations
on educational resources in making them more efficient in delivering instruction that is needed.
OLDE has shattered physical boundaries and now students can learn wherever they are as long
proper facilities are installed. No student would need to take instruction from exactly the same
teacher as any other; students could have access to teachers from any state or country at any time
and in any combination; they could have access to information resources from any state or country
at any time and in any combination.

However, several issues about OLDE have been cited by Litz (2010) in his study on
distance doctor in education degrees. The first issue is the quality of instruction that is provided
through distance learning programs. In relation to this, Valentine (2002) believes that instructors
and even school administrators often lose the essence of distance learning programs and they fail
to comprehend that the achievement of distance learning programs is principally a consequence of
the level of preparation of the teacher, assessment of needs of the students and understanding those
needs. Moreover, Litz also highlighted faculty and students concerns as issues in OLDE.
Winsboro (2002) explained that faculty members involved in OLDE handling various academic
disciplines often express concerns about the workload of the Internet and e-learning based courses.
In terms of student concerns, DuCharme-Hansen and Dupin-Bryant (2004) have observed that
students in distance learning environments can often feel isolated and as such it is essential that
they collaborate and interact with other students and the professor. However, with these issues,
one interesting issue cited by Litz is on Technological issues. This observation is very relevant to
the local context of OLDE in the Philippines. Litz cited that the emergence of internet and
computer technologies has made the growth of distance education possible, but it has also posed
several challenges to the preparation of teachers and students. Students must have a certain level
of computer knowledge and they must have undergone introduction to the e-learning platforms
that are used in their program. Instructors, on the other hand, need to be trained to properly
implement and utilize the technology and encouraged to adapt to new environments of distance
education (Wikeley & Muschamp, 2004). Other related technological issues include equipment
and hardware malfunctions including the slow internet connection.

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 Having laid down these benefits and issues of open learning and distance education, it is
imperative to examine the experiences of individuals (i.e., teachers, students, administrators)
involved in OLDE in the Philippines. Although, open universities are gaining popularity in the
global educational arena, its popularity in the country remains elusive. The researchers believe that
examining the beliefs and opinions of teachers and learners about OLDE will help us understand
the status of distance education in the country; hence, this study.

Objectives of the Study

This study aims to document the holistic experience of individuals who are and were
involved in open learning and distance education (OLDE). Specifically, it sought to achieve the
following objectives.

1. Identify the motives/reasons of the respondents in venturing to distance education and

enrolling to open universities;
2. Document the positive and negative experiences they had in the course of their study as a
distance learner;
3. Determine the enabling and impeding factors for the success of an open university student;
and,
4. Look into the prospects and challenges of OLDE as perceived by the respondents.

Methodology

Philosophical Foundation
The epistemology framing this qualitative dissertation research is constructivism. This
approach assumes that various people construct meaning in different ways, even when
experiencing the same event (Crotty, 1998). Crotty identified several assumptions of
constructivism, three of which are fundamental to this study: (1) Because meaning is constructed
by human beings as they engage with the world they are interpreting, qualitative researchers tend
to use open-ended questions, so that the participants can share their views; (2) humans engage with
their world and make sense of it based on their historical and social perspectives; (3) the basic
generation of meaning is always social, arising in and out of interaction with a human community.
The research interpretations and findings in this research, therefore, are context-specific.

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Locale and Participants of the Study
Potential participants of this study were gathered using the Internet as a search tool. Since
the knowledge of the researchers in terms of individuals involved in OLDE, Facebook and other
social media sites were utilized to look for potential participants. The researchers also gathered
information from their colleagues to gather for more participants in this study. In-person interviews
were conducted and recorded using a video camera in a quiet, neutral location where the
participants are not in danger and there is no intimidation or coercion such as their offices and
classrooms.
The researchers sought a voluntary (convenience) sample which included online teachers
and tutors, distance learners who are currently enrolled and those who chose not to continue
pursuing their degree and those already graduated from a distance learning institution.
Demographics such as education and race were not variables of this study; hence, familiarity with
the interview participant was of limited concern. There were no interview questions that delve into
specifics about the organization that made the interviewee uncomfortable.

Research Design
A qualitative research design was used in this study. Qualitative research is a systematic
subjective approach used to describe life experiences and give them meaning. It aims to gain
insight; explore the depth, richness, and complexity inherent in a phenomenon. Specifically, in
achieving the aforementioned objectives, a qualitative research interview was utilized. The
qualitative research interview seeks to describe and the meanings of central themes in the life
world of the subjects. The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of what the
interviewees say.
A general interview guide approach in particular was applied. This approach is intended
to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this
provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee (Kvale, 2006).

Interview Instrument and Procedure

As a first step in the interview process, the participants were reminded of the purpose of the study,
research procedures, expected benefits, their right to withdraw from the study at any time, and

93
protection of confidentiality. They were also provided information about the researchers
themselves to establish rapport and gain their trust.
The following research questions were asked;

1. How did you become aware of distance education/open universities?

2. What were your motives/reasons in enrolling to an open university?
3. How is it different with classroom-based instruction?
4. Can you relate to us your positive and negative experiences while you were taking
the program?
5. What are the factors that you consider enablers and distracters for your success in
finishing the program?
6. Few years from now, how do you envision the state of distance education in the
country?
7. Do you think distance education is well appreciated by people in the academe?
8. What are the prospects and challenges ahead of distance education?

Data Analysis and Strategy

This study utilized a multi-layer coding process; the first coding process is through Initial
coding. This type of coding was chosen to examine, compare and search for similarities and
differences throughout the data, and as Charmaz (2006) contextualizes “..to remain open to all
possible theoretical directions indicated by your readings of the data.” The second level coding
chosen, was Pattern coding. Pattern coding gave this study the basis to explain major themes
underneath the segments of the data; patterns in human relationships, the search for causes and
explanations to the possible phenomenon, and finally, the platform to construct frameworks and
processes. To conclude, a Triangulation of the patterns and themes, creates new levels of
understanding the existing knowledge by reviewing the interviews.

Findings

Motives/reasons in enrolling to distance learning institutions

The respondents were able to identify three distinct reasons why they enrolled in distance
learning institutions and these are: (1) to pursue a higher level of education in order to get

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credentials from notable institutions that offer distance education (e.g. University of the
Philippines, International Universities); 2) study at their own pace since they have workloads most
of their time more so, they are not required to travel to attend face to face classes; and (3) to
understand and experience the difference of classroom education which employs a face to face
teaching-learning environment.

These reasons encapsulate the researchers wanting to access educational opportunities for
higher education in order to improve their work qualifications hence developing themselves
professionally. Students therefore are able to take advantage of traditional modes of education
because of personal and professional obligations. Distance education allows them to attend classes
where it is most appropriate for them, thus balancing life’s demands of family and work. Littlefield
(2017) agrees with the same reasons for enrolling in a distance learning institution where she says
that online education offers flexibility for students who have other commitments. Whether a person
is busy as stay-at-home parent or a professional that simply doesn't have the time to take a course
during school hours. Asynchronous options allow students the opportunity to learn without a set
weekly schedule or online meetings at a specific time.

Experiences as Distance Education Learner /Teacher

The respondents had a wide variety of experiences both on the positive and the negative
side of education. On the positive side, the learners were able to develop self –discipline,
independence while forcing themselves to become patient and self-reliant. Another positive
experience of both the student and the teacher is to be able to learn and appreciate varied cultures
since some of the learners have different nationalities. Mingling with them is a start of familiarizing
themselves with their cultures, beliefs and practices, therefore establishing rapport with them.

Students enrolled in online education programs network with peers from all over the nation
or even across the globe. Students were able to make the most out of their courses by networking
with their peers thus, they could be able to make friends and develop excellent references and
connect with people who can later help them find a career in their shared field (Littlefield, 2017)

Furthermore, as a student they were able to learn to improve the quality of their outputs
since they are forced to submit requirements that conforms to the international standards.
Moreover, the students were able to get accustomed with a wide range of technologies and

95
computer applications in which they can use it in their day to day lessons and school transactions
such as checking of grades and updating payment schedules for school fees. And lastly, the
students and the teachers can have access to unlimited knowledge resources from online libraries.
This is due to the fact that learning is mostly done online, therefore online resources such as e-
books, e-journals and other references from trusted e-libraries and e-learning hubs are of easy
affiliation and access.

On the negative experiences, it was highlighted that due to the unstable internet connection
in the country, students and teachers cannot communicate well with their classes and they were
hardened up in submitting their completed requirements on time. The teachers had their difficulty
in contacting their students during booked sessions when there is weak internet connection.
Unparalleled teaching methods and learning styles were also encountered by some of the student
respondents therefore, creating difficulty in the learning process. The enormous amount of
requirements given by their professors are also counted as time-consuming, especially it consumes
the free time they have after work hours. Students who enroll in an international open learning
institution had to battle sleepiness because of the different time zones among the teacher and the
learners.

Enabling and impeding factors for the success of an OLDE Learner

In order to succeed in the program, the respondents all agreed that before enrolling in a
distance learning institution, the student must have to assess himself/herself if she really wanted
to have online learning. After which the student must have a background on the institution where
he/she plans to enroll. The rules, regulations, the mode of teaching and learning environment must
be clearly understood by the student so that he/she will not be overwhelmed with the kind of
education he/she is about to take. Hence, according to them, there should be strong internal
motivation among learners. Internal driving force plays a crucial role to finish the course enrolled
by the learner because learning in an open university requires enough patience and discipline. Time
management is another essential factor in succeeding the program. The ability to divide our time
wisely would give the students the opportunity to have enough time for work, self-studying and to
do whatever the requirements they were asked to do. Resourcefulness is another attribute taken
into account as an enabling factor during the interview, the ability to become resourceful and open

96
for technical support from other people who can assist the learner is a big help. Open-mindedness
to people would mean a lot of help especially when there are tough home works and activities.

Impeding factors, on the other hand, include the poor telecommunication facilities in the
country especially the slow prepaid internet services that we have. Moreover, teachers from the
distance learning institutions also have different strategies and approaches to education, students
who are not accustomed to independent or self-learning find difficulty in passing subjects or
courses thus, mismatched teaching and learning style may serve as an impeding factor for the
success of a student within the program. Moreover, the familiarity of the students with the
technologies used within the class also affects his /her performance. And lastly, the bulk of
requirements that may come along the way while workloads and other responsibilities which also
come during deadlines of requirements and even exams may affect their performance.

The results gathered from the respondents affirms the findings of Gonzales (2012) where
he says that the student internal factors such as student initiative, familiarity with technology,
motivation and competence play a great role in the success of an online learner. Whereas, the
student external factors like family and work responsibilities, and pedagogical factors like the
course design, and course delivery can also impede in the students success. In reference to
Vygotsky’s (1978) social development theory, social interaction is a critical cognitive
developmental process (Pea, 1996). Learning is a social activity that involves interaction with the
instructor and among students. Interaction is one of the central issues related to distance education
today (Jackson, 1994). It encourages reflection and discussion, which makes it an important
component of any learning experience (Harasim, 1990). When students perceive and regard
interaction highly, they tend to be more satisfied with instruction in Web-based courses (Fulford
and Zhang, 1993). Additionally, learners who always interact with an instructor and other students
are more likely to be motivated and have a better learning experience (Garrison, 1990). The
difference in learning preferences therefore also determines the success and failure of the student.

Prospects and Challenges of Online Learning and Distance Education

The respondents believed that online learning distance education is a great avenue for
achieving higher education because it will provide wider opportunities for those who are at work
or for those people who have personal responsibilities that comprises a majority of the population.

97
 However, there is a challenge on the improvement of the delivery of learning to the students
to maximize learning. Perhaps there should be an introduction of more “hybrid” courses into the
learning curriculum. These types of courses are taught approximately 50% online and 50% onsite
learning. This may encourage students to take charge of their own learning experience, make full
use of their resources / online resources, work at their own pace, and provide some scheduling
flexibility, while also providing an occasional live forum for face¬ to ¬face discussions with the
instructor and the rest of the class members to build a stronger learning community. Moreover,
delivery applications and platforms must also be improved and updated for the students. One thing
more, there should be an overhaul in the telecommunication services in the country specially the
internet services. Access to online education would be a lot easier for the student if the internet
services have a higher speed and could be accessed free.

And lastly, in order to improve and respond with the challenges of open learning and
distance education, the offering institution must constantly gather data from their students on what
they need and prefer, the problems they face and what they want to be done for them. Unless they
would be able to do this, there will be no improvement in the delivery of learning through distance
education. It would also be wise to develop varied types of communication media to augment the
effectiveness of distance education. Devising procedures to encourage learners to do assignments
by themselves would increase the academic performance of the learners and assure the quality of
distance education. Standardization of the learning modules and learning platforms should be
given priority to ensure the quality of education given in OLDE. In addition to this, the appointing
and hiring of suitable qualified and trained teachers who are familiar with the technologies and
applications used could help raise the standard of the open and distance education system.

Conclusion

Open Learning and Distance Education has gained its acceptance in the society for the past
few years and has become popular to those people wanting to pursue higher education. Most
especially, to those who cannot go to traditional schools in order to improve professionally and
earn credentials to compete with the world of work.

98
 Both students and teachers perceive distance education as an avenue for self-improvement
and a successful measure to provide quality education. Though, based on their individual
experiences, in order to become a successful distance education learner, one must possess internal
motivation to finish the course. This type of motivation would allow the learner to become
conscious about time management, self-reliance and self-discipline which are key factors for
quality learning.

Also, students and teachers view open learning and distance education as an avenue for
socialization and appreciation of varied cultures, believes and traditions since they have the
opportunity to meet other learners across the nation and across the globe.

Moreover, they are also given the opportunity to familiarize themselves with varied
learning applications, resources and technologies that they can use. However, because of the
different challenges that they meet along the way, they view distance education as a better source
of online learning if reforms and improvements are met such as making telecommunication
services better in the country, standardization of the learning modules and learning platforms,
appointing and hiring of qualified and trained teachers. Having those said, it could become one of
the best substitutes in obtaining a higher education degree.

Pedagogical Implications

Based on the foregoing conclusions and results of the study, the following are recommended to
improve the implementation of open learning and distance education;

a) The delivery applications and platforms must be improved and updated

b) The offering institution must constantly do needs assessment or consultation from their
students for proper addressing.
c) It would also be wise to develop varied types of communication media to augment the
effectiveness of distance education. However along this is to improve the
telecommunication services in the country especially the internet services to make access
a lot easier for the students.
d) Standardization of the learning modules and learning platforms should be given priority to
ensure the quality of education given in OLDE.

99
 e) The appointing and hiring of suitable qualified and trained teachers who are familiar with
the technologies and applications used could help raise the standard of the open and
distance education system.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Code Switching of English Language Teachers and Students

in an ESL Classroom

Olivia G. Rosario
Sampaguita National High School, Philippines
oliviarosariogarces@gmail.com.

Ruth N. Maguddayao
Cagayan State University, Philippines
ruthmags79@gmail.com.

Abstract

Language for learning and teaching in schools is clearly a complex sociocultural process that is
continually being redefined by the bilingual and multilingual system of education. Linguistics, the
study of language, helps the learners to cross the bridge towards the world of English. As the
international language, English is a matter of subjective acceptance regardless of culture and race.
Filipinos, being a multilingual race consider English as their Second Language. However,
combining the international language with the vernacular becomes a habitual practice among
Filipinos both in rural and urban scenarios. It is commonly used as a marked socio- linguistic
activity. Thus, code switching and borrowing is a natural occurrence in the Philippine context.
This study aimed to determine the discernment of teachers and students toward the practice and
use of code switching in an ESL classroom. The respondents were five English teachers and 41
Grade 10 students of Sampaguita National High School, Sampaguita Solana, Cagayan, Philippines
for the school year 2017-2018. It used descriptive research design. Data were collected through
the adopted questionnaires from the study of Joanna Tiffany Selamat (2014), Canagarajah’s (1995)
and Ferguson’s (2003) categories of code switching. Results showed that from the three functions
of teacher code switching, classroom management outdid the other two functions namely
curriculum access and interpersonal relation. The teachers have a positive attitude toward the
practice of code switching during their ESL classroom interaction. Furthermore, it revealed that
code switching will make the students better understand topics and that their learning is not
hindered when teachers code switch during classroom interactions. It makes students understand
the lesson easier to understand and it is a means of strengthening their comprehension. The results

102
of the study indicated positive views of the respondents on code switching as one instructional
strategy of learning. Apparently, code switching should be allowed for effective communication
between students and the teacher in a natural and comfortable way to highlight the significance of
a specific piece of information and explanation of complex concepts. Despite the uncertainties of
many, teachers still feel indeterminate towards the merits of code switching in teaching English as
a second language, code switching may still be considered as a useful technique in classroom
interaction, especially if the goal is to clarify and convey the information to students in an efficient
way.
Keywords – code switching, ESL classroom, perception

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Introduction
Language for learning and teaching in schools is clearly a complex sociocultural process that
is continually being redefined by the bilingual and multilingual system of education Bernardo, 2005
[1]. Linguistics, the study of language, helps the learners to cross the bridge towards the world of
English. As the international language, English is a matter of subjective acceptance regardless of
culture and race. Filipinos, being a multi- lingual race consider English as their Second Language.
However, combining the international language with the vernacular becomes a habitual practice among
Filipinos both in rural and urban scenarios. It is commonly used as a marked socio- linguistic activity.
Thus, code switching and borrowing is a natural occurrence in the Philippine context.
In the Philippine setting, however, to sound more formal and dignified, the use of English both
in written and oral communication language becomes a common socio-linguistic practice (Valerio,
2015) [2]. Maguddayao (2017) clearly stated in her study that to be able to survive in the academic
society, one must be socio-linguistically competent. She professed, on the other hand, that not only
students must be socio-linguistically competent but also the teachers. In fact, in schools in the
Philippines specifically at Sampaguita National High School, English is taught as a second language
(L2). Students speak English; however, at some point when speakers find it difficult to say the word
in English, they suddenly switch in their vernacular. Thus, code switching was born out of necessity.
At present, code switching has become a trend in many parts of the world. In multilingual
countries like the Philippines and Malaysia, code switching has emerged as a new language variety
(Bautista, 2004) [3]. There are varieties of definitions of code switching given by different researchers.
Early definition by Valdes-Fallis (1978) [4], says that code-switching is an interchangeability of two
codes done by transfer, borrowing or mixing of words. Gumperz (1982) [5] defined code switching as
the juxtaposition of two grammatical systems or sub-systems. Code switching is defined as “the mixing
by bilinguals or multilinguals of two or more languages in discourse, often with no change of
interlocutor or topic” (Poplack, 2001, p. 2062) [6]. Being a linguistic phenomenon, its use has become
widespread in post-colonial countries such as the Philippines for the interaction, media, business,
politics, science, and scholarship.
Baker (2006) [7] has discussed the topic of code switching from a sociolinguistics perspective,
in which he listed twelve main purposes of code switching, which are relevant to bilinguals talks in
general. Some of these functions can be observed in classroom environment and in relevance to
teachers and students interactions. According to Baker [7] code switching can be used to emphasize a
particular point, to substitute a word, to express a concept that has no equivalent in the culture of the
other language, to reinforce a request, to clarify a point, to express identity and communicate
friendship, to ease tension and inject humour into a conversation, and in some bilingual situations,
code switching occurs when certain topics are introduced.
An extensive body of literature studies reported that code switching in classrooms is not only
just normal but useful tool of learning. Cook (2001) [8] referred to code switching in the classroom as
a natural response in a bilingual situation. Furthermore, in the same study, Cook [8] considered the
ability to go from one language to another is highly desirable among learners. Moreover, in eliciting
teachers reflections to their classroom teachings, Probyn (2010) [9] noticed that most notable strategy
that teachers used was code switching to achieve a number of communicative and metalinguistic ends.
Cook’s [8] studies were mainly in the second language classroom context. They also point to the
various pedagogical uses of code switching such as facilitating student comprehension; helping
students build their vocabulary; manage classroom activities; and even to build solidarity with students
(Bateman, 2008 [10]; Qing, 2010 [11]; Yang, 2004) [12].
Simon’s (2001) [13] study mentioned that code switching is a common linguistic practice for
teachers and students. While Maguddayao (2018) professed the many ways on how to linguistically
achieve understanding in a communication process, Simon encouraged teachers and students to
reconsider the role that code switching plays in the classroom interaction and to “break with the
methodologically imposed code constraints in order to use code switching strategically to achieve their
pedagogical aims.”
According to Sert, (2005) [14] opponents of using code switching in classrooms believe that
some learners may be neglected if all students don’t share the same native language. The competence
of the teacher in the native language is also taken into consideration. Supporters of using code
switching in classrooms, however, believe that when used efficiently, it provides continuity in speech
which helps students to adjust with others within communicative circle as part of social interaction.
Probyn [9] noticed that code switching was notably used by teachers to achieve a number of
communicative ends. Furthermore, code switching helps to facilitate the flow of classroom instruction
since the teachers can save much time striving to explain or searching for the simplest words to help
clear the students’ understanding.
Code switching is very common in ESL / EFL classrooms throughout the world these days and
students have positive and negative attitudes towards code switching of teachers in classroom
(Abdolaziz & Shahla, 2015 [15]; Dar, M. F., Akhtar, H., Khalid, H, 2014) [16]. S. Krashen (1982) [17]
suggested that exposure to comprehensible input is necessary for successful language acquisition. If
the students cannot understand what has been mentioned, they will not be comfortable in proceeding
with a task or retain it in their mind. Therefore, EFL classroom teachers sometimes prefer to use the
105
pupils' L1 to explain and organize a task and to manage behavior in the belief that this will facilitate
the medium-centered language-related goals of the lesson (Ellis, 2015) [18]. Code switching occur
unconsciously by the teachers and is used as a good strategy in explaining instructions, translating
difficult vocabulary, managing class, giving background information and in reducing students'
nervousness (Jingxia, 2010) [19]. Code switching serves as a mean to provide low proficient learners
with the opportunities to communicate and enhance understanding of the lecture (Ahmad & Jusoff,
2009 [20]; Selamat, 2014) [21].
A descriptive analysis of two teachers’ and 32 3rd Year high school students’ perceptions of
code switching during classroom instruction reported that code switching in Chemistry and Geometry
is a resource in making knowledge more comprehensible to the students than when only English is
used (Abad, 2010) [22].
The following are predominant reasons for code switching: (1) easier self-expression; (2) loss
of words (e.g. translation problems, not knowing the right words; (3) influences of people around; (4)
natural already (habit); (5) exposure to two languages; (6) fluency in speaking both languages; and (7)
to make the speakers feel more comfortable (Matila, 2009) [23].
Code switching has also been observed in English language teaching (ELT) classrooms. Some
of these studies were focused on elementary level (Anselmo & Williams, 2012) [24], (Rezvani &
Rasekh, 2011) [25] and some others were in higher education level Ahmad & Jusoff [20], Bista, 2010)
[26] as cited in Amalo, 2018). [27]. In secondary school level, Selamat [21] studied code switching
(CS) on Malaysian ESL (English as Second Language) classroom. She found that teachers and students
generally exhibit positive attitudes towards code switching in the classroom and perceive its
pedagogical merits as an effective teaching and learning resource. Canagarajah, (1995) [28] studied
CS in ESL classroom in Jaffna. He summarizes the categorization of CS in classroom into classroom
management and content transmission. In addition to CS in English classroom, Ferguson, (2003) [29]
reported that, CS has three functional categories in the classroom context as for curriculum access,
classroom management and interpersonal relation (cited in Amalo, 2018) [30].
Meanwhile, linguists and educators are being challenged on the view that code switching
lowers communication standards and they highlighted its potential impact on any teaching – learning
process. Code switching along instruction is a widely observed phenomenon especially seen in
multilingual and multicultural communities. In particular, it is often argued that each language serves
a different function: English has an instrumental role as the language of learning in the important
domains, while Filipino has a symbolic role as unifying language and the language of nationhood
(Sibayan, 1994) [31].
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 Martin (2006) [32] mentioned that language preferences of teachers and students are often
identified as the reasons behind the continuing deterioration of English language proficiency among
Filipino students.
The Philippines has been code switching for over 30 years (Durano, 2009) [33] and code
switching is now an established lingua franca in the urban areas of the Philippine archipelago (Bautista,
2004) [3]. In spoken discourse, English teachers switch code during their lectures for different
purposes. Some students are in favor and some are against code switching in English classes (Gulzar
& Qadir, 2010) [34]. Hence, the perception of teachers and students towards code switching needs to
be explored in ESL context in Sampaguita National High School in order to devise teaching and
learning strategies.

Theoretical Framework
As this paper looks at code switching, the two most popular language acquisition theories are
Chomsky’s innate-universal structure (1972, 1975, 1979) and Skinners’ Behaviorist (1957) theories.
According to Chomsky, each human being is born with underlying universal language structure. As
they grow, they are exposed to cultural elements of the society they are in. These cultural elements
help them define the universal language structure as to what is acceptable or appropriate to be produced
in the context of that language. It is important to note here that, these cultural elements have been
prescribed to the learners through affirmation and rejection of other language users (James, 1990;
Skiba, 1997) (cited in Nordin, 2013) [35].
The Behaviorist theory on the other hand, believes that man learns language through a series
of reinforcement. They suggest that an individual tends to keep certain structure and reject the rest due
to the positive and negative feedback received from the caretaker or other adult(s) during the growing
period (James, 1990) [36]. Both of these theories are grounded on the fact that they “rely on exposure
to appropriate samples of the language” (Skiba, 1997) [37]. The same is evident in second language
learning. According to Skiba (1997) [37] even though code switching may cause discomfort to the
listeners, “it does provide an opportunity for language development”.
One of the most important issues focused on in the field of second language acquisition is the
use of the native language in English as a Second Language class. The practice of the native language
in the process of learning the second language is deemed a negative phenomenon that hampered the
effective and productive second language acquisition. This is because code switching is considered as
a haphazard mixture of two languages, thus; students were not allowed to switch forth and back
between the native language and the target language. The advocates of the intralingual teaching
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strategy support the idea that the use of only the target language in English classrooms promotes and
contributes to productive language acquisition and any switching impacts negatively the process of
second language acquisition. Some supported this strategy while others were against it.
Much debate has been centered on teachers’ attitude towards code switching of teachers. The
proponents of target language exclusivity believe that it is not necessary to know all linguistic material
and teaching through the target language allows students to immerse in an authentic second language
class environment. On the other hand, the tradition of excluding the native language from the second
language class restricts the possibilities of language teaching. For them the classroom is a natural code
switching condition and code switching is a highly skilled activity (cited in Catabay, 2016) [38].
Elsa Auerback (1993) (cited in Catabay, 2016) [38] carried out a detailed study on the concept
of code switching in the English language classrooms. She looked at the two different views of the
topic. To either use it or avoid it. She tracked the English –Only movement through history and
provided the justifications and reasoning behind that movement. She offered the following
justifications for code switching in ESL classes. First, students who are unable to participate in English
only programs will have an opportunity to study both their first language and second language. Second,
using L1 or resulting to code switch reduces barriers to language learning and develops rapport
between teachers and between the students themselves. Third, it was found that students who were
allowed to use their native tongue had acquired L2 faster than students who were mandated to use L2
alone in their classrooms. However, Auerback as cited in Catabay, 2016 [38] concluded by saying that
although there are two points of view to this topic, it is the teachers maneuvering the class who
ultimately decides whether they need to code switch or not. Every classroom is unique and for that,
the teacher is the best judge to decide whether to code switch or not.

Objectives of the Study

This study was conducted to determine the perception of teachers and students toward the
practice and use of code switching in an ESL classroom. Specifically, it aimed to find out the
perception of teachers toward the practice of code switching in English classroom with respect to
curriculum access, classroom management and interpersonal relations, and the perception of students
toward the use of code switching in English classroom.

Methodology
To find out the teachers’ and students’ perceptions toward the practice and use of code
switching in an ESL classroom, the present study used descriptive survey research design. It was
conducted among the 5 English language teachers and 41 Grade X students of Sampaguita National
108
High School at Sampaguita, Solana, Cagayan for the school year 2017-2018. Total enumeration
sampling was used in the study.
To gather the data, closed questions questionnaires were administered to teacher and student
participants adopted from Selamat, (2014) [21], Canagarajah’s [28] and Ferguson’s [29] categories of
code switching. The first questionnaire, which is a standardized scale, contained 24 statements which
cover the personal use and/or beliefs of teachers in the practice of code switching in an ESL classroom.
The first part measured the teachers’ self-reported frequency in using code switching during ESL
classroom interaction. It consisted of 14 items and for each item, the teachers had to choose between
1 (never) to 5 (every time). The second part of the questionnaire consisted of 10 items of five-point
(1=totally agree to 5=strongly disagree) of teachers’ beliefs in the practice of CS. The second
questionnaire that is likewise a standardized scale contained 15 statements that described the
perception of the students toward the use code switching in English classroom. To make sure that the
students have understood the questions, the researchers explained it in their L1. In addition, the
researchers encouraged the respondents to ask questions pertaining to the 15-item questionnaire should
there be further queries asked by them. The respondents were asked to rate each statement using Likert
type scale described as follows: 1 (never) to 5 (every time). Weighted mean was utilized to determine
the level of respondents’ perception toward the use and practice of code switching in English
classroom.

Result and Discussion

The present study aims to find how code switching practice and use is perceived by high school
English language teachers and students in Sampaguita National High School.

Table 1. Teachers’ perceptions on the practice of code switching in ESL classroom

(1) Code switching for curriculum access

Perception Mean Qualitative
Computed
Description
In class, I switch from English to the students’ first language:

1.to explain meaning of words and sentences 4.0 Most

of the Time
2.to explain difficult concepts 4.2 Most
of the Time

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3.to explain grammar explicitly 3.8 Most
of the Time
4.to check for comprehension 3.6 Most
of the Time
5.to introduce unfamiliar topics/materials 3.8 Most
of the Time
6.to explain the differences between the students’ 3.8 Most
of the Time
L1 and English
7.to draw students’ attention to the correct 2.8 Often
pronunciation of sounds in English
Average 3.71 Most
of the time

(2) Code switching for classroom management

Perception Mean Qualitative
Computed
Description
8.to organize classroom tasks 3.6 Most
of the Time
9.to maintain class room discipline and 3.8 Most
of the Time
structure of the lesson.
Average 3.8 Most
of the time

(3) Code switching for interpersonal relations

Perception Mean Qualitative
Computed
Description
10.to provide praise/ feedback and personal remarks 3.4 Often
about students’ performance
11. to encourage students’ participation 3.4 Often
in class room activities
12. to build/ strengthen inter personal relationships 4.0 Most
of the Time
between the teacher and the students
13. to reduce students’ anxiety in learning English 4.0 Most
of the Time
14. to increase students’ motivation and confidence 3.6 Most
of the Time
in learning English.
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 Average 3.68 Most
of the time

Table 1 indicates the teachers’ perception towards the practice of code switching in classroom
instruction which was categorized into curriculum access, classroom management and interpersonal
relation. From the three functions of teacher code switching, surprisingly, classroom management
outdid the other two functions with an average mean of 3.8 described as “Most of the Time”. It was
followed by curriculum access with an average mean of 3.71 described also as “Most of the Time”,
and interpersonal relation with an average mean of 3.68 described too, as “Most of the Time”. This is
in contrast with the findings of Selamat (2016) [21] in her study on the Malaysian ESL code switching
inside the classroom. She stated that the use of code switching by teachers for constructing and
transmitting knowledge (curriculum access) takes precedence over the use of teacher code switching
for classroom management and for interpersonal relations.
The data above also reveals that the teachers code switch “most of the time” in their classroom
instruction to organize classroom task and maintain classroom discipline. They also code switch to
explain meaning of difficult and unfamiliar words, sentences or grammatical concept. Moreover, the
teachers code switch to provide feedback, strengthen interpersonal relationship and increase students’
motivation.

Table 2. Teachers’ beliefs in the practice of code switching in an ESL classroom

Beliefs Mean
Qualitative
Computed
Description
As an ESL teacher, I believe that
1.Code switching will facilitate the language learning process 1.4 Totally
agree
2. The practice of code switching will increase the students’ reliance 2 Agree
and dependency on the teacher.
3. Code switching should be included as an integral part of the ESL lesson 2.4 Agree
4. There should be a strict separation of the mother tongue and
English in the ESL classroom 2.2 Agree
5. Code switching should only be used as a last resort when all other options 2 Agree
have been exhausted
6. Code switching is an efficient, time-saving technique 2.8 Neither agree
nor disagree
7. English is best taught in English only classroom 3.6 Disagree
8. The use of other languages in the ESL classroom will
result in a decline in the standards of English 2.6 Neither agree
nor disagree

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 9. The ideal teacher of English is a native speaker 3.4 Neither agree
nor disagree
10.The more English that is used, the better the results for the learners 1.8 Agree

Table 2 shows teachers’ beliefs in the practice of code switching in ESL classroom. The data
tells that all the teacher-respondents “totally agreed” with a mean of 1.4 that code switching will
facilitate the language learning process. Moreover, they “agreed” with a mean ranging from 1.8-2.4 on
the beliefs that code switching should be included as an integral part of the ESL lesson; that there
should be a strict separation of the mother tongue and English in the ESL classroom; that code
switching should only be used as a last resort when all other options have been exhausted; that the
practice of code switching will increase the students’ reliance and dependency on the teacher, and that
the more English that is used, the better the results for the learners.
However, in the concepts of whether the ideal teacher of English is a native speaker, whether
English is best taught in English-only classroom, and whether the use of other languages in the ESL
classroom will result in a decline in the standards of English, the teachers were “ neither agree nor
disagree” with a mean ranging from 2.6-3.4. Meanwhile, regarding the concept of whether English is
best taught in English-only classrooms, the teacher-respondents “disagreed” with a mean of 3.6.
It is evident on the above data that the teacher-respondents believe that the use of code
switching has positive impacts on the language learning process since 6 out of 10 concepts fall under
agreement with an average mean of 1.96 described as agree.

Table 3. Students’ perceptions on the use of code switching in ESL classroom

Perceptions Mean
Qualitative
computed
Description
1.The use of my first language by the teacher helps me to enjoy the lesson. 3.88
Most of the time
2. The use of my first language by the teacher helps me to understand the
lesson better. 4.17
Most of the time
3. The use of my first language by the teacher makes me feel more confident
and motivated in learning English. 4.02
Most of the time
4. The use of my first language by the teacher enables me to focus on the
lesson without worrying about unfamiliar words and sentences. 3.68
Most of the time
5. The use of my first language by the teacher encourages me to actively
participate in classroom activities. 3.83
Most of the time
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 6. I would prefer the teacher to use English only during lessons and not to
use my first language. 2.83
Often
7. I would prefer the teacher to minimize the use of my first language
during lessons. 3. 10
Often
8. I would prefer the teacher to use my first language during lessons. 4.12
Most of the time
9. I would prefer the teacher to use both English and my first language
during lessons. 2.09
Hardly ever
10. I don’t like it when the teacher uses other languages during English lessons. 3.27
Often
11. I find it difficult to learn when the teacher does not explain new words/topics/
concepts in my first language. 3.17
Often
12. I find it difficult to concentrate during English lessons when the teacher
uses English only. 3.58
Most of the time
13. I use code switching to help me maintain the flow of conversation. 3.63
Most of the time
14. I use code switching when I communicate with my peers who share
the same language. 3.83
Most of the time
15. I use code switching when explaining difficult words and sentences
to my peers. 3.90
Most of the time
Grand Mean 3.54
Most of the Time

Table 3 reveals the perception of the students in code switching. Out of 15 statements, the item
“The use of my first language by the teacher helps me to understand the lesson better.” topped with a
mean of 4.17 and “Most of the time” as its descriptive equivalent. It was followed by the statements
ranging 4.12-3.58, respondents said that “Most of the time”, “I would prefer the teacher to use my first
language during lessons”, “The use of my first language by the teacher makes me feel more confident
and motivated in learning English.”, “I use code switching when explaining difficult words and
sentences to my peers.”, “The use of my first language by the teacher helps me to enjoy the lesson.”,
I use code switching when I communicate with my peers who share the same language.”,
“The use of my first language by the teacher encourages me to actively participate in classroom
activities.”, “…enables me to focus on the lesson without worrying about unfamiliar words and
sentences.”, “I use code switching to help me maintain the flow of conversation.” and “I find it difficult
to concentrate during English lessons when the teacher uses English only.”

113
 It is also evident from the above table that some of the statements had descriptive equivalent
of “Often”. The following were ranked according to their mean; “I don’t like it when the teacher uses
other languages during English lessons .” with a mean of 3.27; “I find it difficult to learn when the
teacher does not explain new words/topics/concepts in my first language.” with 3.17 as its mean; “I
would prefer the teacher to minimize the use of my first language during lessons.” with 3.10; “I would
prefer the teacher to use English only during lessons and not to use my first language .” with 2.83 as
its mean.
There was one of the 15 items with a descriptive value of “Hardly Ever” with a mean of 2.09
which is “I would prefer the teacher to use both English and my first language during lessons.”
The grand mean was found to be 3.54, described as “Most of the Time.” This was in line with
the previous research of Selamat (2014) [27] as stated in Tandoc (2016) [34], in her study on the
Malaysian ESL code switching inside the classroom. She stated that students believe that teacher code
switching is a useful classroom strategy which enhances their language learning experiences.
Moreover, Tandoc (2016) [39], in his study on Code switching in an ESL classroom stated that
the respondents have positive views on code switching as one instructional strategy of learning. His
findings indicated that code switching should be allowed for effective communication between
students and the instructor in a natural and comfortable way. Comparatively, Dela Cruz (2018) claimed
that having a class as such may create a teacher-student learning experience and understanding is being
enjoyed by using two or three languages at their own disposal. Code switching can be a good technique
to highlight the significance of a specific piece of information and explanation of complex concepts.

Pedagogical Implications
Code switching should be used as a vehicle for seeking understanding, effective production of
communication, and should be regarded as an effective and transitional language learning strategy.
The language teachers, however, need to remember that English is the medium of instruction and code
switching should be kept to an effective minimum. Language teachers are only encouraged to make
adequate use of code switching in classrooms when explaining difficult concepts to students so that
they will be able to actively participate in the activities and discussions. Language teachers should, in
any means, use code switching to clarify concepts and not teach in the mother tongue. This means that
code switching must be used in moderation not excessive, as it may turn the pace of learning very
slow. Besides this factor, learners who are weak in language acquisition may only be allowed. Finally,
specific intervention on second language acquisition to enhance both L1 and L2 is highly

114
recommended for English language teachers and other teacher who use English as a medium of
instruction.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The results of the study showed the positive views of the respondents on code switching as one
instructional strategy of learning, the same with the different studies which agreed with the use of the
said strategy. The findings indicated that code switching should be allowed for effective
communication between students and the teacher in a natural and comfortable way. Code switching
can be a good technique to highlight the significance of a specific piece of information and explanation
of complex concepts.
Even though many teachers still feel uncertain towards the merits of code switching in teaching
English as a second language, code switching may be considered as a useful technique in classroom
interaction, especially if the goal is to clarify and convey the information to students in an efficient
way.
Code switching has the power to facilitate greater understanding and to involve the entire
classroom population in the lesson. Code switching should be used as a vehicle for seeking
understanding and effective production of communication, and should be encouraged as an effective
and transitional language learning strategy. The language teachers, however, need to remember that
English is the medium of instruction and code switching should be kept to an effective minimum.
Language teachers are only encouraged to make adequate use of code switching in classrooms when
explaining difficult concepts to students so that they will be able to actively participate in the activities
and discussions. Language teachers should, in any means, use code switching to clarify concepts and
not teach in the mother tongue. They should be very careful and cautious while code switching. Its use
should not be made excessive as it may turn the pace of learning very slow. Besides this factor, code
switching should be used only for those learners who are weak in language acquisition. It need not be
employed for the learners who possess high linguistic proficiency. Finally, proficiency seminar to
enhance both English and Filipino language is highly recommended for English language teachers and
for others teachers as well.

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Appendices
A. Request Letter
Republic of the Philippines
Cagayan State University
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Tuguegarao City

March 27, 2018

Henry B. Parana, Ph.D.

Secondary School Principal III
Sampaguita National High School
Solana, Cagayan

Sir:

I am currently conducting a research study entitled “CODE SWITCHING OF ENGLISH

LANGUAGE TEACHERS AND STUDENTS IN AN ESL CLASSROOM,” in partial fulfillment
of the requirements in the subject LE 313 (Instructional Management of Bilingual Education Program)
for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Language Education major in English Language
Education at the Cagayan State University at Tuguegarao City.

In this regard, I would like to request your good office permission to float questionnaires in your
school.

Your favorable action to this request is highly appreciated.

Very truly yours,

OLIVIA G. ROSARIO
Proponent
Approved:

HENRY B. PARANA, Ph.D.

SSP III

B. Questionnaires adopted from Selamat, (2014) [21], Canagarajah’s [28] and Ferguson’s [29]
categories of code switching
1. For English Language Teachers

Name: ____________________________________ (Optional)

Please rank the following statements according to your personal use and/or beliefs in the practice of
code switching in an ESL classroom.
Instructions: Place a check mark in the columns provided.

116
1 – Never 2-Hardly ever 3-Often 4-Most of the time 5-Every Time
In class, I switch from English to the students’ first language: 1 2 3 4 5
1. To explain meaning of words and sentences
2. To explain difficult concepts
3. To explain grammar explicitly
4. To check for comprehension
5. To organize classroom tasks
6. To introduce unfamiliar topics/materials
7. To explain the differences between the students’ L1 and
English
8. To draw students’ attention to the correct pronunciation of
sounds in English
9. To maintain classroom discipline and structure of the lesson
10. To provide praise/feedback/personal remarks about students’
performance
11. To encourage students’ participation in classroom activities
12. To build/strengthen interpersonal relationships between the
teacher and the students
13. To reduce students’ anxiety in learning English
14. To increase students’ motivation and confidence in learning
English
1-totally agree 2-agree 3-neither agree nor disagree 4-disagree 5-totally disagree
(Statements 15-25 are rated based on the above scale
I believe that: 1 2 3 4 5
15. Code switching will facilitate the language learning process.
16. The practice of code switching will increase the students’
reliance and dependency on the teacher.
17. Code switching should be included as an integral part of the
ESLl lesson.
18. There should be a strict separation of the mother tongue and
English in the ESL classroom.
19. Code switching should only be used as a last resort when all
other options have been exhausted.
20. Code switching is an efficient, time- saving technique.
21. English is best taught in English-only classrooms.
22. The use of other languages in the ESL classroom will result
in a decline in the standards of English.
23. The ideal teacher of English is a native speaker.
24. The more English that is used, the better the results for the
learners.
25. The younger the child, the easier it is to learn English.

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2. For the students
Dear student,
The main goal of this study is to determine your perception towards code switching (the use of
Filipino/Ilocano) in an English class. The participation will be made anonymously. Thank you for your
help.
Instruction: Please put a check mark on the columns provided.
1: Never 2: Hardly ever 3: Often 4: Most of the time 5: Every time
Items Never Hardly Often Most of the Time Every
Ever Time
1. The use of my first language by
the teacher helps me to enjoy the
lesson.
2. The use of my first language by
the teacher helps me to understand
the lesson better.
3. The use of my first language by
the teacher makes me feel more
confident and motivated in
learning English.
4. The use of my first language by
the teacher enables me to focus on
the lesson without worrying about
unfamiliar words and sentences.
5. The use of my first language by
the teacher encourages me to
actively participate in classroom
activities.
6. I would prefer the teacher to use
English only during lessons and not
to use my first language.
7. I would prefer the teacher to
minimize the use of my first
language during lessons.
8. I would prefer the teacher to use
both English and my first language
during lessons.
9. I don’t like it when the teacher
uses other languages during
English lessons.
10. I find it difficult to learn when
the teacher does not explain new
words/topics/concepts in my first
language.
11. I find it difficult to concentrate
during English lessons when the
teacher uses English only.

118
 12. I use code switching when I am
unable to express myself in
English.
13. I use code switching to help me
maintain the flow of conversation.
14. I use code switching when I
communicate with my peers who
share the same language.
15. I use code switching when
explaining difficult words and
sentences to my peers.

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About the Authors:

Olivia G. Rosario is a Senior High School teacher at Sampaguita National High School, Solana,
Cagayan, Philippines. She is currently taking-up Doctor of Philosophy in Language Education at
Cagayan State University. Her research interests include Bilingual Education, Sociolinguistics, L2
acquisition, Psycholinguistics, and Discourse Analysis. She can be reached at
oliviarosariogarces@gmail.com.

Dr. Ruth N. Maguddayao is a language education professor and Research Coordinator at Cagayan
State University, Philippines. She teaches General Education Curriculum (GEC) English subjects at
the College of Engineering and College of Teacher Education and professional courses in Ph.D.
English Language Education (Ph.D. ELE) at the Graduate School. She holds various certificates in
Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) sponsored by the US Department of State, Regional English
Language Office (RELO) with partner Universities (e.g. Boston University, Oregon University) and
Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL). She can be reached at ruthmags79@gmail.com.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

The MTBMLE Policy: Attitudes Among Teachers on the Ground

Annie Mae C. Berowa

annieberowa@yahoo.com.ph

Richard S. Agbayani
rsagbayani76@yahoo.com

Bio-Profiles:

Annie Mae C. Berowa is a faculty member of the Mindanao State University, Main Campus in
Marawi City. She is currently pursuing her Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics degree at De
La Salle University, Manila.

Richard S. Agbayani is a faculty member of the Mariano Marcos State University in Ilocos Norte.
He is currently pursuing his Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics degree at De La Salle
University, Manila.

Abstract

This study illustrates the attitudes of the teachers from Kindergarten to Grade 3 levels in Ilocos Norte,
Philippines toward the MTBMLE policy as well as the factors that influence their attitudes.
Furthermore, the study presents the suggestions of the research participants to improve the
implementation of the policy. The data were gathered through a survey questionnaire and interviews
from 62 research participants who are teachers of the thirteen (13) elementary public schools in Paoay
and Vintar in the province of Ilocos Norte. The results indicate that generally, teachers have positive
attitude toward the MTBMLE policy and such attitude is influenced by their beliefs and experiences.
The participants also suggested for additional funding, learning resources and teacher training to
improve the implementation of the said policy.
Keywords: MTBMLE, teachers, attitudes, factors, suggestions

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Introduction
The implementation of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTBMLE) Policy in 2012
brought forth changes in the Philippine education realm specifically in all public schools. Basically,
MTBMLE policy pertains to the use of mother tongue or first language in the early education of
children (Alieto, 2018). Lartec et al. (2014) emphasized that it is “first-language-first” policy which
means that children’s schooling from kindergarten to grade 3 begins in their mother tongue and
transition follows by adding two or more languages. This policy intends at addressing the pressing
issue concerning the high functional illiteracy among Filipinos which is deemed significantly
influenced by the language used as a medium of instruction (Capitol University, 2017). It is believed
that the use of mother tongue encourages children to become more expressive, more active and more
participative in the learning process. Moreover, learners are encouraged to construct better and provide
an elaboration as regards to their world and can articulate their personal thoughts and notions. The
Department of Education identified twelve (12) major Philippine languages as medium of instruction
(MOI) which include Tagalog, Kapampangan, Pangasinense, Iloko, Bikol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon,
Waray, Tausug, Maguindanaon, Marano, and Chabacano (DepEd, 2013). The implementation of the
MTBMLE in the Philippines serves as a model among countries in Southeast Asia (De Guzman & De
Vera, 2018).
However, despite the existence of this educational reform in the country, it is argued that its
effectiveness, even in the other parts of the globe, will be realized only when it does not solely focus
on the implementation of the new program but also centers on the attitudes of the teachers about the
policy (Naom & Sarah, 2014). As articulated by Berowa, Devanadera and David (2018), “attitude is a
disposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to the object, person, institution, or event” (p.8). Thus,
the success of any education policy is also measured on the trust and support the teachers give on the
idea of the system and the system itself for them to change classroom practices. It should be
emphasized that the new programs or policies being introduced compete with strongly established
teaching and learning language theories which are brought by previous experiences, beliefs, and
prejudices in teaching and learning (Karavas- Doukas, 1991).
Therefore, this study is done to investigate the teachers’ attitudes toward the MTBMLE policy
as well as to find out the possible factors influencing their attitudes. The concentration of this study
lies on the teachers who are teaching from Kindergarten to Grade 3 as they stand in the front line of
the mother tongue implementation. Since the way teachers employ a language in the classroom
instruction is affected by their feelings about the language that they are being exposed to in the school
context (Paulson Stone, 2012), their attitudes would largely influence the success of the MTBMLE
124
policy in the country. Moreover, the study tries to provide pertinent suggestions directly from the
teachers themselves to achieve a more effective implementation of such policy.

Review of Related Literature

The implementation of mother tongue-based education in the country boils down to the idea of
heightening students’ achievements through centering on their cognitive development using their first
language (L1) and utilizing it as a solid foundation in learning Filipino and English languages in their
later years. In 2013, Gallego and Zubiri affirm that the MTBMLE could afford Filipinos with a
sustainable future. As proofs, students are provided with quality education as well as long- term
success in school. Also, MTBMLE enhances the status of local languages. However, even with all
these positive promises, the implementation of the MTBMLE is never easy. It is faced with myriad
challenges such as teachers’ preparation, availability of resources, as well as attitudes and multilingual
classes (Naom & Sarah, 2014). Moreover, insignificant importance has been provided to the views of
those that are at the ground level that include the teachers (Burton, 2013). Instead, these people are
more normally seen as the soldiers of the system that carry the order given to them (Shahomy, 2006).
Needless to say, teachers, in any educational policy, play an enormously vital role because they
are the front liners of its implementation. Paulson Stone (2012) asserts that without teachers, the
education system cannot run. He adds that if teachers do not believe and support the policy, it is likely
impossible to succeed. This is the primary reason why attitudes of teachers toward the MTBMLE
should be given utmost consideration as they have a direct association to classroom practice. This
dispute points to the importance of teachers in the implementation of the MTBMLE as their actions,
in essence, are the policy (Sutton & Levinson, 2001). In its simplest sense, if a teacher deems that the
use of another language will be more beneficial to his/her students, there will be no enough motivation
to use the mother tongue that actually deviates from the policy. By doing that, one is not expected to
reap the supposed outcome of the education policy which is yearned to flourish and raise the status of
education in the country. On the contrary, if teachers have a strong desire to apply the real concept of
mother tongue in the classroom, addressing first their attitudes is a must. Since the implementation of
the MTBMLE in 2012, some studies were carried out in the different milieus around the country
probing the attitudes of the teachers toward the mother tongue education policy.
In a study conducted by Paulson Stone (2012), he focused on the attitudes of the teachers about
language and education. Assisting program designers is the ultimate goal of the study especially in
coming up with professional efforts to address the challenges in the implementation of the Mother
Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTBMLE) that includes negative attitudes. The application

125
of interview method aids the researcher to uncover the confidence and positivity of teachers in teaching
the mother tongue when they had the opportunity to spend time learning about their own language, to
create mother tongue teaching and learning materials, and to reflect on their early learning experiences
and experience what it is like to learn in a language that is not familiar.
In a similar vein, an examination with regard to teachers’ and parents’ means of understanding
and enacting MTBMLE was likewise realized by Burton (2013). The study was done in one school
district in the Bikol region in the Philippines. Teachers’ and parents’ knowledge, beliefs, and practices
were studied to identify how national language policy is appropriated at the ground level. Additionally,
the challenges to policy implementation were explored and analyzed. The study focused on grade one
teachers since they were the only group to have implemented MTB-MLE in their classroom. Findings
of this study pointed out that teachers’ and parents’ views of MTB-MLE concentrated on the short-
term benefits of the policy and the long-term disadvantages. While both groups were overwhelmingly
satisfied with the increase in student understanding, they expressed concern about the future
implications for learning in Bikol rather than in English. They overtly supported the policy in terms of
complying with the requirements, yet covert resistance was observed in their words and actions.
Moreover, a study was carried out to determine the current state of perceptions of English
teachers about MTBMLE policy and its implementation by Wa-Mbaleka (2014). It was found that
teachers’ perceptions on the impact of MTBMLE on learning, in general, were inconclusive. At that
time, teachers’ perception could not reveal with certainty whether or not they believe an impact of
MTBMLE exists on learning in general. Second, results were not conclusive to state with certainty
whether or not the Philippines is well prepared for the implementation of MTB-MLE. While the
curriculum has been “dumped” on schools and teachers, enough training does not seem to have
occurred to allow successful implementation.
On the same year, Lartec et al. (2014) which analyzed the strategies utilized by teachers among
teachers from Baguio City in the implementation of the MTBMLE in a multilingual classroom context
and the problems they encountered. It was a qualitative researcher in which data were gathered through
interview method. The results illustrated that teachers used numerous strategies in the implementation
of the mother tongue-based education that include translation, the use of lingua-franca and multilingual
teaching, and the use of learning materials that were written in the mother tongue. On the other hand,
teachers encountered problems since there were no sufficient books that were written in the mother
tongue, teachers had vocabulary problem, and they lack teacher training.
From these research trends, it appears that there are different attitudes expressed by the teachers
as regards mother tongue-based education. Most of the results indicate that while mother tongue is
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welcomed to provide a better understanding on the part of the learners, there is also a strong presence
of resistance toward it as it may be disadvantageous in the learning of the English language which is
highly valued for economic gains. Also, resistance comes from the perceived challenges that come
along with the MTBMLE implementation.
However, most of these studies reflected only the perspectives of the English teachers and were
conducted in the initial stage of the MTBMLE implementation. It would also be beneficial to hear the
views of those who are directly involved in the use of mother tongue as a medium of instruction--the
teachers from Kindergarten to Grade 3 levels. It is interesting to discover the attitudes of these teachers
as we already have produced the first batch of mother tongue-educated learners. Also, it may yield
interesting results now that this study is conducted in which they already have first-hand experience in
implementing the policy. This will not only provide additional literature to the topic but it would also
serve as an evaluation as to how teachers perceive the policy that is hoped to provide insights to further
improve it in order to achieve its utmost success.

Research Questions
The present research targeted at discovering the attitudes of the teachers from Ilocos Norte,
Philippines toward the use of mother tongue as medium of instruction. Specifically, it tried to answer
the following questions.
1. What are the attitudes of the Ilocano teachers toward MTBMLE policy in general?
2. What are the factors influencing the attitudes of the participants toward the MTBMLE policy?
3. What are the suggestions of the participants to allow more effective implementation of the
MTBMLE policy?

Methodology
In this research, both quantitative and qualitative (mixed- method) designs were pursued to
offer in-depth information about the problem. Quantitative is appropriate since the data gathered from
the survey questionnaire mainly composed of numbers, and thus subjected to statistical analysis.
Qualitative design was also observed through an interview. Hence, through these designs, the
researchers fully gathered the teachers’ attitudes toward MTBMLE policy, specifically mother tongue
as a medium of instruction as well as the probable factors affecting their attitudes. Also, their
suggestions to better implement the policy was examined.
The study was conducted in thirteen (13) public elementary schools in the municipalities of
Paoay and Vintar in the province of Ilocos Norte since one of the authors of this present study is a
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bonafide resident in the said province specifically in the municipality of Vintar. Hence, these schools
were chosen for ease of access to the research participants. Seven (7) of which come from the former
comprising Pasil Elementary School, Nanguyudan Elementary School, Evangelista Elementary
School, Nagbacalan Elementary School, Salbang Elementary School, Paoay East Central Elementary
School, and Paoay Central Elementary School while the other six (6) schools represented the latter
consisting Parut Elementary School, Salpad Integrated School, Salsalamagui Elementary School,
Magabobo Elementary School, Malampa Elementary School, and Manarang Elementary School.
The teachers from Kindergarten, Grade 1, Grade 2, and Grade 3 teachers from the identified
schools took part on this study. These teachers are teaching Iluko (mother tongue) as a subject and
utilize it as a medium of instruction in their classrooms. Sixty-two (62) teachers were randomly
selected and approached for the study – thirty-eight (38) from Paoay District and twenty-four (24)
from Vintar District. The participants’ consent or permission was sought to allow the researchers in
floating the survey questionnaire. In conducting the interview, 30 percent of the total number of
respondents were selected to participate. Thus, a total of eighteen (18) teachers were interviewed on
the scheduled dates.
Among the participants, there were sixty-one 61 females and one (1) male. As regards number
of years in service, one participant has rendered less than a year of service when the study was
conducted. Eleven have between one to five (1-5) years of service, ten of them have six to ten (6-10)
years, ten have 11–15 years, another ten have 16 – 20 years, and 20 are currently in their 21st year of
service. Lastly, in terms of age, eleven of the participants were between 20–29, twelve were between
30-39 years old, eighteen were 40 – 49 years old and twenty-one (21) were already in their 50s and
above.
This study employed two data gathering instruments, including a survey questionnaire and an
interview. The survey questionnaire was adapted from Paulson Stone (2012) and it is divided into two
parts. The first part of the questionnaire aimed to elicit the participants’ personal information
particularly name, gender, number of years in the service, and age. The second part is composed of a
list of 30 statements concerning the participants’ attitudes toward the Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education (MTBMLE) which is followed by four choices. The interview was done in
order to collect data about the factors influencing the attitudes of the participants toward the MTBMLE
policy and also their suggestions to allow more successful implementation of it.
For the analysis, the data collected were presented in tabular form in which mean and standard
deviation were computed. Furthermore, the identification of the factors influencing the participants’
attitude toward MTBMLE policy and their suggestions were done through thematic analysis.
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Results and Discussion
The attitudes of the teachers toward a policy are very important as it influence their language
use and behavior that could directly correlate with their classroom practices. Thus, to determine the
attitudes of the respondents toward the MTBMLE in the context of this investigation, the mean scores
and standard deviations were determined as presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Attitudes toward Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTBMLE) Policy
Item Mean Standard Deviation Description

1 3.08 0.635 Agree

2 2.50 0.805 Agree
3 2.31 0.861 Disagree
4 2.89 0.680 Agree
5 2.18 0.800 Disagree
6 3.66 0.571 Strongly Agree
7 2.73 0.813 Agree
8 3.27 0.548 Strongly Agree
9 3.10 0.783 Agree
10 3.21 0.604 Agree
11 3.16 0.632 Agree
12 3.15 0.765 Agree
13 3.11 0.546 Agree
14 3.08 0.522 Agree
15 2.27 0.548 Disagree
16 3.11 0.515 Agree
17 3.24 0.502 Agree
18 3.13 0.383 Agree
19 2.79 0.604 Agree
20 2.39 0.636 Disagree
21 2.52 0.620 Agree
22 3.71 0.555 Strongly Agree
23 3.71 0.492 Strongly Agree
24 2.90 0.762 Agree
25 3.02 0.820 Agree
26 3.24 0.534 Agree
27 3.61 0.491 Strongly Agree
28 3.50 0.594 Strongly Agree
29 2.81 0.743 Agree
30 2.87 0.665 Agree
Note: Scale: 1.0-1.75= Highly Negative; 1.76-2.50= Negative; 2.51-3.25=Positive; 3.26-4.0= Highly
Positive

As shown, the mean scores of almost all the statements indicate that teachers have favorable attitude
toward mother-tongue-based education. This finding is very sensible since it is assumed that learners

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learn well using their mother tongue (Capitol University, 2012). From the items, there are statements
that were highly rated by the participants as shown in Table 4.
Table 4

Statements with highly positive attitudes

Standard Descriptive
Items Mean Deviation Interpretation
6. Students participate more actively
in the classroom when the teacher 3.66 0.571 Strongly Agree
and students are speaking the
mother tongue
8. Teaching literacy in the mother
tongue is added challenge for 3.27 0.548 Strongly Agree
teachers.
22. Teacher’s role is to impart 3.71 0.555 Strongly Agree
knowledge to the students.
23. Students need to actively
participate in the lesson in 3.71 0.492 Strongly Agree
order to learn.
27. I see myself as a facilitator 3.61 0.491 Strongly Agree
of learning.
28. If I had enough materials, teaching 3.50 0.594 Strongly Agree
mother tongue would be easy.
Note: Scale: 1.0-1.75= Highly Negative; 1.76-2.50= Negative; 2.51-3.25=Positive; 3.26-4.0= Highly
Positive

As presented in Table 4, the participants highly agreed to statements 6, 8, 22, 23, 27 and 28 that could
illustrate their strong affirmation on the notion that the use of mother tongue helps learners to learn
while teachers see themselves as facilitators of learning. The highly agreed statements ‘Teacher’s role
is to impart knowledge to the students’ and ‘Students need to actively participate in the lesson in order
to learn,’ demonstrate that learning is a two-way process which involves efforts both from the teacher
and the learner. And in the process of learning, the language used as a medium of instruction plays a
very significant role for teachers to effectively impart their knowledge and for the learners to better
understand what are being communicated to them. In this investigation, teachers could be seen to have
strongly believed that the use of the native tongue is directly connected to the understanding of the
pupils that enables them to interact and participate during lectures, to be active learners, and to
communicate better with their teachers and with their classmates. This view was supported by the
participants who articulated the following thoughts.

Participant 2: Using mother tongue as a medium of instruction, the learners are very
active in the teaching-learning process because they can easily express their answer
using the mother tongue. With that, it is easier to acquire learning if you fully
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 understand what the teacher wants to impart to the learner because the language being
used is your own language.

Participant 3: The pupils can understand easily the instruction. Everybody was able
to express their opinion.

Generally, the participants believe that the use of mother tongue is very beneficial for the pupils
since they become more confident in expressing their ideas and feelings that actually facilitated better
learning and understanding. This affirms the idea of Gallego and Zubiri (2013) who asserted that
academic competence can be attained through the use of native tongue. The exclusive use of language
that is most familiar to the learners, can promote linguistic skills making it easy to engage in academic
activities (Naom & Sarah, 2014).
In addition, teachers in this study strongly agreed that they see themselves as facilitators of
learning that tend to illustrate the importance of learner-centered education rather than teacher-
centered. Teachers in this study appears to strongly affirm that effective teaching is achieved by letting
children learn and discover for themselves, and help them explore beyond just learning information.
In assuming this role as facilitator of learning, it is hoped that the goals of the MTBMLE policy which
emphasize “language development which establishes a strong education for success in school and for
lifelong learning; cognitive development which focuses on Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS);
academic development which prepares the learner to acquire mastery of competencies in each of the
learning areas; and socio-cultural awareness which enhances the pride of the learner‘s heritage,
language and culture” (Burton, 2013, p. 4) will be realized.
However, teachers who served as participants in this study did not only highly agreed on
statements which talk about the positive effect of the mother-tongue-based education in the Philippines
but also on challenges in the implementation of the policy. The statement, ‘If I had enough materials,
teaching mother tongue would be easy,’ shows the need for books and learning materials in the mother
tongue to effectively implement the MTBMLE. Teachers in this context see learning materials as a
vital element to effectively teach MTBMLE and for students to learn and understand the lessons. Thus,
it appears that they strongly recognize the importance of materials for making their tasks easier and
that adequate learning resources written in local language in a wide range of subjects allow them to
successfully implement the MTBMLE.
Participant 10: Absence of books written in mother tongue. The condition of having
no textbooks or dictionaries in the mother tongue has been a common problem to
teachers like me. These are needed to accommodate the needs of the learners having
different mother tongues. Although I have stated "improvising instructional materials
written in mother tongue, still we teachers need looks that are accurate and reliable.

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 As provided by Participant 10, there is an absence of books and dictionaries that are written in
the mother tongue that has become a common problem among teachers. The participant believes that
learning materials that are accurate and reliable are very important to address the needs of the learners
who do not share the same mother tongue. This is consistent with the idea stressed by Hall (2010 as
cited in Lartec et al., 2014) that teaching will never be effective without relevant and accurate use of
learning materials. It is also important to note that in teaching through the use of mother tongue,
teachers will be forced to use materials that are written in other languages in the absence of adequate
learning materials. This creates problems and confusions since the medium of instruction is different
from the learning resource and most probably from the examinations to be conducted. This perceived
disadvantage was presented by one of the participants during the interview.
Participant 43: Using the mother tongue as medium of instructions ensures mostly
complete comprehension in pupils of what is the exact task. But there could be
disadvantage in using the mother tongue for instruction that is different to what is used
in the textbooks if students are being tested in the language.

Moreover, the respondents perceive the teaching of mother tongue literacy as added burden for
teachers. It could be possible that since teachers are already used to teach Filipino and English literacy,
they find the use of another language as a burden because of the unavailability of the needed materials
and of the fact that they have to master the native tongue including its grammar and vocabulary. These
sentiments were articulated in the following excerpts.
Participant 31: It is easy to teach using MT as long as we know the technicalities and
grammar.

Participant 42: Using mother tongue as a medium of instruction is not that easy. When
we first used it, it was very challenging on our part but as we learned some of the
terminologies, we found it very useful and easy to use.

The responses of the participants illustrate the challenges that goes with the use of mother
tongue as a medium of instruction similar to what Lartec et al. (2014) found in their study in which
grammar and vocabulary were found to be a problem among teachers in Baguio. With this, it is then
more challenging if a teacher is faced with pupils who come from different linguistic and multi-cultural
backgrounds.
Thus, the highly rated statements suggest that teachers strongly believe that the MTBMLE
policy could facilitate better learning as pupils understand what is said to them which could be
translated to active participation in the classroom as they understood what are asked of them. In turn,
the use of the native tongue leads to better learning and effective teaching. Furthermore, teachers see
themselves as the provider of knowledge to the learners although they also acknowledge the need for
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active participation of the pupils in order to learn. Apart from the perceived positive impact of the
MTBMLE, the statements which described the difficulties faced by the teachers in implementing the
policy were also highly rated. Respondents expressed concerns in relation to learning materials and in
teaching literacy in mother tongue that make their tasks more difficult.
Aside from those statements that are highly agreed, there are also those that are disagreed by
the participants as presented in Table 5.
Table 5
Statements with negative attitude
Standard Descriptive
Item Mean Deviation Interpretation
3. Mother tongue literacy is not
useful because there are very few 2.31 0.861 Disagree
mother tongue reading materials
available.

5. The mother tongue is not suitable 2.18 0.800 Disagree

to be used as an academic language.

15. I use the same teaching methods

in my classroom as were used by 2.27 0.548 Disagree
my teachers when I was a student.

20. Teachers are not equipped to use 2.39 0.636 Disagree

foreign language as the medium of
instruction.
Note: Scale: 1.0-1.75= Highly Negative; 1.76-2.50= Negative; 2.51-3.25=Positive; 3.26-4.0= Highly
Positive

As shown in Table 5, the statement ‘The mother tongue is not suitable to be used as an academic
language’ is the one which got the lowest mean score (M=2.18). This could mean that teachers disagree
with such statement since they believe that mother tongue fits to be a language for academic purposes.
As asserted by Gallego and Zubiri (2013), the use of language which is unfamiliar to the learners is
often found to impede education and communication. Accordingly, the best way achieve success in
school is through the use of the language which is common to both students and teachers. This involves
the use of mother tongue as a medium of instruction that starts with what the students already know
and with what they already have. Thus, the mother tongue is suitable as an academic language.
Furthermore, the second to the lowest mean score is found in the statement, ‘I use the same
teaching methods in my classroom as were used by my teachers when I was a student.’ Alidou et al.
(2006 as cited in Paulson Stone, 2012) maintained that the use of unfamiliar language as a medium of

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instruction force teachers to employ traditional and teacher-centered methods in teaching such as
memorization, repetition, recall and chorus that produce passive learners. With the MTBMLE,
participants believe that they can employ teaching methods that are different from those traditionally
utilized by their teacher. The policy allows teachers to employ innovative and learner-centered
activities and appears to be the best option to facilitate learning as learners can express and understand
better (Paulson Stone, 2012).
In addition, the item ‘Teachers are not equipped to use foreign language as the medium of
instruction’ is reported to have the third to the lowest mean score (M=2.39). This means that teachers
think that they are actually capable of using foreign languages in teaching. As Paulson Stone (2012)
claims, Filipino teachers believe that they are equipped to use Filipino and English as a medium of
instruction but they are not comfortable in utilizing these languages as it limits the participation of the
learners when foreign languages are used. Thus, it could be that the disagreement expressed by
respondents to the statement is based on the fact that teachers have been used to English and Filipino
as languages for instruction in which they believe that they are linguistically armed.
Moreover, the statement ‘Mother tongue literacy is not useful because there are very few
mother tongue reading materials available’ got the fourth to the lowest mean score (M=2.31) among
those items that are negatively reported. Although it has been emphasized by the people in the academe
that the lack of learning materials provides the opportunity to use English as a medium of instruction
(Naom & Sarah, 2014), still, the respondents believe that mother tongue literacy is useful despite the
absence of books and learning materials that are written in the mother tongue.
Notwithstanding with the disagreements expressed by the participants in this current research,
teachers generally have positive attitude toward the MTBMLE policy in the country. This kind of
attitude displayed by these teachers in Ilocos is found to be influenced by a number of factors.
3.2 Factors influencing attitudes toward MTBMLE
The data obtained for this study also illustrated the numerous factors which influence the
attitude of the respondents toward the MTBMLE policy.
Teachers’ beliefs
The MTBMLE policy of the government for the first three years of a learner’s education are
strongly supported by the experts in the field of language since they believe that children who receive
education using the language familiar to them would learn better (Naom & Sarah, 2014). Such belief
tends to contribute to the positive attitude displayed by teachers who served as participants in this
current study.

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 Participant 4: Prior to learning other languages, one must learn first his/her native
language. For me it is easier to acquire learning because the language used is your
own not the language of others.

Participant 6: I find the use of mother tongue as a medium of instruction, pupils

actively participated because they can express themselves with the use of our own
language.

Participant 7: For me it is easier to acquire learning if you understand what you are
learning because the language used is your own dialect.

Based on the responses, teachers strongly believe that the use of mother tongue would
positively promote the linguistic skills of the learners that would better facilitate the acquisition of
knowledge as they understand what is ask of them. Accordingly, mother tongue-based education
develops strong L1 competencies among young learners and they perform well in all subjects. As
asserted by Heugh (2006), the linguistic expertise and skills of the learners in their native tongue can
be developed further as it is used in the academic contexts especially in writing and in reading for
cognitive and creative purposes. It was also added that learners boost their self-esteem and develop a
solid foundation in learning additional languages. Moreover, the use of native tongue promotes more
involvement among parents and of the community in the school activities. Since teachers hold strong
belief that something good will result from the mother-tongue-based education, this contributed to
teachers’ positive attitude toward the MTBMLE policy which affirms the claim made by Dutcher
(2001 as cited in Wa-Mbaleka, 2014).
Teachers’ experience
Aside from the teachers’ beliefs, the experiences of the participants also who are directly
involved in the implementation of the MTBMLE could also be seen as a factor for them to perceive
such positively. Teachers revealed that based on their experiences, pupils were more attentive and
active in their classes and seem to understand the lessons very well as illustrated during the interviews.
Participant 8: Pupils were more attentive in class discussion. They are also able to
explain their answers well when responding to questions. It makes them more confident
to converse.

Participant 14: Using Mother Tongue as a medium of instruction is a great help and
important because it encourages my pupils to participate actively in class. They can
easily understand what is being discussed since Iloko, our mother tongue is their
natural language and medium of communication by our surroundings.

As articulated by the participants, teachers find the use of mother tongue as a great help for
learners to express their thoughts freely and to actively participate in the class. As such, teachers had

135
pleasant experiences as learners understand the concepts during classes very well. With this, it appears
that their good experience contributed to their positive attitude toward the MTBMLE.
Thus, these factors found in this investigation sustain the assertion made by Karavas-Doukas
(1991) who argued that teachers’ attitudes are products of teaching and learning experiences,
prejudices and beliefs. Although the attitude of the participants toward the MTBMLE appears to be
favorable, teachers still have suggestions to achieve a more effective implementation of the policy.
3.3 Suggestions to improve the implementation of the MTBMLE Policy
The teachers on this investigation provided suggestions in order to improve the implementation
of the mother-tongue-based education in Ilocos which include additional funding/budget, learning
materials/books, and teacher trainings/seminars.
Funding/Budget
The success of the MTBMLE policy is believed to be measured on its educational programs
(Naom & Sarah, 2014). Thus, trainings, seminars and workshops on how to effectively implement the
policy are very important that would demand funding from the government. As expressed by most of
the teachers during interviews, the implementation of the MTBMLE involves learning resources,
teacher trainings, and curriculum designing which would cost the government.
Participant 1: Major effort and budget be given attention to the program for the full
implementation and success of the program.

Participant 2: Enough funding for the implementation of mother tongue-based

instruction and full support implementing the MTB instruction especially in the higher-
ups organization.

Participant 4: I suggest for enough funding for the implementation of mother tongue-
based instructions.

From the excerpts provided, the teachers generally believe that the success of the mother-tongue-
based education policy in the Philippines would demand a considerable amount from the government.
Wa-Mbaleka (2014a) suggested, the government must provide sufficient budget to address the
challenges about MTBMLE since the policy has met challenges in the actual implementation in terms
of the development of instructional materials, language instruction and teacher training.
MTBMLE learning materials
The lack of learning resources for teachers in the classroom was the most commonly mentioned
problem in implementing the MTBMLE (Burton, 2013). The same top-most concern was raised by
teachers from Ilocos during the interviews viewed that adequate instructional materials that are written

136
in the mother tongue are very significant in the success of the MTBMLE since teachers need reliable
and accurate books native language.
Participant 5: We suggest to give us complete teacher’s guide and more learners
materials for us teachers to fully implement mother tongue based as a medium of
instruction.

Participant 6: There should be more textbooks and activities provided for the pupils.

Participant 12: The Department of Education should be equipped and well prepared
in implementing the K-12. The government should provide us teachers’ guides that jive
with the learners’ materials so that we teachers will not be hard-up to make our daily
lesson plans.

Thus, it will be impossible to attain the goals of mother-tongue-based education if the needed
learning materials are unavailable (Lartec et al., 2014). As articulated by the participants during the
interviews, there is a great need for textbooks, teachers’ guide, and other learning materials to improve
and to succeed in the implementation of the MTBMLE policy. As asserted by Hall (2010 as cited in
Lartec et al., 2014), teachers cannot effectively teach if appropriate materials are absent that
incorporate curriculum goals as established by the government and prior knowledge, culture and value
systems of the pupils. Literacy can only be sustained if there is sufficient supply of materials in reading
(Burton, 2013). With that said, books are very significant in the learning process of an individual in
which, without adequate supply of these, effective teaching and learning cannot take place (Lartec et
al., 2014).
Teachers’ training
Participants on this investigation also suggested that trainings, seminars, and conferences must
be consistently provided to address various issues in using the mother tongue as the medium of
instruction. The following responses made by the participants illustrate the suggestions of the teachers
as regards teacher development.
Participant 9: More seminars and wokshops for teachers and enough instructional
materials and books.

Participant 11: I could have suggest that the Department of Education should let the
teachers undergo several trainings and seminars to enhance their knowledge on the
different strategies and techniques in teaching the mother tongue based instruction.

As shown, participants suggested that the Department of Education must provide more trainings,
seminars and workshops to enhance the knowledge of the teachers in relation to the different teaching
strategies and techniques in the mother tongue. Lartec et al. (2014) maintain that the limited
background of the teachers can impede them from becoming effective in the use of mother tongue as
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a medium of instruction. Additionally, seminars and trainings are greatly needed to provide orientation
and guidance on how to handle the learners especially in a multilingual setting. Moreover, these
professional trainings are opportunities for teachers to learn with and from the other attendees that
could further enhance their knowledge and experience. Trainings in teaching methodology are also
important so that teachers can make the most of the advantages that comes in the teaching the children
in the language that they can understand (Dutcher, 2004). If teachers will be equipped with the
necessary trainings, knowledge and skills, it is assumed that there will be less occurrence of passive
learning. Instead, students will be encouraged to interact, to read, and to discover in their learning
process.
Generally, the findings indicate that teachers have positive attitude toward the MTBMLE and
such attitude is influenced by teachers’ belief and experiences in relation to the policy. This favorable
attitude toward the educational policy is a very good indication for its success. As emphasized by Stern
et al. (1975 as cited in Paulson Stone, 2012), teachers must have a positive attitude toward the policy
since it plays a very significant role in facilitating educational change, a very important aspect in any
pedagogical innovation. The results also illustrated the importance of teachers’ beliefs and experiences
in determining the attitudes of the teachers toward educational innovations. Thus, attitudes toward
educational policy may come from conscious or unconscious held beliefs that might have direct
association with their classroom experiences. However, positive attitude toward the policy does not
mean that it is already perfect. Hence, suggestions such as sufficient budget/funding, availability of
books and other learning materials that are written in the mother tongue, and teacher trainings were
provided to effectively and successfully implement the policy.

Conclusion
This current study illustrates the attitudes of the teachers from Kinder to Grade 3 in Ilocos
toward the MTBMLE in the country as well as the factors that influence their attitudes and it presents
suggestions to improve the policy. It should be emphasized that it will be impossible for an educational
system to run without teachers, and any policy in relation to education cannot succeed if they do not
trust or support it. Clearly, the study shows the favorable attitude of the teachers toward mother-
tongue-based education in the Philippines despite the fact that teachers are being challenged by the
dearth of instructional and learning materials. Thus, it is the task of the Department of Education to
conduct mechanisms to maintain the generally positive attitude of the teachers and to consider their
suggestions for a more effective implementation of the MTBMLE. It must be remembered that for an

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educational policy to be more successful and more effective requires favorable attitude on the part of
the teachers who stand on the front lines of its implementation.

Pedagogical Implication
From the pedagogical perspective, this study unveiled that the use of mother tongue as a
medium of instruction is generally beneficial both on the part of Kindergarten to Grade 3 teachers and
pupils. Empirical evidences from this inquiry show that the implementation of MTBMLE policy paves
the way toward building and providing better avenues to teachers and pupils to be more expressive of
what is in their minds about the topic being taught and learned.
The study’s result imply that the mother tongue usage in Kindergarten and first three grades
classrooms appears to be contributory to the positive outcome of teaching and learning undertakings.
Teacher participants of the study corroborated this claim since according to them, pupils can easily
grasp basic concepts. They are likely to understand instructions, more confident in constructing,
articulating, and explaining their ideas without fears of making mistakes. By and large, the learning
ability of children is being enhanced when teaching in the early grades is done utilizing the mother
tongue. In similar vein, teachers find the use of mother tongue as a medium of instruction sustains the
flow of classroom discussion and interactions.
However, while it is true that teachers are doing and giving their best to cater all the needs of
their pupils, the MTBMLE policy’s initial implementation has laid down problems such as lack of
funding or budget from the government, scarcity of MTBMLE instructional materials, and dearth of
teachers’ training. These equally challenge the full realization of the policy. Consequently, there is a
need for straightaway attention and decisive action from the Department of Education and the
Philippine government to address these concerns. When these will be urgently resolved, tendency
would be, teachers are more able to perform their responsibilities inside the classroom toward
reinforcing their teacher mastery and proficiency. Moreover, learners’ engagement and participation
in classroom interactions would be more assured as they may find the courage and passion to be self-
driven in overcoming their apprehensions of sharing their personal viewpoints about the lessons at
hand heading on the direction of attaining excellence in all academic endeavors.

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Berowa, A. M. C., Devanadera, A., & David, S. O. (2018). Attitude toward English among
Vietnamese students in the Philippines. The Asian EFL Journal, 20 (2), 6-19.
Burton, L. A. (2013). Mother tongue-based multilingual education in the Philippines: Studying top-
down policy implementation from the bottom up. (Doctoral Dissertation), University of
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De Guzman, W. G. L. & De Vera, P. V. (2018). English language performance and difficulties of
pupils in the mother tongue–based (MTB) medium of instruction. The Journal of
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Dutcher, N. (2004). Promise and perils of mother tongue education. Center for Applied Linguistics,
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Gallego, M. K. S., & Zubiri, L. A. M. (2013). MTBMLE in the Philippines: Perceptions,attitudes, and
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Africa –the language factor: A stock-taking research on mother tongue and bilingual education
in Sub-Saharan Africa. Paris: ADEA.
Karavas-Doukas, E. (1996). Using attitude scales to investigate teachers’ attitudes to the
communicative approach. ELT Journal, 50 (3), 187-198.
Lartec, J. K., Belisario, A.M., Bendanillo, J. P., Binas-o, H.K., Bucang, N. O., and Cammagay, J. L.
W. (2014). Strategies and Problems Encountered by Teachers in Implementing Mother
Tongue-Based Instruction in a Multilingual Classroom. The IAFOR Journal of Language
Learning, 1 (1), 1-16.
Naom, N., & Sarah, A (2014). Mother tongue in instruction: The role of attitude in the implementation.
International Journal of Research In Social Sciences, 4 (1), 77-87.
Paulson Stone, R. (2012). A professional development program for the mother tongue-based teacher:
Addressing teacher knowledge and attitudes about MTBMLE (Order No. 3518270). Available

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Shohamy, E. (2010). Cases of language policy resistance in Israel‘s centralized educational system.
Negotiating language policies in schools: Educators as policymakers (pp. 182-197). New
York: Routledge.
Sutton, M., & Levinson, B. (2001). Policy as practice toward a comparative sociocultural analysis of
educational policy. Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing.
Wa-Mbaleka, S. (2014). English teachers’ perceptions of the mother tongue-based education policy in
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Researchers’ Note: This is an original publication which has not been published elsewhere and is
not under consideration elsewhere.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Developing Mentorship Provisions for Academic English Success

Lucas Kohnke

Andrew Jarvis

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Bio-Profile:
Lucas Kohnke is a Teaching Fellow at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. His research interests
include technology-supported teaching and learning, professional development using information
communication technology and mentoring. Lucas has published in the TESOL Journal, RELC Journal,
and Journal of Education for Teaching.

Andrew Jarvis is a Teaching Fellow in the English Language Centre at The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University. He coordinates English for academic purposes courses and manages a staff mentoring
scheme. His research interests include EAP pedagogy and mentoring.

Abstract
This study investigated the motivations of undergraduate students in joining a university English
language mentoring scheme. The study also reports participants’ views on the effectiveness of this
scheme in fulfilling their learning objectives. Participants consisted of 46 first-year students
transitioning from secondary to university education in Hong Kong. A two phase-research design was
implemented including an initial questionnaire followed by semi-structured interviews to clarify and
extend on the preliminary data collected. Data revealed that the mentorship program had enhanced
participants’ perceptions of their language skills, and the mentees appreciated the informal nature of
the mentoring sessions and the opportunities to develop conversational English. Participants also
indicated that they felt more comfortable in addressing specific language problems than they would
have in a larger class setting.
Keywords: academic; English; mentoring; mentee; mentor

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Introduction

Bridging the gap between the teaching of English in secondary schools on the one hand and in colleges
and universities on the other is a challenge facing language educators worldwide. Students who enter
an institution of higher education in their freshman year often have uninformed or unrealistic
expectations about the learning environment and overconfidence in their English skills, and as a result
they often struggle in English classes (Stinebrickner & Stinebrickner, 2012; Zafar, 2011). Students in
Hong Kong are no exception, as many find that their limited English proficiency is insufficient for
success at an English-medium university (Evans & Morrison, 2016; Ortega, 2018). For such second-
language learners, it has become increasingly important that higher education institutions find ways to
help with the transition to the more demanding coursework when English is the medium of instruction.

This study evaluates a mentoring program, Excel@English, implemented at a university in Hong Kong
that has the potential to address the shortcomings of current English language instruction in China for
students transitioning from secondary to post-secondary education. In academic mentoring programs
of the kind discussed here, students receive support for a range of needs. Thus, for example, self-
directed learning helps students to set goals, acquire subject knowledge, and build personal
relationships with mentors in the context of small-group interactions (Sandner, 2015); it also, as the
name suggests, promotes the development of autonomous learning behavior (Brodeur, Larose,
Tarabulsy & Feng, 2017). There is, however, a gap in the current literature regarding the engagement
of second-language students in mentoring programs in post-secondary settings. This study aims to
help fill this gap by doing an in-depth and holistic examination of the needs of this specific group of
learners.

Context

Mentoring programs for language learners are common at universities, and several in Hong Kong offer
such services to their students (Urmston, Raquel, & Aryadoust, 2016). The mentoring program studied
here was unique, however, in that its aim was to provide undergraduate students with a language
learning path tailored to their personal needs, studies, and careers mediated by a trained English
instructor serving as a dedicated, personal mentor.

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Mentoring is understood here as a process by which an educator (mentor) teaches, encourages,
counsels, and befriends a student (mentee) for the specific purpose of addressing needs associated with
language learning and encouraging the development of learner autonomy. The mentoring program
was open to all undergraduate students; it ran for 10 weeks out of 13 weeks of a semester and consisted
of weekly meetings, either face-to-face or online, between mentees and mentors. The focus of the
meetings was not on the English language per se but rather on the logistics of learning a language.
Students had the opportunity to select a mentor based on their preferred mentoring style (i.e., advisory,
casual, cooperative, or directive) and the option of meeting with their mentors either individually or in
the context of small groups of no more than six students with the same mentoring preference and level
of English. These regular meetings provided students with access to resources in the form of both
academic and emotional support for the transition to college. Through frequent contact of this sort, it
was hoped that the mentees would experience increased self-efficacy and reduced anxiety regarding
academic success, would better define their academic goals and would raise their career expectations.

This mentoring program was open to all undergraduate students, though the majority who participated
had entered the university with low English proficiency scores and were faced with heavy linguistic
demands in courses taught at a level of English that was simply too challenging for many students
(Kohnke & Jarvis, 2018; Ortega, 2018). These students were struggling with increasingly complex
language issues while trying to learn to break down complex tasks into steps, plan and manage their
time, and hold themselves and each other accountable for their academic performance.

In order to prepare for the mentoring sessions, the mentors received training and feedback as well as
mentoring kits from the coordinator that specified weekly activities (speaking, pronunciation,
listening, etc.) to incorporate into the mentoring sessions. All of the mentors were full-time English
language instructors who had previous experience with mentorship. They were asked to keep notes
on the focus of each session in an effort to align the learning goals from one session to the next closely
and to evaluate the mentees’ progress over the course of the program.

Literature Review

Mentorship takes a variety of forms across institutions of higher learning. Traditionally, it has involved
the pairing of a faculty member with a student in order to support the latter’s transition to college,
coursework, and planning for a career (Budge, 2006; Eby, Allen, Evans, Ng, & DuBois, 2008;
Hawkridge, 2003). In practice, mentors may meet with individual students or with pairs or groups of

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students (Hill & Reddy, 2007). Previous research has documented the positive impact of mentorship
programs on such key educational outcomes as retention, academic success, and graduation rates
(Collings, Swanson, & Watkins, 2014; Santos & Reigadas, 2002, 2004; Wilson et al., 2012).

For freshman students entering the university, who often feel unprepared and at risk, faculty members
represent a source of knowledge and experience that can facilitate the transition from secondary
education. In their role as mentors, faculty can help these new students to achieve their academic,
social, and personal development goals (Wilson et al., 2012). Several studies have found that students
who receive mentoring tend to be more successful than those who do not (Campbell & Campbell,
1997; Kendricks, Nedunuri, & Arment, 2013). Mentoring focused on language learning, however, has
not been common at higher education institutions.

As noted, mentors may meet with one or two students or small groups of them. Mentorship approaches
can be informal in nature, which is to say spontaneous and voluntary, or formal, involving a schedule
of regular meetings (Budge, 2006). The various types of mentoring serve various purposes; in the case
of self-directed, small-group mentoring, for example, students are particularly encouraged to take
charge of their own learning (Merriam, Baumgartner, & Caffarella, 2007). Knowledge exchange and
discussion are enhanced in such mentoring sessions through sharing, active listening, and constructive
feedback (Baptiste, 2003).

Moreover, the existing literature suggests that students can benefit academically from learning
cooperatively (Johnson & Johnson, 2014). The benefits of small-group mentoring sessions include
improvements in students’ thinking skills, self-motivation to learn, self-esteem, and overall attitude
toward learning (Alghamdi & Gillies, 2013). Other research has drawn attention to the potential of
mentoring in assisting undergraduate students’ attitudes and persistence in completing their studies
(Crisp, Baker, Griffin, Lunsford, & Pifer, 2017).

Among the key factors in successful mentoring are trust, mutual respect, support, and useful feedback
(Izadinia, 2016; Johnson, 2015). Mentors need to be inspiring role models and effective
communicators in order to have a positive impact on students’ academic outcomes (Blanchard &
Muller, 2015). In the context of trusting and cooperative relationships, mentors work with mentees to
identify their needs and to create a personalized language-learning pathway (Everhard, 2015). For
students in Hong Kong in particular, this sense of belonging and trust has proved to be crucial to
maintaining motivation at the university level (Lau, 2018).

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Based on the considerations discussed above and the current state of research into mentoring at the
college level, we formulated the following questions:

1. Do students join the language mentoring program in order to improve their overall performance
in classes taught in their second language?
2. How helpful was the mentoring program in terms of fulfilling their language needs?

Methodology

This explorative, interpretive case study investigated the motivations for mentees signing up for
language mentoring and the effectiveness of the mentoring program in fulfilling their objectives. The
two-phase research design included a qualitative data phase that served to clarify and extend the initial
quantitative data phase (Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann, & Hanson, 2003). This mixed-methods
approach provided a basis for a holistic understanding of the phenomena of interest. This study was
carried out within the context of an interpretive paradigm designed to reveal the full complexity of
mentoring in the form of “thick responses” that accurately reflect the lived experience of the
participants (Geertz, 1973).

Participants

This study relied on convenience sampling, which is a common means of gathering data for qualitative
research. With convenience sampling, as Yates, Partridge, and Bruce (2012) observed, the aim is to
identify participants based not only on their availability but also on their “appropriateness to the
purpose of the research study, that is, they have experience of the phenomenon being explored” (p.
103). Participants in the present study included 46 freshman undergraduate students who had enrolled
in the university’s mentoring program and volunteered to fill out questionnaires relating to mentorship;
they were considered to be reasonably representative of the wider population of mentees in the
mentoring program. Of those who filled out the questionnaire, eight further volunteered to participate
in semi-structured interviews.

Data Collection

The data collection for this study, then, consisted of an initial ten-item questionnaire followed by face-
to-face interviews. As discussed, the latter, qualitative data served to clarify and build on the
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quantitative data, the two distinct phases complementing one another to create a holistic picture of the
phenomenon of interest (Creswell et al., 2003). The face-to-face, semi-structured interviews consisted
of 12 open-ended questions designed to yield rich accounts of mentees’ attitudes about the mentoring
program. Thus they were asked to discuss specific factors that influenced their decisions to join the
mentoring program and how helpful it had been in various respects.

Data Analysis

The data were analyzed inductively in accordance with the interpretive paradigm (Carter & Little,
2007; Miles & Huberman, 1984). The first phase, involving the questionnaire, generated descriptive
quasi-statistics (Becker, 1970) using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software.
More specifically, the survey was conducted online using SurveyMonkey and the results migrated to
SPSS for cleaning and correction.

The second phase, involving the semi-structured interviews, generated rich data that were transcribed,
coded, and categorized. Thematic analysis was chosen for identifying, analyzing, and reporting
patterns in the data on account of the flexibility of this approach (Reicher & Taylor, 2005). As Braun
and Clarke (2006) have observed, thematic analysis can provide a rich, detailed, and complex account
of the data that are guided by key ideas and perspectives (Gibbs, 2007; Kelle, 1997).

Results and Discussion

Research Question 1: Do students join the language mentoring program in order to improve their
overall performance in classes taught in their second language?

The most popular response given by the participants in both the questionnaire and interviews when
they were asked why they had joined the mentoring program was to “work closely with a mentor,” as
can be seen in Table 1 below.

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Table 1: Summary of the Results for Research Question 1

Additionally, as can be seen in Table 1, 22 participants assigned this item a 7 or 8 on the 8-point scale.
Because the mentors are teachers in the university’s English Language Centre (ELC), students viewed
the mentors as language experts who could help them with their university studies, their ELC courses
and their general proficiency. Related to this point was the students’ incentive to prepare for academic
courses and assessments. The items listed in Table 1 were also rated very highly by the mentees as
reasons for joining the program.

The interview data corroborated the findings from the questionnaire. First year students indicated that
they felt anxious about the language demands of university classes. In the words of one of them,
Kelvin:

You need to write a lot of business proposals or academic writing. Sometimes you find that
your English level cannot meet the requirements of the subject. Then you take so much time
with the dictionary or in the class and you find you cannot understand some readings in a class.

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Kelvin’s concern about English proficiency was echoed by many of the interviewees, who indicated
that they were struggling to cope with the use of the English language as the academic lingua franca
at the university. Seven of the interviewees referred specifically to their need for support with the
English Language Centre’s subjects as a reason for joining the mentoring program. First-year students
at the university are required to take a general English course for academic purposes that some
interviewees found challenging. Unsurprisingly given the students’ focus on academic performance,
the findings from the questionnaire suggested that they were more focused on formal or academic
English than on informal or social English (though both were frequently cited as motivations for taking
part in the program). Thus, the mentoring program thus appealed to students as an informal way to
enhance their formal academic skills.

The need to develop speaking skills was identified in the interviews as another important reason for
joining the mentoring program. As discussed, the program offered students the opportunity to practice
speaking in small group contexts that they found less intimidating than the large and more impersonal
lectures. The ELC classes, which usually included around 20 students, could also be an intimidating
environment for less confident users of English. One participant, Alex, observed that Excel@English
allowed him to

Have an extra chance to communicate and, uh, practice—practice oral English.

Giving presentations is a common form of assessment in both English classes and discipline subjects
at the university. While the students were not necessarily graded on their English in discipline subjects,
it was still necessary for them to present and express their ideas clearly and confidently in the language.
These presentations were a great source of anxiety for many of the students who took part in the study,
as Kelvin made clear:

Because I think the main reason for this is that like I hope I can improve my English level,
especially for speaking. Sometimes I'm too nervous to give a presentation.

Two interviewees reported International English Language Testing System (IELTS) preparation as
their reason for joining the program. Although IELTS was not a requirement for students in their first
year, it became increasingly important for them in subsequent years in regard to job placement and
further education. Another participant, Isaac, stated that he was
149
 intending more to go for IELTS. So we ask our mentor, specifically, to provide us with IELTS
oral tasks.

Research Question 2: How helpful was the mentoring program in terms of fulfilling students’
language needs?
Overall, the participants reported that their expectations were met in many respects and that the
program generally fostered a positive learning experience for them as mentees. These results are
reported in Table 4; the results indicate that, in several respects, the program was more helpful than
they had expected it to be.

Table 2: Summary of the Results for Research Question 2

Looking at the results in detail, 12 participants initially chose “preparing for academic courses” as their
main reason for joining the program, and 15 chose preparation as the area in which they had been most
helped by the program. Thus more students found that the program helped them to prepare for courses
than had expected it would. An even greater difference was found for the item “practice
informal/social English,” with 8 more students rating this item as helpful in their mentoring experience
150
than those for whom it was a significant motivation for joining the program. It is possible that the
participants, though they were, as discussed, offered a choice of mentoring styles when they joined the
program, did not fully appreciate fully the relatively informal nature of the mentoring relationship, in
which they were encouraged to use English in a conversational manner.

A number of participants indicated that “preparing for assessments” was an important consideration
for them when joining the program, but a smaller number reported having been helped in this regard.
This result may be attributable to the fact that mentors and faculty at the language center in general
were restricted in terms of the type of feedback that they could provide on English assessments;
specifically, while they were permitted to answer questions about writing assignments and to guide
students to develop certain areas of a script, they were not to proofread or correct errors on assessments.
This restriction may have confused mentees, who may have expected that the mentors would correct
their work. It is therefore important to make clear to prospective mentees that the aim of this and
similar mentoring programs is to offer opportunities to practice English and to develop strategies for
learning rather than to ensure that their assessments are free of mistakes. Mentoring programs are
intended to build independent learning skills (Brodeur et al., 2017) that can enhance students’
academic performance in the long run.

The Excel@English Scheme was designed to develop independent learning skills through language
learning strategies. Six respondents gave gaining language learning tips the lowest rating of 1 out of
8, and a further 12 rated it at 2 or 3. These findings indicate that, for a significant number of the
participants, the mentoring program seems not to have been effective in developing language learning
strategies, perhaps owing to differences in individual mentoring styles or group dynamics or to
inadequacies in the learning resources made available to the mentors.

The data from the questionnaire also showed a higher response rate for the item “connect with other
mentees” but a lower response rate for “work closely with a mentor.” Students may have expected
their mentors to exercise complete control over the mentoring relationship because of their authority
as English teachers in the university language center. However, though the students had the option of
selecting a “directed” mentoring style, the program scheduled mentees and mentors to meet in the
context of small groups in order to encourage students to learn from each other and to make the
relationship between mentor and mentee less hierarchical. Moreover, mentees benefited from

151
watching their peers deal with similar language problems. Three respondents mentioned this benefit
specifically, two of them noted this idea as follows:

I can learn—still learn some things during—from other mentees.

I think, actually, that all of the attributes are quite important, such as talking to foreigners and
self-study. Actually, I think EES—this program does provide you some opportunities to learn
from different students and the mentor.

Interviewees mentioned other benefits of the program as well. Most of them indicated satisfaction
with the learner-directedness and flexibility of the mentoring. They stressed the importance of being
able to discuss their weaknesses in English during mentoring sessions and to choose their time slots,
the focus, and the materials involved in the mentoring. In part because the program could be
customized in these ways, they considered mentoring an effective aid to learning English. Thus, while
their other courses were driven by learning outcomes, mentoring offered them opportunities to address
specific language issues. As Jennifer noted,

EES is a bit better [than language courses] because you have more freedom so you can choose
what you want to develop.

Confidence is another area in which mentoring can have a positive impact, and eight of the
interviewees indicated that this was the case with regard to using English. These students affirmed
that they felt more comfortable chatting with international students and lecturers in English after
having participated in the mentoring program. In the words of Kelvin,

And you hear the other student [laughs] speaking English. So then you feel so confident.

That is, the experience of watching other mentees in his group speaking English gave Kelvin greater
confidence in his conversational English skills.

Nine of the interviewees indicated that the mentoring program had helped to improve their use of
English. Three of them referred specifically to academic writing and another three to spoken English.

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Thus the program assisted them in refining their academic presentations and writing, learning new
referencing styles, using words in practical contexts, and generally gaining greater exposure to English.

Lastly, five interviewees stated that mentoring stimulated their interest in learning English, more so
than had been the case with their English Language Centre’s subjects. According to Alvin,

So it definitely enhanced my interest in learning English. . . EES motivates me to improve my

English.

The relatively closer relationship between mentees and mentors than between students and teachers,
coupled with the student-led focus of mentoring, are likely explanations for this finding.

Conclusions
In this study, the student participants were found to have joined the mentoring program in order to
work closely with a mentor who could help them with courses and assignments. Many of these
students felt they were struggling to cope with the demands of an English-medium university and
especially the required English courses. Perceiving weaknesses in their speaking and writing abilities,
they were eager to improve in these areas; class presentations in English were especially daunting for
them. The participants generally reported that the mentorship program had enhanced their language
skills, though their experiences were not always consistent with their expectations. Thus, they received
less direct feedback on their university assignments than they had hoped for but still felt that the
program had helped them to prepare for their academic coursework. Some mentees felt that the scheme
did not offer enough language learning tips. Overall, though, participants in the study appreciated the
informal nature of the mentoring sessions and the opportunities to develop conversational English.
They also valued the opportunities to learn from peers provided by the program, an aspect of
mentorship that few had considered very important at the outset.
One advantage of language-focused mentoring programs over academic English courses mentioned
by mentees was the flexibility and learner-directedness of the former. In a small group context, the
respondents indicated, they felt more comfortable addressing specific language problems than they
would have in a larger class setting. The data from the interviews demonstrated that this mentoring
program has the capacity to help students to develop confidence in language use. The effectiveness of
the program in this respect may have been due to the low-stakes environment and more personal nature
of mentorship and to the salutary effect of observing peers’ attempts to use English. One last finding
153
worthy of note was that some of the participants felt that their overall interest in English had been
stimulated by the program.

Pedagogical Implication
This study has explored the language-focused mentoring program Excel@English and reported
participants’ pre and post perceptions. Implications for developing mentoring schemes for
undergraduates will now be considered.
Firstly, the design of language-focused mentoring programs is crucial and this study showed that
mentees appreciated the informal nature of the program. Therefore, rather than being driven by specific
learning outcomes, these schemes can provide a space for flexible, informal, and learner directed
English experiences. Mentoring schemes can aim to stimulate participants’ positive relationships with
English, develop confidence and increase exposure to the language. This can be achieved through
casual learning experiences in a low-stakes environment. In this way, mentoring schemes can
complement class-based instruction and provide informal ways to develop formal language skills. In
terms of practical design, one consideration would be to provide mentoring groups, rather than one on
one mentoring as mentees in this research recalled that they gained greatly from their peers. Peer
support helps to increase the social atmosphere of the mentoring sessions and build confidence in the
mentees. Longer mentoring schemes, for example, over one semester or an entire academic year, may
help to develop dynamics within mentoring groups.
Secondly, the goals of the mentoring scheme should be communicated clearly to prospective recruits.
As reported in this study, participants did not know exactly what they were signing up for with many
expecting a more formal, teacher-led experience. Students should be aware of the informal nature of
the program and how it can complement the enhancement of their academic and social English. The
scheme should relay clear information that it is not intended to be a proofreading reading service. This
information can be given to students during online sign up, briefing sessions or at the first mentoring
session. It is also important to target hard to reach students when promoting the scheme. These students
may be disillusioned in their EAP classes, feel anxious about their English, and lack the confidence to
seek out further opportunities. In our case, we work with departments who have lower intake
requirements for English, and we promote the scheme within their discipline lectures. The EES
Scheme also has a referral service in which EAP teachers identify and direct weaker students to the
program early in the semester.

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Finally, mentor training is a vital element to the success of mentoring schemes. This should not be
conducted in a prescriptive way, as mentors have their own mentoring styles. Instead, mentors can be
encouraged to share their experiences, strategies and resources to build a cooperative mentoring
culture. This study showed that some learners did not feel that they had developed their independent
learning skills, which is one of the goals of the scheme. This is an opportunity to enhance expertise
and resources in this area which can be developed and shared among the mentors. Having a scheme
coordinator is important for facilitating these types of professional development experiences for
mentors. For the success of future mentoring programs, it is important that mentors know how to
facilitate and support the diverse needs of mentees. There is potential to explore the training and
experiences of mentors and the role they play in building relationships with the mentees. It would be
worthwhile exploring this in more detail as this study only considered mentoring for one academic
semester.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Acceptability of Philippine English Grammatical

and Lexical Items among Pre-service Teachers

Joel Mayo Torres

joel_torres@dlsu.edu.ph
Central Luzon State University/De La Salle University
Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija/Taft Avenue, Manila

Ericson Olario Alieto

ericsonalieto@gmail.com
Western Mindanao State University/De La Salle University
Normal Road, Baliwasan, Zamboanga City/Taft Avenue, Manila

Abstract

Using the Grammatical and Lexical Acceptability Questionnaire (GLAQ), the study aims to
contextualize the extent of acceptance of PhE grammatical and lexical items among 400 pre-service
basic education teachers in state universities in Luzon and Mindanao. It further determined the
difference on the participants’ extent of acceptability when grouped according to gender, type of high
school attended, educational program, and geographical location. Lastly, it explored relationship
between extent of PhE acceptability and number of languages spoken and perceived English
proficiency. Implications to the future of English pedagogy and pre-service teachers’ curriculum
were also discussed. The study poses a challenge among basic education teachers and language
practitioners as regards the measures to be done for PhE’s full acceptance in the academic context.

Keywords: World Englishes, Philippine English, acceptability, pre-service teachers

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1. Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

First articulated by Kachru (1991), the World Englishes (WE henceforth) model accounts for the way
language is now used by millions of multilinguals taking ownership of English and changing it to
reflect to their own lives. WE is described as “those indigenous, nativized varieties that have developed
around the world and that reflect the cultural and pragmatic norms of their speakers” (Kirkpatrick,
2007, p.3). The introduction of the WE paradigm to Filipino scholars and teachers of English in the
1990s presented an opportunity to finally resist the dominance of native speakers’ norms in the
classroom (Martin, 2014).
In 2004, Bautista and her team released in full form a number of Philippine International
Corpus of English (ICE) based research that focus on the features of PhE. The collaborative effort of
Bautista and her team enabled PhE to carve its niche both in the local and international milieu. Martin
(2014) claimed that all the 140 publications in Bautista’s 2011 bibliography of Philippine variety have
made valuable contributions in elevating PhE to legitimacy status and consequently promoting its
acceptability.
Indeed there is awareness to an extent of the existence of PhE; however, this does not
necessarily mean that acceptance comes along with it (Martin, 2014). This means that there is a need
to explore acceptance towards PhE. Exploration of attitude towards a language or its variety can
provide information essential for the prediction of linguistics scenes in areas where possible
competition exist (Wang & Ladegaard, 2008 cited in Alieto, 2018). Moreover, there is a dearth of
studies exploring PhE’s acceptability. PhE speakers, as the ones in contact with PhE, are always part
of the equation. Hence, to fully describe the PhE phenomenon, background of its speakers as well as
the context in which it is used is necessary for it is the users and its uses that determine PhE’s destiny
and the direction of its evolution, change and development.

Pre-service basic education teachers will soon be dealing with learners at the grassroots giving
them larger scope of influence considering the more number of learners they will cater. At this
juncture, it is important to note that teachers, as Stafford and Arias (2005) maintained, play an
important role in the learning process of the students. Moreover, Alieto (2018) claimed that pre-service
teachers soon become full-fledged teachers and form part of the basic implementers of policies;
therefore, they are to extent determiners of the language or its variety to be used in school. Along this
line, it is important to note that learners’ acceptance of language varieties is influenced by teachers’

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acceptance at great extent. Being so, teachers’ acceptance towards PhE is an essential factor to consider
and study in the continuous quest of promoting PhE’s acceptance. Hence, the present study aims to
determine the extent of acceptability of the different PhE’s grammatical and lexical items among pre-
service teachers. The present study further undertakes to determine the difference on the participants’
extent of acceptability when grouped according to gender, type of high school attended, educational
program, and geographical location. Lastly, it tries to establish relationship between extent of
acceptability and number of languages spoken and perceived English proficiency.

2. Review of Literature

2.1 Philippine English

PhE as a variety has been an accepted phenomenon. Maria Lourdes S. Bautista worked with Susan
Butler of Macquarie Dictionary in compiling a list of PhE words for inclusion in an Asian English
Dictionary and in 1992, aiming to form an Asian English database, Macquarie started collecting works
of fiction and non-fiction in English, and English language newspapers from Singapore, Malaysia,
Hongkong, and Philippines-Countries which have well-established varieties of English. PhE has
continuously flourished, giving birth to new words which are popularly and widely used by Filipinos
today (Bautista, 2000).

For McKaughan (1993), PhE has emerged as an autonomous variety of English with its own
self-contained system. This system is a system that is understood by many Filipinos, and has been used
by them in different language domains. Bolton (2008) added that since the post-independence era after
1946, PhE has become a WE variety associated with distinct accent, a localized vocabulary, and even
a body of creative writing by Filipino writers in English. Borlongan (2011) ardently said PhE does
follow AE being undeniably a child of its parent. But like a typical child of any parent, it has a life of
its own too.

2.2 Acceptability of Philippine English

Among the educated class, it is understood the PhE has found its place. Tupas (2006) describes the
educated class as having the economic and sociopolitical innerness of Standard Englishes within
communities of use in any part of the world. Borlongan (2011) is one of those who promotes the use
of PhE in classrooms. He argues for the retraining of teachers, the development of new instructional
materials based on the existing corpora of PhE, and the re-envisioning of instructional leadership in
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managing innovations in English language teaching in the Philippines. However, there are groups
who do not fully agree on the status of PhE as a Standard English and consider the former inferior to
the latter. For instance, Gonzalez (1997) commented that the AE is the one that is legitimate and
postulated as an ideal, while the PhE is deemed illegitimate although it can be considered in the local
standard.

In the 2006 study of Tupas, which involved seven graduate students pursuing Diploma in
Education and Master in Language Studies, it was found that they had consistently reported about the
difficulty of teaching AE because their pupils bring with them their own way of using the language
that is legitimate on political and cultural grounds. It was also revealed that the graduate students
perceived PhE as unideal model in the English language classroom.

Likewise, in a survey conducted to 185 public school teachers, Martin (2014) found a large
percentage of teachers who reported that their target model of teaching English was the AE. Using
triangulation, enabled the researcher to extract the reasons why teachers preferred the AE over PhE.
Universality, status, and market value of AE were the three cited reasons.

Bernardo and Madrunio (2015) administered Pedagogical Acceptability Test (PAT) to 42

English instructors and 242 students from 10 colleges and universities in Metro Manila to determine
which from the 35 forms of PhE grammatical variants are pedagogically acceptable and unacceptable.
Results show that 16 of the 35 PhE grammatical variants are pedagogically acceptable. After having
identified pedagogically acceptable PhE grammatical features, the two authors proposed the
endonormative pedagogic model reflective not only of AE norms but also of PhE grammatical and
lexical items.
Using the same instrument, Rosales and Bernardo (2017) determined the pedagogical
acceptability judgments of ESL teachers and learners of the 38 items constructed within acceptable
PhE conventions, which participants rated on a six-point Likert scale as to its acceptability. Results
show a slight disparity in the acceptability of some items that turns out to be more significant items
that were otherwise accepted.

2.3 Gender and Language Varieties Acceptability

Bilaniuk (2003) claimed that there is complexity in the construct of gender and is a significant factor
influencing language ideology. Moreover, Zhang (2011) claimed that gender as a factor influencing
language attitude has been established and proven true across communities and culture.

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 In the study of Milroy and Milroy (1998), preferentiality of women toward the prestigious norm
of language has been established. The same study claimed that while men prefer to learn the vernacular
norm the same attitude is hot held by women. Women prefer learning the prestigious norm.
Corroborating result was yielded by the study of Gürsoy (2013). In the study, gender difference on
language attitude was found as female trainees were significantly more positive toward English than
their male counterparts. Moreover, Vasko (2010) provides ample evidence that in sociolinguistic
studies including a sample of males and females belonging to the same social class, women usually
use fewer stigmatized and non-standard variants than males. For instance, Wolfram (1969) mentioned
that compared to men, women exhibit a greater sensitivity to socially evaluative linguistic feature.
Further, women are more conscious of the social significance of different linguistic features and use
more socially prestigious speech forms (Poussa 2001, 2006). Bilaniuk (2003) discussed that this
phenomenon of language attitude difference across gender can be explained by the social, cultural and
economic conditions women.

2.4 Geographical Location and Language Varieties Acceptability

Clark (2014) explored the variations in the use of English in creative spoken performance such as
comedy, drama and poetry, as well as in written texts such as letters to local newspapers, stories and
poem written in dialect. Results suggest that there is a growing and conscious use of English among
individuals that identify them with a particular place. They did this by incorporating into their speech
a set of linguistic features drawn from a particular variety of English. By using features in this way,
people emphasize their place of origin over other factors such as age, gender, social class and ethnicity.
The author concluded that place of origin is the most important identity factor.
Everett and Aronoff (2013) presented evidence that the geographic context in which a language
is spoken may directly impact its phonological form. They examined the geographic coordinates and
elevations of 567 language locations represented in a worldwide phonetic database. Languages with
phonemic ejective consonants were found to occur closer to uninhabitable regions of high elevation,
when contrasted to languages without this class of sounds. In addition, the mean and median elevations
of the locations of languages with ejectives were found to be comparatively high. The patterns
uncovered surface on all major world land masses, and are not the result of the influence of particular
language families. They reflect a significant and positive worldwide correlation between elevation and
the likelihood that a language employs ejective phonemes.

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3. Research Questions
The study aims to determine the acceptability of PhE grammatical and lexical items. Specifically, it
answers the following questions:
1. What is the extent of acceptance of the PhE grammatical and lexical items among the partcipants?
2. Is there a significant difference in the extent of acceptance of the PhE grammatical and lexical items
in terms of participants’:
2.1. gender;
2.2 educational program;
2.3 type of high school attended; and
2.4 geographical location?
3. Is there a significant correlation between the extent of acceptability of the PhE grammatical and
lexical items and participants’ number of languages spoken and self-perceived English proficiency?

4. Methodology
4.1 Research Design
The study utilized the cross-sectional descriptive, predictive nonexperiemental research
design. Johnson (2000 cited in Perez & Alieto, 2018) explained that a with the primary objective of
describing is determined to be descriptive. The current study involves no use treatment or intervention,
but intends simply to describe the variables involve, and no comparable groups were established hence
characterized as non-experimental.

4.2 Research Setting

Two state universities, one in the Luzon area and one in Mindanao, offering teacher education program
were taken as research sites of the study. In each institution, the teacher education program of Bachelor
of Elementary Education and Bachelor of Secondary education are offered, and the same programs are
accredited by the Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines
(AACUP) and Commission on Higher Education (CHED). Both of the teacher education programs in
each university are considered largest in respective areas in terms of the number of enrolees.

4.2 Participants
A total of 400 participants were enlisted for the purpose of this study. Equal appropriation of the
number of males and females as well as from the two educational programs (Bachelor of Elementary

163
Education and Bachelor Secondary Education) was done. Moreover, equal number of participants from
Luzon and Mindanao was observed.
Only 48 particpants attended private high schools constituting 12%, while 352 respondents
came from public high school making up the remaining 88% of the total participants. Effort was
exerted to equally represent the respondents according to type of high school attended. However, to
no avail was it possible. This means that most of the students who attend state universities taking
education degree programs come from the public school system.
For the number of languages spoken, 7 or 1.8% declared that they are monolinguals, 218 or
54.5% disclosed that they speak 2 languages, 139 or 34.8% stated that they speak 3 languages, 31 or
7.8% noted themselves to speak 4 languages, and only 5 or 1.3% determined themselves to speak 5
languages. With the given data, it can be assessed that majority of the respondents of the study speak
2 or 3 languages which constitute the majority which is 89.3% of the total number of pre-service
teacher participants.
In the case of the self-perceived English proficiency of the respondents, 91 or 22.8% claimed
that their proficiency in English is intermediate, 124 or 31% claimed to be at the level of upper
intermediate, 60 or 15% disclosed that their level of proficiency is advance, and 125 or 31% stated that
are proficient in English.
The choice on the number of participants was based on the guidelines suggested Fraenkel and
Wallen (2009) that the minimum number of participants needed for a representative sample for
descriptive studies is 100.
Inclusion criteria were set to determine qualified participants of the study. One, the participant
must be enrolled in either the elementary education or secondary education program. Those enrolled
in the Professional Education Certificate Program were excluded from participating. And two, the
participants should be at the final year of the educational program by the time this study was conducted.

4.3 Research Instrument

To determine the level of acceptability of PhE grammatical and lexical items, an acceptability
questionnaire was designed and administered to Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEEd) and
Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSEd) pre-service teachers in state universities in Luzon and
Mindanao. Since the only available instrument on PhE acceptability at the time the study was
conducted was the Pedagogical Acceptability Test (PAT) of Bernardo and Madrunio (2015), the
researchers designed an acceptability instrument for the present study. The researcher-made
instrument (Appendix A) was referred as Grammatical and Lexical Items Acceptability Questionnaire
164
(GLAQ). While PAT was designed to determine English teachers and college students’ judgments on
how much they accept a grammatical item that is illustrative of a specific grammar rule as a norm in
teaching and learning English grammar, the GLAQ determined pre-service teachers’ judgment on
identifying the acceptability levels of PhE grammatical and lexical items.

The instrument has two parts. In Part I, participants were requested to provide their personal
information. For the second part, the participants were requested to encircle the number that represents
the level of acceptability of the different grammatical and lexical items.

The second part of the instrument is composed of 44 grammatical and lexical items. Some of
the grammatical items were taken from the PAT. Of the six items in the category of prepositional
phrase, five items were adopted and one was added (i.e., based from). Other items lifted from PAT
include those that focus on the distinctive use of verbs, would, distinctive plural noun forms, use of
assure as intransitive verb, unidiomatic verb phrase, distinctive use of pronoun case, double
comparative and unpluralized semantically plural noun. Items such as with regard, wherein and get-
passive were also lifted from the PAT. The researchers added the following items in the instrument:
items on lexical creativity, which include lexical shift from noun to adjective, verb to noun, lexicalized
acronym and brand name, overgeneralization of affixation; item on split infinitive; items on the use
of fewer and lesser interchangeably; use of between instead of among, bring instead of take; item on
word choice and redundant expression; and the use of will as future marker in the first person. After
the items were finalized, the instrument was shown to two language specialists for review and
comments. The suggestions were incorporated. The instrument was pilot-tested to 30 non-
participants. Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.919 was obtained during the pilot-testing. The Cronbach’s Alpha
value obtained means that the instrument is reliable.

4.4 Procedure
Two letters of request were drafted and sent to the universities identified in this study. The letters were
addressed to the Deans of the College of Education to seek permission for the administration of the
instrument. Upon the approval of the request to administer the instrument to the students, the
researchers were asked to meet teachers assigned to serve as coordinator of the activity. The teacher-
coordinators provided the list of students qualified for the study. A day was scheduled for the
researchers to conduct and discuss the nature and purpose of the study. Letters of consent were
requested to be signed by those who were willing to participate. Afterwards, a date was scheduled for
the administration of the questionnaire. On the appointed day, before the administration of the
165
questionnaire the participants were once more informed that participation is voluntary and that it has
no merits whatsoever in their ratings. Further, the participants were assured of confidentiality of their
provided information. After answering, participants submitted at will. Upon handing over of the
instruments, the researchers checked for possible missed numbers, double entry and the like which
would disqualify inclusion for analyses.

4.5 Method of Analysis

The raw data generated from questionnaire were tabulated, organized, and analyzed. To determine the
extent of acceptability of the PhE lexical variance, descriptive statistic was performed. The mean
across items was computed, and the mean for each item in the questionnaire was also determined to
identify the lexical items with the highest and lowest ratings. Table 1 presents the interpretation of the
computed means.

Table 1.
Extent of Acceptability Scale

Range Interpretation

3.25 – 4.0 Accepted

2.5 – 3.24 Somehow Accepted

1.75 – 2.49 Somehow Unaccepted

1.0 – 1.74 Not Accepted

For the significant difference of the extent of acceptability across gender, educational attainment, type
of high school attended and geographical location, the mean score of the extent of acceptability of the
PhE lexical items was computed across the variables. T-test for independent sample was used to
determine the significant difference.

Moreover, to determine the significant relationships between the extent of acceptability of the
grammatical and lexical variance of PhE and the perceived language proficiency and number of
languages spoken, Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (Pearson r) was used.

166
5. Results and Discussion
5.1 Acceptability of PhE Grammatical and Lexical Items

Presented in Table 2 is the participants’ extent of acceptance of the PhE grammatical and lexical items.
As shown, the mean (M) of 2.83 with a standard deviation (SD) of 0.306 is interpreted as “somehow
accepted”. This means that the PhE lexical and grammatical items used in the study are considered
by the participants as correct and proper. This implies that the PhE as a variant is existent among the
participants. The results corroborate with that of Tupas (2006) reporting that PhE found its place
among the educated class such as the respondents of this present study.

Table 2.
Extent of PhE’s Grammatical and Lexical Items Acceptability

Variable Mean Standard Deviation Interpretation

Language Attitude 2.83 0.306 Somehow Accepted

However, it can be deduced from the computed mean that the extent of acceptability is not full. In
other words, the respondents do not consider those items to be completely appropriate. The data reveal
that the respondents remain to have certain reservations toward the use of PhE which may be
influenced by the perception of the existence of the so-called “Standard”. It can be further inferred
that the acceptance of variants remains limited. The respondents may have considered it to be
acceptable only in certain dimension such as informal discourses. This claim echoes the findings Tupas
(2006) and Martin (2014) who maintained that PhE remains to fall short from being an ideal model to
be taught inside the classrooms. Therefore, although the variant found its identity, it failed to secure
its place inside the classrooms which remain to favor the use and the teaching of the ‘Standards’ which
explains the ‘partial’ acceptance of the PhE among the pre-service teachers. PhE’s acceptability level
among pre-service teachers is still influenced by AE’s universality, status and marketability. This also
relates well with what Tupas (2006) said that WE, such as PhE, does not have enough symbolic power
vis-a-vis AE to enable teachers to legitimize their own work should they opt for it. WE may be
sociolinguistically legitimate but it remains politically unacceptable to most people and in some
discourse type, especially in the academic or formal written domain.

167
5.1.1 Items rated with highest extent of acceptability by the respondents
Table 3 provides the items with highest extent of acceptability. Five most accepted PhE lexical items
and phrases are presented.

Table 3.
PhE Lexical Items rated with highest acceptability

Item Numbers Mean Standard Interpretation

Deviation

11. Majority of students nowadays use online 3.48 0.749 Accepted

references to do their papers.

5. Students should learn to cope up with the 3.46 0.831 Accepted

challenges in their studies

23. The president assured free tuition to all State 3.40 0.811 Accepted
Universities and Colleges.

16. The number of students enrolled last term have 3.34 0.824 Accepted
increased.

6. Students have different views with regards 3.24 0.421 Somehow

success. Accepted

It can be gleaned from the table that Items 11 (M=3.48, SD=0.749), 5 (M =3.46, SD = 0.831), 23
(M=3.40, SD= 0.811), 16 (M=3.34, SD=0.824) and 6 (M=3.24, SD= 0.421) are rated highest.
However, from the five, only four (Items 11, 5, 23 and 16) were considered “accepted” by the
participants, while Item 6 was only considered as “somehow accepted”. In total, out of the 44 items
used in the questionnaire, only four (4) items, which constitute only 9 % of the number of PhE
grammatical and lexical items used in the study, were identified as “acceptable”. Further analysis of
the data reveals that 30 or 68.18% of the lexical variance were identified as “somehow acceptable”,
and 10 or 23 % of the items were considered as “somehow unacceptable”. There was no item identified
to be “unacceptable” by the respondents.

168
 The acceptability of omitting the indefinite article in a majority is also consistent with the
findings of Bernardo and Madrunio (2015) that the feature majority in PhE is more acceptable than its
AE counterpart. Bautista’s (2008) findings, in all the PhE studies she conducted that the use of articles
is problematic for ESL learners, could explain why this item has become acceptable for the
participants.
Another plausible explanation is that majority is seen as a plural noun, hence the use of the
article a before the word majority may seem awkward (Trenkic, 2009). Likewise, the acceptability of
the prepositional phrase (cope up with) also conforms with the findings of Bernardo and Madrunio
(2015) that it has already attained formal recognition and thus can be used not only in conversation but
also in lecture, presentation, speeches, meetings, and other formal spoken discourse as well as informal
written discourse such as blog, email, text and twitter.
The acceptability of assured can be explained by what Bautista (2008) referred to as the
simplification process. Likewise, the claim of Bernardo and Madrunio (2015) that assure is used as
an ambitransitive verb if the object (i.e. us) is often unnecessary, especially when it is obvious that us
is being talked about may also explain why it was considered acceptable by the participants.
The acceptable use of verbs that do not agree with subjects specifically for those sentences
beginning with expressions such as the number, a number, either and one-third still has to do with
the difficulty of locating or identifying the subjects in those sentences. For these two sentences - (1)
The number of students enrolled last term have increased and (2) A number of different teaching
techniques has emerged, one may consider students and a number as the subjects for each sentence
respectively.

5.1.2 Items rated with low acceptability among the participants

Presented in Table 4 are the five items that received the lowest acceptability level, which are rated by
the participants as ‘somehow not accepted’.

Table 4.
PhE Grammatical and Lexical items rated with lowest acceptability

Item Numbers Mean Standard Interpretation

Deviation

44. Last February 14, I did not do a valentiney 1.90 1.055 Somehow Not
undertaking. Accepted

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 33. When he heard the news, he OMGed. 1.90 0.984 Somehow Not
Accepted

34. The materials were already xeroxed 1.98 1.09 Somehow Not
yesterday. Accepted

31. He would unsmile whenever that person 1.99 0.967 Somehow Not
passes by. Accepted

32. I have PMed to you the proposal. 2.03 1.087 Somehow Not
Accepted

Items that participants rated ‘somehow not accepted’ are those relating to the overgeneralization on
the use of affixes like in unsmile (M=1.99, SD=0.967) and valentiney (M=1.90, SD=1.055), lexicalized
brand names as in xeroxed (M=1.98, SD=1.09) and lexicalized acronym as in OMGed (M=1.90,
SD=0.984) and PMed (M=2.03, SD=1.087).
This implies that future teachers do not accept those local varieties that extend vocabulary
range by modifying the beginning or ending or root words in order to alter their meaning as well items
that are products of lexical creativity such as lexicalized acronym and lexicalized brand name to create
and understand expression one has never heard before.

5.2 Difference in the extent of acceptance of the grammatical and lexical variance of PhE in terms of
gender, educational program, and geographical location
The mean score of the items was computed and compared across the identified four variables. T-test
for independent sample was used to determine the significant difference in the extent of acceptability
of the lexical and phrasal variants of PhE between males and females, respondents enrolled in the
BEEd and BSEd program, respondents who completed high school in public and private schools, and
those from Luzon and Mindanao.
The data in Table 5 reveal that for the variable gender, the males (M=2.839, SD=0.309) do not
significantly differ with the females (M=2.825, SD= 0.305) in the extent of acceptability of the PhE
grammatical and lexical items as evidenced by the p-value of 0.652, which is greater than 0.05. Despite
the fact that there was no significant difference in the level of acceptability between male and female
participants, it can be observed that males had slightly higher mean than females. The foregoing result
contradicts the findings of Labov (1972, 1990), Wolfram (1969) Milroy and Milroy (1998), Poussa
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(2001, 2006) and Vasko (2010) that women are more sensitive than men to the prestige pattern, and
women usually use fewer stigmatize and non-standard variants than males. One possible explanation
as regards the incongruence of the present finding with those of the earlier findings can be based on
what Gürsoy (2013) concluded that despite the fact that previous studies had established gender
difference on language use and attitude towards language, such finding is not universal. Hence, while
gender divide in acceptability of English variants exists in foreign setting it may not be true among
Filipinos especially the pre-service teachers. Meanwhile, the finding supports that of Armandi (2016)
that participants’ attitudes toward a language variety are not mainly affected by gender differences. It
can be deduced that through time, gender difference in language attitude and use has already been
eradicated and the notion that the ability to communicate in a more prestigious language variety gives
one an economic and professional advantage seems to be attractive to both genders nowadays. This
might also serve as their motivation to favor the prestigious variety than the less prestigious.

Table 5.
Difference in the Extent of Acceptability of PhE Grammatical and Lexical Items across variables

Dependent Variable Independent Variables Mean SD Sig (2-tailed)

Gender

Male 2.839 0.309 0.652

Extent of Acceptability
Female
of Philippine English
2.825 0.305

Educational Program

BEEd 2.90 0.275 0.000*

BSEd

2.76 0.321

Type of high School attended

Private 2.784 0.257 0.267

Public

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 2.837 0.313

Geographical Location

Luzon 2.813 0.308 0.263

Mindanao

2.847 0.305
N=400; *Significant at alpha=0.05

For the type of school attended, the data shows that participants, who studied in private schools
during their secondary education (M=2.784, SD=0.257), do not significantly differ with those who
came from public high schools (M=2.873, SD=0.313). The non-existence of significant difference
between those who came from private school and those who graduated from public school is evidenced
by the p-value = 0.652 which is greater than alpha=0.05. Although it can be noticed that generally, the
respondents who completed their secondary education from public schools have shown higher extent
of acceptability toward the PhE lexical items as compared to those who were enrolled in private
institutions during their high school. The higher mean on the level of acceptability of the participants,
who completed their secondary education in public schools as compared to those from private schools,
is attributed to the intensive English training and exposure students from private school gain, which
provides premium on the AE form, making the students from private institutions less accepting of the
variants. It is underscored that students in the private schools are not only taught and exposed but also
converse to each other in AE, which is not just a preferred variety, but the accepted one in the school
community. This notion is reflected in the discussion of Cruz (2014) that many parents send their
children to private schools because of their impression that private school students speak better English
than their public school counterparts. For him, there is a general impression among parents that Ateneo
and La Salle students speak better English than UP students (to take only the best private and public
schools) or that the students in the nearest private schools speak English to each other, unlike students
in the nearest public school who allegedly speak to each other in the local language. As such,
participants who graduated from public high school are more accepting of the PhE grammatical and
lexical items than those who graduated in private high schools.

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 Moreover, for the variable geographical location, the data provides that those who were from
Luzon (M=2.813, SD=0.308) exhibit a relatively similar acceptance of the lexical items with those
from Mindanao (M=2.847, SD=0.305). Further, as evidenced by the p-value = 0.263, there is no
significant difference in the acceptability of the lexical items between the respondents coming from
two varied geographical situation. The finding does not support that of Clark (2014), who noted that
there is a growing and conscious use of English among individuals that identify them with a particular
place. This means that in the context of English varieties acceptability such as PhE, regionalism seems
to have no influence. According to Danao (1996), regionalism is the idea or practice of dividing a
country into smaller units for political, economic, social, and cultural purposes.
From the four independent variables accounted in the study for significant difference, only the
variable educational program was found to have an influence on the extent of acceptability of the
lexical variance evidence by the p-value (0.000), which means that the educational program is a factor
influencing difference in the acceptability of PhE. The findings further reveal that those enrolled in the
BEEd program (M=2.90, SD=0.275) are more likely to accept the lexical items as compared to those
enrolled in the BSEd program (M=2.76, SD=0.321). This implies that future elementary school
teachers are more accepting of the nativized English varieties than the secondary school teachers. The
finding is to some extent a realization of what Delpit and Dowdy (2002) mentioned that elementary
teachers need to accept the language a child brings into the classroom as an expression of self since
rejecting one’s language can only make that person feel as if he is rejected.

5. 3 Relationship between the extent of acceptability of the PhE grammatical and lexical items and
the number of languages spoken and perceived English proficiency

The mean score for the extent of acceptability of PhE was computed. The relationship between the
extent of acceptability of PhE lexical and phrasal variance and the number of language spoken and
self-perceived English Proficiency were determined through the conduct of the statistical tool known
as Pearson Product Moment Coefficient or Pearson r.

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Table 6.
Correlation Matrix: Extent of Acceptability and number of languages spoken and self-perceived
English Proficiency

Variables p-values r-value

Extent of Acceptability of PE lexical Number of Languages Spoken 0.059 0.094

variance

Self-perceived English 0.123 0.089

Proficiency

The data shows (Table 6) that relationship between the variables extent of acceptability of PhE lexical
variance and number of language spoken and perceived English proficiency is not significant as
evidenced by the p value, 0.059 and 0.123, which are both greater than alpha = 0.05. This implies that
the number of languages spoken and the perceived English proficiency have no relationship to the
extent of acceptability of PhE lexical and grammatical variance. The non-existence of significant
relationship between the extent of acceptability and number of languages spoken does not support the
finding of Wetzl (2013) as regards the encouraging signs of a possible correlation between increased
knowledge about linguistic diversity and positive language attitudes.

4. Conclusion
The current study was set out primarily to determine the extent of acceptability of the lexical variance
of PhE among pre-service basic education teachers in Luzon and Mindanao. Based on the findings,
the following conclusions are made:
The most striking finding was that PhE is ‘accepted’, however its acceptance is only to a limited
extent. It can be inferred from the results that there seems to be a clear rationale as to why participants
tend to think and evaluate PhE grammatical and lexical items only as ‘somehow accepted’. Indeed,
AE is still the preferred model. This is not surprising as previous linguists (cf. Jenkins, 2011; Hundt,
Zipp & Hurber, 2015) have already established that placing the inner circle varieties above other
varieties is a very common mindset all over the world since many people have been taught in the AE
framework. Such exposure made people consider AE as the only correct one. However, it can be noted

174
that PhE variety is acknowledged and has already gained acceptability, which is a good initial
indication for its establishment as a legitimate variant.
Equally surprising is the finding that there is significant difference in the extent of acceptability
of PhE between would-be elementary and high school teachers. The would-be elementary teachers
were found to be more accepting of the PhE grammatical and lexical variants. This can be attributed
to their training and orientation directed towards leniency of language use as compared to the high
school teachers whose perspective and frame of thinking is correctness of usage.
Another astounding result is that contrary to established trend in literature that determined
women to be more favoring the prestigious and standard forms (e.g. Zhang, 2011; Gal, 1978; Wang &
Ladegaard, 2008; Bilaniuk, 2003; Milroy & Milroy, 1998) the male and female respondents in this
study had no significant difference in their extent of acceptability of PhE. Less surprising were the
non-significant difference in the extent of acceptability of PhE across the variables geographical
location and type of high school attended. Moreover, there exist no significant relationship between
the extent of acceptability and number of languages spoken and perceived English proficiency.

5. Pedagogical Implications
Culturally responsive pedagogy starts with the premise that race and class matter, and that some
schools fail to send diverse students signals that they belong. To make sure all students feel valued,
the theory goes, teachers need to be aware of their own biases, work deeply to understand their
individual learners, find ways to bring students' heritage and community into the classroom, and hold
all learners to a high academic standard (Quinton, 2013).
Teachers must distinguish between the informal and formal varieties in an objective way and
must accept the learners’ variety as a valid form of communication. The use of the different varieties
can be contrasted. As such, learners may become language detectives, noticing that most books and
tests use the more standard variety of the language, whereas plays, movies, oral discourse and even
dialogue in a work of fiction exhibit more informal forms of the language. Teachers must point out
that one variety is not better than the other but that one is more appropriate than the other depending
on the circumstances (Brisk, 2006).
Prospective basic education teachers should get a healthy dose of sociolinguistics,
transformational grammar, and the history of English. There is a need for them to study the emergence
of dialects and the social contexts from which language standards grow. They should also learn that
unlike the standard meter or kilogram, which can be measured with scientific precision; there is no
single, objective standard language which everybody speaks. They should be exposed to the concept
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of language contact, assimilation, and heritage language loss, and that when schools abandon bilingual
education and leave non-English-speaking students to sink or swim in English-only classes, most sink.
And last but not least, they should be taught to regard their students' language not as something to be
constantly graded and corrected, but as an energetic, highly-competent, continually-evolving form of
language, complete with its own standards and variants.
According to Barron (2009), perhaps the most significant grammar lesson to learn is to trust
our language instincts rather than mimicking some ideal which turns out to be a moving target. We
need to finally abandon the eighteenth-century prescriptions behind and aim for language that is simply
good enough to do the job of expressing whatever it is we need to say. And when we study language,
we should study what it is, not what someone thinks it should be.

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 Appendix A. Research Instrument

Part I. Demographic Profile

Directions: Please check to which applies to you. Please make sure to leave no item unanswered.
Program you belong to: ____BEEd or ____BSEd Gender: ___Male or ___Female High

School Attended: ____Private or ____Public Location: __Luzon or __Mindanao

Number of languages spoken: ___ (Please write in numeral)

Perceived English Language Proficiency:

__Intermediate __Upper Intermediate __Advanced __Proficient

Part II. Extent of Acceptability: The items given below are lexical/grammatical items which are
italicized and bold for easy reference. Please rate the extent of acceptability for each item. Four choices
are provided for each item, to wit: 1 – unaccepted; 2- somehow unaccepted; 3- somehow accepted;
and 4 – accepted. Simply encircle the number of choice.

Grammatical/Lexical Items
1. Failure to return borrowed books from the library on time can result to fines and 1 2 3 4
other penalties.
2. Many classic movies are based from popular novels. 1 2 3 4
3. My perspective is sometimes different for your perspective. 1 2 3 4
4. During quizzes, students are asked to fill the blanks. 1 2 3 4
5. Students should learn to cope up with the challenges in their studies. 1 2 3 4
6. Students have different views with regards success. 1 2 3 4
7. There are a number of organizations wherein students can join. 1 2 3 4
8. It’s a more correct answer. 1 2 3 4
9. Students should get involved to extra-curricular activities. 1 2 3 4
10. The secretary attended the meeting in behalf of her boss. 1 2 3 4
11. Majority of students nowadays use online references to do their papers. 1 2 3 4
12. It must be enacted to a law whatever the political cost. 1 2 3 4
13. They left the Philippines before their children entered college 1 2 3 4
14. Students are required to attend the symposium which would be held in May. 1 2 3 4
15. The use of social media have been the most significant change in the last decade. 1 2 3 4
16. The number of students enrolled last term have increased. 1 2 3 4
17. A number of different teaching techniques has emerged. 1 2 3 4
18. Either the students or the teacher know how to open the presentation. 1 2 3 4
19. One-third of the test items was asked during the review 1 2 3 4
20. This method, along with other methods, are applicable now. 1 2 3 4

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21. I, together with my other classmate, are attending the symposium. 1 2 3 4
22. That is one of the reason why I chose to pursue my education. 1 2 3 4
23. The president assured free tuition to all State Universities and Colleges. 1 2 3 4
24. In schools, students are taken cared of by their teachers. 1 2 3 4
25. Due to the requirements, me and my group mates are staying in the hostel over the 1 2 3 4
weekend.
26. In pair work, choose the person who you think you could work well with. 1 2 3 4
27. Since its very traffic in Metro Manila, I don’t want to study there. 1 2 3 4
28. Thank you for the invite you sent last week. 1 2 3 4
29. My teacher has that fascination in vintagy items. 1 2 3 4
30. Since I was not responding to his message, he unfriended me in Facebook. 1 2 3 4
31. He would unsmile whenever that person passes by. 1 2 3 4
32. I have PMed to you the proposal. 1 2 3 4
33. When he heard the news, he OMGed. 1 2 3 4
34. The materials were already xeroxed yesterday. 1 2 3 4
35. I will return next week. 1 2 3 4
36. The celebrant did not expect the kind of party given to him during his 45th birthday. 1 2 3 4
37. This is necessarily needed to pass the course. 1 2 3 4
38. The five members divided the task between themselves. 1 2 3 4
39. She tried to quickly finish the book before she had to leave. 1 2 3 4
40. I should drink fewer coffee. 1 2 3 4
41. My doctor advised me to have less doughnut for my immediate recovery. 1 2 3 4
42. He will bring his father to Tagaytay this summer. 1 2 3 4
43. Faculty members are engaged in their respective researches. 1 2 3 4
44. Last February 14, I did a not so valentiney undertaking. 1 2 3 4

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

The Effect of Blended Learning to the Students’ Achievement in English For Specific (ESP)
Class At Islamic Education Study Program In Indonesia

Husni Idris
Institut Agama Islam Negeri Manado

Mohamad S Rahman
Institut Agama Islam Negeri Manado

Masruddin
Institut Agama Islam Negeri Palopo

Bio profile:

Husni Idris is a senior lecturer at IAIN Manado, North Sulawesi-Indonesia. His research interests
include Blended Learning and Teaching Technology. He has a Ph.D. in Educational Technology
from Malang State University. He can be reached at husniidris@iain-manado.ac.id

Mohamad S Rahman is a senior at IAIN Manado, North Sulawesi-Indonesia. His research

interests include Islamic Education. His research interests include Teaching Islamic Education.
He can be reached at syakurrahman@iain-manado.ac.id

Masruddin is a senior English lecturer at IAIN Palopo, South Sulawesi-Indonesia. His research
interests include English Teaching and Sociolinguistics. He has a Ph.D. in Linguistics at Hasanuddin
University, Makassar-Indonesia and currently teaching English Skills and sociolinguistics. He can
be reached at anthosmithstain@ yahoo.com.

Abstract

Blended learning is trusted to improve students’ understanding o f learning E n gl i sh fo r

S pe ci fi c P u rp os e . The application of offline and online activities is expected to give a better
outcome than traditional face-to-face activities. This research presents how blended learning was

182
 applied in an ESP class of Islamic Education Study Program and whether it significantly improved
students’ achievement after the treatment. The participants involved in this research were 25
students of the second-semester students of the Islamic Education Study Program State Islamic
Institute of Palopo, Indonesia. pPre-Experimental research was conducted by comparing the
means of the participants’ scores in both pre-test and post-test. The analysis shows that there was a
significant improvement, proven by the paired t-test analysis. The p-value 0.00 was less than alpha
0.05. This research concluded that blended learning was effective to assist the students to learn
English for Specific Purpose at the Islamic Education Study Program. To strengthen the findings,
this research also involved pre-questionnaire and post-questionnaire to understand students’
responses to the use of blended learning. nAt the end of the semester, most students found that
online activities help them comprehend and practice the materials. Students’ reflective journals also
revealed that blended learning was able to improve their understanding and interest in learning
English for Specific Purpose at the Islamic Education Study Program.

Keywords: blended learning; ESP Class; pre-experimental research

Introduction

Students of English for Specific Purpose (ESP) class in Islamic Education Study Program at
State Islamic Institute (IAIN) Palopo - Indonesia are demanded to be able to understand and
communicate in English. In fact, there are still many students have low skills and low motivation in
English. It happens since they are still rarely practice and lack of vocabulary in English. In addition,
they have no many chances to use and exposure their practice in English. Furthermore, the available
materials for students of Islamic Education Study Program at IAIN Palopo are still in only offline
form. They need to have more motivated teaching materials and teaching process in their English
Specific Purpose (ESP) in order to support their career in the future. One of the ways to solve the
students’ problem is through blended learning.
Blended learning is trusted to improve students’ competence in learning. Pravingwong (2018)
states that students who are learning through blended learning instruction perform higher progress.
This approach can be described as a collaboration of a face-to-face classroom component with online
instruction (Osguthorpe & Graham, 2003). The employment of offline and online program is expected
to have a better outcome than the traditional face-to-face programs. It should be accepted that today’s
generation is familiar with technology; hence they are categorized as the net generation. In addition,
one of the advantages of having online files is that students can find out the files they have and read e-
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books, as an instance, more flexible in time and space. It is, then, inevitable that the learning and
teaching process should provide online materials and exercises to engage the students' contexts.
Some researchers have shown their argument that the teaching of ESP should suitable with
the target learners’ needs (Masruddin, 2018, Saragih, 2014, Gatehouse, 2001; Hutchinson & Waters,
1987). This research is trying to examine the effectiveness of Blended Learning in developing
students’ competence in an ESP class namely in Islamic education study program at IAIN Palopo,
Indonesia. The Blended learning in this ESP class is created based on the target learners’ needs. The
Blended Learning program is expected to be able to be suitable to the students’ need at Islamic
education study program. ESP program has to be developed since the significance of the language
courses with specific contents, language skills, motivations, and processes are mixed into specialized
courses.

The researcher expects that the result of this research can be a helpful contribution for the
English teachers to develop their strategies in teaching in an ESP class of Islamic Education Study
Program and its effectiveness in improving students’ achievement after the treatment. The research is
limited to the use and the effectiveness of using blended learning in an ESP class of Islamic Education
Study Program.
Blended learning prepares approaches to give solution one of the main duties of modern
traditional education: the application and development of each student’s potential abilities. Based on
the blended learning concept, it is possibly assumed that the introduction of this form of training to
teaching practice can develop the efficiency of the educational process in a changing paradigm of
advance modern education. This idea is based on an analysis of Russian and foreign experts’ works
on blended learning (Bersin, 2004; Mokhova, 2005; Kapustin,2007; Picciano & Dziuban, 2007;
Sharma & Barett, 2007; Nazarenko & Sizykh,2009; Matukhin et al., 2014; Veledinskaya & Dorofeeva,
2014).

Literature Review
Sharma (2010:456) has defined blended learning as the integrated collaboration of modern
learning with web-based online approaches and traditional learning process which is related to the
classroom face-to-face language classes. Furthermore, blended learning can also be described as a
collaboration of technologies or a collaboration of multiple methodologies.
Thorne (2003) states that blended learning as the evolution in our learning program which is
most logical and natural. It offers an elegant solution to the challenges of supporting learning and
development to the individual’s needs. By saying those words he endorsed and joined most of the
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 researchers who considered blended learning as one of the efficient tools that technology has
brought, as well as stating that it is a good alternative solution which is suitable to various levels
of knowledge.

Blended learning is much related to media and technology. It is defined as a comprehensive

concept which combines various approaches supporting the traditional one. However, blending a
classroom needs to have a face-to-face (FTF) system in order to keep matching with the traditional
system of education (Macdonald.2008).

Western Sydney University gives a general description for Blended Learning by defining it as a
strategic and systematic approach that collaborate various types of learning by using the convenient
ICT’s to consolidate the best of all aspects which consists of face-to-face (FTF) and online
interactions in learning. (University of Western Sydney.2013).

Rooney (2003) has described a clear definition that is cited by Bonk, C. J. & Graham in their
book “The Handbook of Blended Learning “, he stated that: “In 2003, the American Society for
Training and Development described blended learning as one of the top ten trends to emerge in the
knowledge delivery industry”.

Another view definition by Motterram & Sharma (2009) which was cited by Zhao (2013),
stated that: “Despite continuing scholarly arguments over its definition and form, most recently
it has come to signify, specifically, the continued use of technology and face-to-face (FTF)
methods in teaching and learning”, it is to show that Blended Learning cannot stand for one
definition agreed upon; Furthermore, the continued improvement of technology in education, that
ensures supporting the complexity of presenting and designing lectures, may prepare new
aspects, techniques and challenges to change the overall view of Blended Learning.

The Internet gives a variety of ways for language learners to involve in communicative
activities. Due to developed chances apart from reading and writing online speaking and listening
activities can be included (Chinnery, 2010). The application of computers in the foreign language
classroom has totally affected how teachers teach and students learn, and continuing improvement in
the Internet technology will most likely continue to affect the profession of teaching languages. In
order to support online teaching successfully, some requirements must be fulfilled, such as chances
for learners to involve and negotiate to mean, communicate in the target language, be engaged in
authentic tasks, work in a good environment without stress or anxiety, and teachers have to give
feedback to learners on their success and achievements (Egbert, Chao, and Hanson-Smith, 1999:4).

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By applying these principles to online speaking and listening interaction activities, the new
technologies have become the main tools for enhancing students’ second language learning and
acquisition.
Related to learning outcomes, BL has been proven to reduce drop-out rates, improve exam pass
rates, and develop student achievement. For example, López-Pérez, Pérez-López, and Rodríguez-
Ariza (2011) examined the use of BL with 985 first-year university students in a general accounting
course at the University of Grenada. They found that by using various kinds of online materials and
exercises to consolidate the content of the FTF lessons, including online evaluations, student drop-out
rates were reduced and exam pass rates increased. Students have improved their final' achievement
while the teacher’ involvement has achieved an excellent degree during the learning process. Finally,
students experienced that the BL environment contributed to a high degree of utility and improved
their motivation and satisfaction. These findings were stated by Vaughan (2010) who conducted a case
study with 70 participants which compared an experimental psycholinguistics course before and after
its redesign that focused on alignment of learning outcomes, assessment activities and the use of
technology. This course was included in an institutional initiative to shift teaching and learning from
a passive learning approach to a more involved and collaborative one through the use of BL. The
redesigned course saw student satisfaction raise from 50% to 75% while retention increased and the
class grade average improved substantially. (Jacob, Larsen, Jacob, & Larsen, 2012)
Several studies also show how student’s interest, satisfaction, and motivation can improve as
a result of using a Blended Learning environment. An example of one such research is Collopy and
Arnold (2009) who evaluated the work of 80 undergraduate teacher candidates who involved in
modules delivered in one of three ways: online only, partially blended and fully blended. Their results
showed that learners in the two types of blended classes found “significantly greater feelings of ability
and comfort in putting what they learned into practice” (Collopy & Arnold, 2009, p. 97) and were
more satisfied with how their group work teams functioned compared to the online-only group.
Amaral and Shank (2010) prove that blended learning has shown a positive contribution to the
preparation of the classroom. Their study involved 450 students, evaluated and the redesign of an
introductory college chemistry course. The redesign is called the ANGEL (A New Global Environment
for Learning) LMS and used detailed study guides for the students to use the course’s online and paper-
based materials most effectively. This support to better student understanding of course content and
an improvement in student preparedness for class. dynamics and intellectual interaction. Their aim
was to assess the effect of BL on individual student interest using a blend of online and FTF
discussions. While they found that there was no statistically significant difference in individual interest
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between students doing online and FTF discussions, they did observe that students were more eager to
involve in textual dialogue and had greater participation in online discussions. They concluded that
online discussions supported further individual student assimilation, reflection, and critical thinking.
(Jacob et al., 2012)
Hughes (2007) has evaluated by testing and measuring the effectiveness of Blended Learning
on learner’s extent of retaining and supporting through an experiment where the face-to-face time was
decreased, unlike tutor support which was increased. The results indicated that whenever students got
prepared and encouraged through Blended Learning, it will certainly increase each course’s level of
retaining as well as being helpful for instructors and time management.
In order to describe the students’ satisfaction and achievement, Melton et.al (2009) conducted a
study where a quasi-experiment was designed to measure the students’ course grades, satisfaction, and
teacher evaluation, however students taught in blended classroom have shown much satisfaction,
unlike traditional ones, even though pre and post-test grades haven’t witnessed a significant
difference.

A survey conducted by Woltering et.al (2009) to compare traditional and blended problem-
based learning, which involved eight categories; The results showed that motivation, satisfaction, and
subjectivity in learning have been varied among these categories. Consequently, blended problem-
based learning was useful and has increased the students’ motivation, satisfaction, and subjective
learning.

Historically, learning has been a mixture of distance (distributed) learning tech-nologies and face-
to-face (FTF) instruction. For example, the invention of the printing press in the 15th Century enabled
the blending of FTF, teacher-led instruction with reading homework. Likewise, the 20th Century saw
the development of audio recordings, television transmissions, online text-based databases, and
discussion boards, just to name a few, which "imaginative educators, with the assistance of technical
experts, have found ways to exploit and combine (or blend)…to meet their learning objectives"
(Hoffman, 2006). Graham (2006) goes on to point out that historically, "distributed, "distributed
learning environments placed emphasis on learner-material interactions, while face-to-face learning
environments tended to place priority on the human-human interaction" (p. 5). The reason for this is
that existing technology did not allow for high-quality synchronous interaction in the distance learning
environment. However, "the widespread adoption and availability of digital learning technologies have
led to development levels of integration of computer-mediated instructional elements into the
traditional face-to-face learning experience" (p. 7). Thus, it may be fair to argue that the upsurge of

187
interest in blended learning within the past decade, as evidenced by the volume of publications within
this period, came about due to the increased capabilities of modern computers. This is also clearly
described in Graham’s (2006) definition of BL, which he sees as a mixture of face-to-face (FTF) and
computer-mediated instruction. (Jacob et al., 2012)

Methodology

This study applied pre-experimental research. It aimed at finding out the effectiveness of
Blended Learning in teaching ESP material for Indonesian EFL students. The treatment applied in
this research is blended learning, which involved students’ activities outside the classroom by using
computer and internet. Experimental research is one kind of correlation (associational) research as it
aims to test a relationship between or among variables and to make predictions, which are dependent
on the outcome of a strong relationship between or among variables (Mackey & Gass, 2005, p. 145).

In this research, the researcher used overflow model offered by Bersin (2004) Learning
management system (LMS), Moodle. It was chosen because it prepares good online course
management (Thorne, 2003). The researcher applied the blended learning conducted treatments in
six meetings. In order to find out the influence of blended learning in ESP class, this research applied
pre-experimental research.

In measuring the individual students’ competence nat the beginning and the end of the
treatment, the researcher conducted pre-test and post-test. The instruments that had been used in this
research were: writing, reading, speaking test through an interview, and listening. The speaking test
was given to measure the students’ ability in speaking. Then, in comparing the means of the group’s
scores, a paired t-test was applied. T-test aims at knowing whether the means of the two groups are
significantly different from one another. It also describes the relationship between the treatment group
and its outcomes after experiencing particular treatment, i.e. blended learning (Burns, 2010, p. 13).

The participants involved in this research were 25 students of the second-semester students of the
Islamic Education Study Program State Islamic Institute of Palopo, Indonesia. In Addition to
comparing the students’ scores in pre-test and post-test, this research also used another instrument,
questionnaire. The pre-questionnaire and post-questionnaire were also distributed to the students. The
questionnaire shared used Lickert scale in which the students had to choose the options “strongly
disagree”, “disagree”, “neutral”, “agree” and “strongly agree”. The questions distributed in the
questionnaire were taken from Grugrovic’s previous study (2011) as follows:

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 I like to work on online activities in my ESP class

I prefer to work on online activities for homework

Working on online activities helps me with practicing English

I can see the connection between online activities and activities done in class

The last instrument used in this research was the students’ reflective journal. The employment
of this instrument aims at knowing how the students experience the treatment. Journal writing
supports the students to e x p r e s s their interests, thinking and curiosity students’ impression on
the treatment, blended learning. The reflective journal was submitted in Moodle after the given
treatment.

Findings

The result of the research shows that there is an improvement in students' achievement ability
after the treatments by using blended learning. There are 4 aspects that have been evaluated in
students speaking namely grammar, listening, writing and speaking.

Table 1. Students’ mean score of speaking achievement in Pretest and Posttest

Pre-test 59.12
Post-test 80.64

Table 1 shows that the students’ achievements in English test in ESP have been improved. The
students can increase their achievement in the post-test. Furthermore, the hypothesis of the research
was tested using SPSS 20. In this case, the researcher used t-test (testing of significance) for paired
sample t-test, that is, a test to know the significant difference between the result of students' mean
score in pretest and posttest. Assuming that the level of significance = 0.05, the only thing
which is needed; the degree of freedom (df) = N – 1, where df = 24, then the t-test is presented in
the following table.

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 Table 2. The Probability Value of T-Test of the Students’ Achievement

Variable P-Value (α)

X2 – X1 0.00 0.05

From the analysis, the researcher concludes that there was a significant difference between
pretest and posttest in teaching ESP for Islamic Education Study Program students by using blended
learning. In other words, using blended learning in teaching ESP could be used to increase the
students’ grammar, listening, writing and speaking skill related to Islamic education matters.

The result of statistical analysis for a level of significance 0, 05 with the degree of freedom (df)
N-1, where (N) = 25, df = 24. The probability value was smaller than α (0.00<0.05). It indicated that
the alternative hypothesis (H1) was accepted and the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected. It means that
Blended Learning is effective in increasing the English ability of students at IAIN Palopo.

In addition, the next bar chart shows the comparison between the students’ achievement in
four skills in English namely dimensions of reading fluency before and after the treatments.

7
6
5
4
Pre Test
3
Post Test
2
1
0 Post Test
Grammar Pre Test
Speaking
Reading
Listening

Figure 1: Students’ scores in pre-test and post-test

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 From the previous chart, it can be seen that there was a significant difference between students'
score in pre-test and post-test. The students' score in post-test was higher than their score in the pre-
test. The students’ grammar score in pretest achieved only 4.3, speaking the students achieved 2.4,
reading the students achieved 3.3 and the students’ listening score in pretest only achieved 4.0.
However, in The students’ grammar score in pretest achieved only 7.3, speaking the students
achieved 7.3, reading the students achieved 6.3 and the students’ listening score in pretest only
achieved 5.0.. in rate. It means that there was an improvement of students’ score from pre-test to
post-test after learning ESP by using blended learning.

Based on the result of this study, the researcher proves that teaching ESP material through
blended learning is effective. This finding supports the previous researchers, such as Kesta and Harb
(2013), they found that blended learning can increase the students' self-learning and students'
achievement. Then, Godwin-Jones (2011) also states that Blended Learning can develop students'
autonomous learning. In addition, Pravingwong (2018) states that students who are learning with
blended learning instruction perform higher progress. Furthermore, Alkathnai (2016) states that using
technology as a tool in the classroom can help a learner to work systematically by themselves or with
their classmates. In addition, Liu (2013) found that modern technology can increase the students'
ability within a very short time and it can be an effective way to promote learner autonomy and
effective learning strategy. Furthermore, the application of technology use in learning a language can
increase a learner‘s achievement and increase their learning efficiency in language learning (Chen &
Chung, 2008; Lin, 2010).

Amaral and Shank (2010) BL led to better student understanding of course content and an
increase in student preparedness for class. López-Pérez, Pérez-López, and Rodríguez-Ariza (2011)
They found that by using various kinds of online materials and exercises to consolidate the content of
the FTF lessons, including online evaluations, student drop-out rates were reduced and exam pass rates
increased. Students’ final grades also improved while the teacher achieved a greater degree of
involvement with the students in the learning process. Vaughan (2010) the use of BL. Can increase the
students’ satisfaction increase from 50% to 75% while retention improved and the class grade average
increased substantially.

The students’ involvement during the treatment proves that they are placed in a suitable
environment which can influence their motivation. Motivation is an important contribution to
learning success since the students can control their learning processes (Orhan, 2007, p. 391). The
191
 motivation is shown by their participation in the given assignments. The students have become
autonomous as they have a duty to complete the assignment. They consciously participate in the tasks
in blended learning class to achieve their goal. This research found that most of the participants have
been in self-regulated learning. Self-regulated active and conscious control of the learners’ activity in
terms of metacognition, motivation, and behavior individually and socially (Dettori, 2007).

This also in line with what is explained by Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000) states the
roles of technology in five ways, namely: (1) being able to bring the real-world settings into the
classroom. (2) providing the scaffolding that allows learners to participate in complex cognitive tasks.
(3) increasing chances to receive sophisticated and individualized feedback. (4) building communities
of interaction among teachers, students, parents, and other interested. (5) expanding supports for
teacher development.

Furthermore, it was mentioned previously that in this research the researcher using the group
work as a way to conduct the learning process, the result of this research is supported by the argument
that have been previously revealed by McDonough and Shaw (2003) who explained that some
advantages of group work, there are as follows: (1) Group work provides students to work
correspondently. (2) Group work encourages the student to share ideas and exchange information. (3)
The different tasks can be assigned to different groups. (5) Group work makes each student has
proportionally more chance to speak and therefore to be involved in language use. (6) Group work can
promote a positive atmosphere in the classroom (7) Group work can be seen as very interesting to
teach and provide the students' creativity.

Students’ Responses in the Questionnaires

The questionnaires were given both in the beginning and at the end of the ESP classroom. It
aims at finding out how the students express their experience in ESP with blended learning class.
Similar to comparing the students’ achievement in the pre-test and post-test, there are also differences
in the students’ responses in ESP blended learning class.

Table 3. Students’ Responses in the Questionnaires

No SDA DA N A SA
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
1 0% 0% 2% 1% 60% 32% 30% 45% 8% 22%
2 0% 0% 6% 2% 30% 10% 35% 53% 29% 35%
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 3 0% 0% 3% 0% 25% 20% 40% 42% 32% 40%
4 0% 0% 2% 0% 40% 27% 40% 38% 8% 35%

The first statement to respond in the questionnaire is “I like to work on online activities to
improve my English skill”. In the pre-questionnaire, most of the students choose “neutral”, presented
in 60%. On the other hand, in the post-questionnaire, there are 45% of the students choose “agree”.
This finding reveals that after experiencing a blended learning class, the students’ learning style
changes. Seen from the option “agree”, there is a 15% increase in those who enjoye online activities
to improve their English skill. The number is satisfying as the students show their interest in the class.

The result of the questionnaire suggests that students can find the advantage of being involved
in the blended learning environment as they can develop their autonomy. By practicing online,e
students can save time and be motivated (Keshta & Harb,2013). The students have found their
motivation to achieve the goal in class. The positive outcomes shown by the students cannot be
separated from their engagement in the learning environment. It is undeniable that computer and
internet become the students’ part of life. Consequently, students’ positive effect on learning outcomes
is reflected after they experience a blended learning class (Moreno, 2012).

The second statement in the questionnaire is “I prefer to work on online activities for
homework”. At the beginning of the E S P c l a s s r o o m , there were 30% of the students choosing
“neutral”, whereas of the ESP Class, there were 53% of the students choosing “agree” and there were
35% of the students choosing “ strongly agree”. The dominating students who choose the option also
change. nAt the beginning of the ESP Class, most of the students do not show exact interest to work
online activities for their homework. However, at the end of the semester, the majority of the students
like the online activities for their homework. It shows that the students enjoy their learning process.

Since the students found their motivation in learning, students become f a m i l i a r to use
internet and computer to do their homework. Students have made their learning styles suitable for
their life. Their ability to finish their work outside the classroom describes their autonomy. Students
have improved their methods in order to achieve their individual learning (Godwin-Jones, 2011). The
goal they set to learn English is enhanced by practicing individually outside the classroom. Their
autonomy is represented through their position, time and place in which they are doing the
assignments which refer to the atmosphere different from the classroom (Ayan, 2015).

193
 The third statement in the questionnaire is “Working on online activities helps me with
practicing English”. At the beginning of the E S P c l a s s r o o m , there were 25% of the students
choosing “neutral”, whereas of the ESP Class, there were 42% of the students choosing “agree” and
there were 40% of the students choosing “ strongly agree”. The dominating students who choose the
option also change. nAt the beginning of the ESP Class, most of the students do not show exact
interest to work online activities for their practicing. However, at the end of the semester, the majority
of the students like the online activities for their practicing. It shows that the students enjoy their
learning process.

The result of the questionnaire indicates that students have a positive thought to blended
learning. This case cannot be separated from the importance of communication teacher and students
(Ayan, 2015) when introducing the blended learning in class. Despite the lack of facilities faced by
the students, the teacher provided online materials and assignments on the website provided by the
university. Thus, students have more access to be involved in a blended learning environment.

In the pre-questionnaire, many of the students choose “neutral”, presented in 40%. On the
other hand, in the post-questionnaire, there are only 27 % of the students choose “neutral”. Most of
the students tend to choose to agree and strongly agree. This finding reveals that after experiencing a
blended learning class, the students’ learning style changes. Seen from the option “agree” and
“strongly agree”, there is 73% totally those who enjoy the online activities to improve their English
skill. The number is satisfying as the students show their interest in the class. This finding shows that
students still can see the connection between activities done in class and the online one. Before
attending the blended learning class, some students already practice online themselves. It is good that,
as digital natives, the students should to use the online materials autonomously. The ease of
browsing online materials gives them a lot of opportunities to develop their competencies.

Students’ Reflective Journal

From the activity, the students are assigned to write their opinions related to the activities offered
in the LMS. Below are some examples of students’ reflection.

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 I get the video and the hand out before class therefore so that I can read and learn it before
it is taught in the class. I also can watch the videos to make me understand and remember the
materials.

In the videos, it is explained clearly about the grammar point, speaking activities, reading task
and listening activities. ttells the materials in a simple way, and it only gives the important points
about the target skills.

The use of videos always helps me in understanding more about the four skills lesson. They are
very helpful.

I can improve my understanding of material since I can read more and more the explanation
before the ESP class.

Every student can find more benefits from videos.

Observing the students’ language choice, the reflective journal shows that the students show
positive responses to the use of blended learning in ESP class. The verbs such as learn, help, and
improve infer that the students conduct particular actions in their learning process. The given materials
provided online are proven to motivate the students to exercise their grammar skill. The actions done
by the students affect their cognition shown by the verbs understand and remember. Moreover, the
use of also displays a clear relation between the students’ regular activities in the LMS and their
understanding of the materials. The previous conclusion is also strengthened by the students’ results
in the post-test.

The second activity is giving online assignments. The given assignments vary: writing report
on video, explaining video for speaking, reading based on video and filling in the blanks, uploading a
single file, and taking multiple choice assignments. Those assignments were given at the end of each
topic discussned. To motivate the students’ regularity of online practices, the assignments weigh the
same as the test scores. that strategy, the students are motivated to access the LMS regularly. In
doing the assignments, the students also owed to discuss the assignments ithrhough the assignments
scores are given individually.

I think it is enjoyable and good for us as the student because it makes us active learn by ourselves
the skills such as speaking, reading, listening and writing of the ESP program.

It is very helpful using videos and online assignment in ESP knowledge.

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 I can understand the materials well through online and video materials

It's very awesome and helpful because we don't have to study just from the lecturer in class,
but because it's online assignments we can access it wherever we want.

The online material is an effective way to give us more times to learn.

The students’ language choice in the above journals shows that the assignments. The previous
fact is proven by the use such as good, enjoyable, active, awesome, helpful, and useful. Those
adjectives reveal that the students show their interest and excitement when they are given online
assignments. Besides showing their interest, students show their appreciation by the verb help and the
adverb efficiently. The students’ reflective journal also emphasizes the students’ responses in the
questionnaires. The elaboration presented in the above paragraphs infers that the participants can
improve their understanding in ESP class by means of blended learning. The uploaded videos in the
LMS are useful to improve the students’ understanding of the materials. To increase their participation
and learning comprehension, the videos which are is also effective to apply. In line with Wright’s
research, the videos should be preceded by pre-online-lesson and class explanation. Post-online-lesson
is also necessary to follow up with the students’ understanding. By doing so, teachers have more times
to clarify and to discuss students’ questions about the learning materials (Wright,2017).

Conclusion

Blended learning is effective to improve students' understanding of learning English for

Specific Purpose. The employment of offline and online activities can give a better outcome than
traditional face-to-face activities. Blended learning is suitable to implement in courses related to
language skills. The regular activities given online are proven to students exercise their understanding
of the given materials, seen from the results in both pre-test and post-test. There is also consistency
between the students’ achievement in the post-test with the students’ completion of the online
assignments. The exposures are given in the LMS to motivate the students to practice their English
ability. Moreover, the uploaded videos also become another learning resource for the students.
Referring to the students’ reflective journals, students show their appreciation for blended learning by
choosing positive adjectives in their journals. On the other hand, the use of verbs in the journal also
reveals the students’ practice and access to online activities. This article suggests that applied in other
courses related to language skills. Thorough interview and a wider survey are also needed to enrich
the present findings. The use of discourse analysis is highly suggested material
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Pedagogical Implication

Based on the result of this research, it is shown that blended learning seems to provide many benefits
not only for students but also to teachers. The blended learning can cover the limitations of
conventional classroom instruction such as a lecture. Blended learning can facilitate the development
of learning outcomes, access flexibility, a sense of community, the effective use of resources, and
student satisfaction. It is also can give immediate and targeted feedback to all students, rather than
just the ones actively participating in class. Furthermore, blended learning can increase student
involvement with material by providing students with more control over their learning experience,
students may have better integrate the new knowledge with existing knowledge, thus supporting with
the comprehensive learning. In addition, blended learning can enhance the student learning outcomes,
greater flexibility for students and teachers, improved autonomy, reflection, and research skills,
reduced student withdrawal rate, ability to foster a professional learning environment and potential
cost and resource savings.

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classroom. Oxford: Macmillan Educat
Sharma, P. Blended Learning. ELT Journal Volume 64/4 October 2010. Pp. 456-458.
Thorne, K. (2003). Blended learning: How to integrate online and traditional learning.
Kogan Page. London: UK.
Woltering, V., Herrler, A., Spitzer, K., Spreckelsen C. (2009). Blended learning positively affects
students’ satisfaction and the role of the tutor in the problem- based learning process: Results
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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

The Efficacy of Pre-Service Teacher Training Camp in Developing Students’ English

Teaching Skills at English Education Study program in Indonesia

Masruddin
anthosmithstain@yahoo.com
Institut Agama Islam Negeri Palopo

Alex Sander
Institut Agama Islam Negeri Palopo, Indonesia
Alexsander.sakaria@gmail.com

Bio profile:

Masruddin is a lecturer at IAIN Palopo. He earned his Doctoral degree in Linguistics at Hasanuddin
University, Makassar, Indonesia in 2011. He followed Sandwich Program at Griffith University,
Brisbanne, Queensland, Australia in 2008. He is interested in English Teaching and Sociolinguistics
field. ORCiD ID is https://orchid.org/0000-0002-0393-8892. He can be contacted at
anthosmithstain@yahoo.com.

Alex Sander is a student at the English Study Program IAIN Palopo. He is interested in English
Teaching and culture field. He can be contacted at Alexsander.sakaria@gmail.com

Abstract

This research was aimed at finding out the efficacy of Pre-service English Teacher Training Camp
program in developing students' skills in teaching English as a Foreign Language. This research was
conducted at the English education study program of Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Palopo, an
Indonesian University. The total number of samples was 15 students. This research used a pre-
experimental method with pre-test and post-test design. The pre-test through a microteaching practice
was given to find out the basic ability of the students in teaching and the post-test given to find out
200
the students' improvement in teaching after giving the treatment through Pre-service English Teacher
Training Camp. The Camp was conducted in 10 days with lesson teaching models, plans to make,
teaching practice and experts' feedback as main activities. The findings showed that Pre-service
English Teacher Training Camp is effective in developing students' skills in teaching English as a
Foreign Language. It is supported by the result of the significance test through SPSS 20 program that
the P was 0.00. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct the Pre-service English Teacher Training
Camp program in developing students' skills in teaching English as a Foreign Language at English
education study program in Indonesia.

Keywords: Pre-service English Teacher Training Camp program, Pre-service Indonesian

EFL students, English Teaching Skills

Introduction
In accordance with the vision and mission of Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Palopo,
alumni including prospective teachers, both in terms of quality and quantity should continue to receive
attention. This must be followed by various renewal efforts in various fields. The most important
improvement in the quality of prospective education personnel to be done is through the development
of competencies for prospective teachers graduating from IAIN Palopo. The development of teaching
skills is directed to support the competence of professional teacher candidates. Especially with the
enactment of Law No. 14 of 2005 about Teacher and Lecturer demand the teacher educated
qualification for the bachelors' degree (S1). In order to realize the professional teacher who has a
qualification in S1, the competence improvement program for the alumni of education and teaching
major is very important. Teaching skills (teaching skills) must be the compulsory provision of students
as prospective teachers to be better prepared and resilient in solving various educational problems.
This is also supported by Sevimel and Subasi (2018) who state that the factors that most influence the
professionalism of prospective teachers are practical teaching experiences.
The results of observations and interviews to the 6th semester of English students of IAIN
Palopo, they still face difficulties and challenges in teaching. They still lack teaching knowledge and
still have problems with teaching practice even though they have learned many lessons about teaching
in the previous semester. They still lack confidence and feel embarrassed about perfume as
professional teachers. They still need training and additional knowledge that focuses on teaching
English (Masruddin, 2018). There are some students who already have English competence but they

201
still really need more extra teaching skills. Based on the problems of prospective English language
students, one of the solutions offered is the English Teacher Camp Pre-service Program.
The teaching and learning process is the main learning activities carried out at school. The
teaching and learning process is a series of interactions between the teacher and students that take place
in an educational situation to achieve the learning objectives. The main role model in the learning
process is the teacher. In this case, the teacher functions are as teaching and learning process manager,
acting as a facilitator, good learning materials developer, and improve students' ability to listen to the
lessons and master the educational goals that they must achieve.
The teacher has a very important role in determining the quality of learning. Therefore, the
teacher must be able to master the teaching skills. The teaching basic skill is tactics or methods that
teachers do in delivering learning activities to obtain optimal learning outcomes. Turney (1973) in
Majid (2013) mentioned 8 teaching basic skills, namely: questioning skills, strengthening skills,
teaching skills of small groups and individuals, explaining skills, opening and closing skills in learning,
skills in guiding small group discussions, classroom management skills, and skill to make variations.
Basic teaching skills according to Allen and Ryan (1969) in Remesh (2013) include tactics to open the
lessons, stimulus variations, questioning skills, cues, giving illustrations/examples, communication
skills, reinforcement and feedback, and strategies to close the learning process. The ability to develop
basic teaching skills is carried out starting from the initial activities (opening), initiation activities, to
the final activities (closing) of learning.
Teaching basic skills are needed to create an effective learning process. Effective teaching and
learning conditions are characterized by students' interest and attention in learning (Usman, 2010).
Having the ability to apply each type of teaching basic skills in professionally is not enough just to be
memorized. Each type of teaching a basic skill is an applicative ability that needs to be sharpened with
regular exercises through a controlled mechanism.
Training to master and improve basic teaching skills needs to be done by prospective teacher
students through an approach called "microteaching". In the microteaching process, students are
trained to develop certain teaching skills in a more specific and controlled (A. Pelberg, 1982) in
Rusman (2010) The implementation of microteaching is carried out on a simplified scale covering the
number of students, the time used, and the material presented.
Arsal (2014) states that microteaching is a quick and enjoyable training tool offering pre-
service teachers confidence, reinforcement, and feedback by giving them with chances to experiment
with small parts of what they may plan to teach. Similarly, Fernandez (2005) points out that
microteaching involves pre-service teachers in a cooperative program of lesson plans, application,
202
analysis, and revision. Furthermore, as indicated by Arends (2000), microteaching activities are useful
in reducing pre-service teachers' anxiety levels and increasing their professional competence to and
awareness about the teaching profession; in addition, microteaching can help them to learn how to
engage with students, have experience in assessment, integrate educational technologies into their
classes, and manage their classrooms successfully In addition, Ho Phuong Chi (2016) explains that in
order to create a professional teacher in teacher education, it is good chance to motivate them through
the teaching practicum.
It was found that microteaching activities gave their participants opportunities for self-
reflection. In another study dealing with the assessment dimension of the microteaching sessions,
Büyükkarcı (2014) came to the conclusion that the formative microteaching assessment reduced pre-
service teachers' anxiety, and augmented their professional development. Regarding the effectiveness
of microteaching videos on methodology courses, Savaş (2012) investigated the opinions of EFL
teacher candidates and revealed that microteaching videos supported their English competence and
their teaching ability. Ögeyik (2009), on the other hand, research the significances and drawbacks of
microteaching as perceived by prospective EFL teachers, and found that microteaching was commonly
trusted to be effective in relating to their self-confidence, professional development, self-assessment,
material development, and teaching competencies. She also found that microteaching supports
reflective practices among pre-service teachers.

There have been some researchers in other areas of EFL teacher education in the world. To
describe many research studies have stated the effectiveness of microteaching on English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) pre-service teachers' professional development both in Turkey (Kavanoz & Yüksel,
2010; Büyükkarcı, 2014; Savaş, 2012; Ögeyik, 2009) and in other EFL contexts (Ismail, 2011; He &
Yan, 2011; Elghotmy, 2012; Rozimela, 2013; Al- Humaidi & Abu-Rahmah, 2015; Ping, 2013). The
studies that have been done in Turkey, Kavanoz, and Yüksel (2010) analyze the effect of microteaching
use on pre-service EFL teachers. Their instruments to gather the data were interview guide, observation
sheet, self-analysis reports and peer-evaluation forms, Ismail (2011) research the opinions of pre-
service EFL teachers in the United Arab Emirates, and revealed that microteaching was deemed to be
beneficial for the improvement of their teaching strategies. Investigating the positive and negative
aspects of microteaching practices from the perspectives of Chinese pre-service EFL teachers, He and
Yan (2011) used reflective paper writing to collect data. They found that while microteaching was
beneficial for professional development, some of the participants felt that the created classroom
environment for the microteaching sessions was artificial.

203
 In Egypt, Elghotmy (2012) proved the views of pre-service EFL teachers and their instructors
about a microteaching course. The questionnaire, semi-structured in-depth interviews, and a reflective
journal were used to collect the data. The researcher concluded that some of the difficulties faced
during the course were modeling the skills, planning the lesson, micro teaching also giving and
receiving feedback. However, the course was found to be good in developing the teaching performance
of pre-service teachers.

In Indonesia, on the other hand, Rozimela (2013) tried to bring out the perceived strengths and
weaknesses of a microteaching course and the effects of reflective teaching on pre-service teachers'
pedagogical performance. The data collected through journals, observations, and interviews indicated
that the most problematic aspect of the course was confusion among participants pertaining to the
teaching practice. Also, the pre-service teachers need reflective teaching and journal keeping. More
recently, Al-Humaidi and Abu-Rahmah (2015) have used a microteaching model and evaluated its
effectiveness in the Omani EFL context. Reflective questions raised by peer students, self-assessment
forms, and the teacher’s feedback were used to collect the data. The model developed for the study
helped maximize the effectiveness of microteaching as their conclusion. In an experimental research
study involving a pre-test and post-test, a successful application of Microteaching in the Chinese EFL
teacher education context was described by Ping (2013). It was found in the study that microteaching
provides a powerful context for the development of teaching skills.

The formulation of the problem in this research was formulated in the form of questions, they
are: Is the Pre-service English Teacher Camp program effective in improving teaching skills of
prospective English teacher students at English study program of IAIN Palopo?. The purpose of this
study was to test the effectiveness of the English Teacher Camp Pre-service Program in improving the
teaching skills of prospective English teacher students through experiments.
Pre-service English Teacher Camp Program is a basic teaching skill development program for
prospective English Teachers and intended for students at English Study Program of IAIN Palopo who
are in their final semester and still in the process of completing a thesis proposal transitioning to
Teaching Practice at School and Community Service Program. This program is one of the efforts of
English Study Program to improve the quality of its graduates. This program involved lecturers and
graduates as mentors and facilitators. Students who involved in this program were given intensive
training with the main activities namely lesson teaching models, plans to make, teaching practice and
experts' feedback as main activities.

204
Methods
This research was conducted at the English Study Program, State Islamic Institute of Palopo.
This research was experimental research. It aimed at finding out the effectiveness of the Pre-service
English Teacher Training Camp program on the teaching skills of prospective English teachers. The
research subjects were students at the students in the academic year 2017/2018 which the total numbers
of participants are 15 people. The research was conducted for 10 days. The researcher applied pre-test,
treatments and post-test. The pre-test and post-test were done by observing and assessing teaching
skills of prospective English teacher before for pre-test and after the Pre-service English Teacher
Training Camp program for post-test.
In the first step of the Pre-Service English Teacher Training Camp program, the researcher observed
the students' ability in their microteaching by using the microteaching assessment rubric. The
assessment instruments that have been used in assessing the microteaching ability is divided into 5
main parts which are consisted of 22 items of evaluation as follows:

The rubric of microteaching assessment

3 = Exceed Expectations 2 = Meets Expectations 1 = Needs Improvement

Preparation

1) The teacher was well-prepared and organized. 3 2 1

Comments:

2) The prepared goals/objectives were apparent. 3 2 1

Comments:

Presentation

3) The material was explained in an understandable way. 3 2

Comments: 1

4) The lesson was smooth, sequenced, and logical 3 2 1

Comments:

5) The lesson was well-paced. 3 2 1

Comments:

205
 6) Directions were clear, concise, and students were able to 3 2 1
carry them
Comments:

7) The teacher answered the questions carefully and 3 2 1

satisfactorily.
Comments:

8) The teacher showed an interest in, and enthusiasm for, 3 2 1

the subject taught.
Comments:

9) The teacher demonstrated an understanding of the 3 2 1

concepts presented and provided accurate information.
Comments:

10) Applied appropriate principles of ESL/EFL learning 3 2 1

and teaching methodology
Comments:

Implementation

11) The teacher was able to adapt to unanticipated 3 2

situations. 1
.Comments:
12) The teacher moved around the class and made eye 3 2 1
contact with students
Comments:

13) The teacher positively reinforced the students. 3 2 1

Comments:

14) Examples and illustrations were used effectively. 3 2 1

Comments:

15) Instructional aids or resources materials were used 3 2 1

effectively
Comments:

206
Personal Characteristic

16) Patience in eliciting responses 3 2

.Comments: 1

17) Clarity, tone, and audibility of voice 3 2 1

Comments:

18) Personal appearance. 3 2 1

Comments:

19) Pronunciation, intonation, fluency, as well as 3 2 1

an appropriate and acceptable use of language.
Comments:

20) Communicates effectively in speech 3 2 1

Comments:

Preparation

21) The teacher was able to control and direct the class. 3 2 1
Comments:

22) The teacher was relaxed & matter-of-fact in voice & 3 2 1

manner.
Comments:

Furthermore, the treatment in this study was conducted for 10 days in the Pre-service English
Teacher Training Camp program. In the process of camp, there were some main daily activities from
morning up tonight, such as warming up, ice-breaking activities, teacher models by some graduates
and professional teachers, lesson plan activities, discussion and presentation of the planning for
teaching the specific skill, practicing, feedback, review of activities.
At the final stage of the study, the researcher conducted the last examinations as a post-test
for each student. The students again were asked to conduct microteaching for specific skills. An
independent test was conducted to find out the ability to teach students after participating in the Pre-
207
service English Teacher Training Camp program. The comparison data for the pre-test and the post-
test was used to test the hypothesis of the significant effect of the application of multi-discussion-
simulation methods and practice on the Pre-service English Teacher Training Camp program on the
teaching skills of prospective English teacher students. Observation data collection instruments
teaching skills after the Pre-service program English Teacher Training Camp will use the same rubric
as the rubric in the initial test.
The data were obtained in the form of quantitative data, which was then analyzed by paired-
sample t-test using SPSS 20. The result of the t-test was used to answer the hypothesis about the
effectiveness of the Pre-service English Teacher Training Camp program on teaching skills of Pre
Service English language teacher students.
The hypothesis of this study was:
1. Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference between the results of observations of
students' teaching skills before and after treatment through the Pre-service English Teacher Training
Camp in the English education program IAIN Palopo
2) Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference between the results of observations
of students' teaching skills before and after treatment through the Pre-service English Teacher Training
Camp in the IAIN Palopo English education program.
Criteria for Testing acceptance and rejection of hypotheses are:
H0> H1: Zero hypothesis is rejected
H0 <H1: Zero hypothesis is accepted

Results

The result of the research shows that there is an improvement of students’ ability in teaching
after the treatments through Pre-service English Teacher Training Camp program. There are 4 aspects
that have been evaluated in students’ teaching skill namely 1. Preparation, 2. Presentation 3.
Implementation/method, 4.Personal Characteristic, and 5. T-S Interaction

Table 1. Students’ mean score of teaching skills in Pretest and Posttest

Pre-test 30.60
Post-test 55.53

Table 1 shows that the students’ achievements in teaching skills have been improved. The
students can increase their achievement in the post-test. Furthermore, the hypothesis of the research

208
was tested using SPSS 20. In this case, the researcher used t-test (testing of significance) for paired
sample t-test, that is, a test to know the significant difference between the result of students' mean
score in pretest and posttest. Assuming that the level of significance = 0.05, the only thing which
is needed; the degree of freedom (df) = N – 1, where df = 15, than the t-test is presented in the
following table.

Table 2. The Probability Value of T-Test of the Students’ Achievement

Variable P-Value (α)

X2 – X1 0.00 0.05

From the analysis, the researcher concludes that there was a significant difference between
pretest and posttest in developing teaching skills through Pre-service English Teacher Training Camp
program. In other words, using the Pre-service English Teacher Training Camp program can develop
the teaching skills of students.

The result of statistical analysis for the level of significance 0, 05 with the degree of freedom
(df) N-1, where (N) = 25, df = 24. The probability value was smaller than α (0.00<0.05). It indicated
that the alternative hypothesis (H1) was accepted and the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected. It means
that the Language Experience Approach (LEA) effective in increasing reading fluency ability.

In addition, the next bar chart shows the comparison between the students’ achievement in five
dimensions of teaching skills before and after the treatments.

Figure 1: Students’ scores in pre-test and post-test

209
 From the previous chart, it can be seen that there was a significant difference between students'
score in pre-test and post-test. The students' score in post-test was higher than their score in the pre-
test. The students' teaching skills were increased significantly. In preparation from 41 into 84,
presentation skill raises from 139 becomes 302, implementation raises from 106 becomes 177,
personal characteristic raises from 114 becomes 202, Teacher-Student (T-S) interaction raises from
39 into 68. It means that there was an improvement of students’ score from pre-test to post-test after
following the training through Pre-service English Teacher Training Camp program.

Discussion

Based on the result of this study, the researcher proves that developing the teaching skills of students
through Pre-service English Teacher Training Camp program is effective. Based on the result of data
analysis, the researcher found out that The Pre Service English Teacher Training Camp is effective in
developing students' teaching skill at the sixth-semester students of IAIN Palopo especially in five
aspects of teaching skills. From the result data analysis, shows that the mean score of the student's
pretest was 30.60 and the mean score of posttest was 55.53. The standard deviation of pretest was 3.01
and the standard deviation of posttest was 2.85. It means that The Pre Service English Teacher Training
Camp is effective in enhancing the students’ teaching skills in Indonesia.

This also in line with what is explained by Sevimel & Subasi, (2018) state that English
teacher candidate needs much practice and experiences. Furthermore, it was mentioned previously
that training to master and improve basic teaching skills needs to be done by prospective teacher
students through an approach called "microteaching". In the microteaching process, students are
trained to develop certain teaching skills in a more specific and controlled (A. Pelberg, 1982) in
Rusman (2010). The implementation of microteaching is carried out on a simplified scale covering
the number of students, the time used, and the material presented.

In this research, the microteaching practice during the camp was beneficial since through the
self and peer evaluation forms, they could develop their critical thinking skills, discover their teaching
strengths and weaknesses, and reflect on the areas they need to improve. The finding of this research
is similar to the results of other studies concluding that such forms paving the way for reflective
practices not only raise Pre Service Teachers awareness of their strengths and weaknesses as a point
of departure for improvement, but also facilitate professional growth in the long run (Britton &
Anderson, 2010; Blank, 2009; Bailey, 2006; Richards & Lockhart, 1996). Microteaching is also
regarded as a means of pre-service teacher development believed to enhance Pre Service Teachers

210
students ' self-confidence and improve their instructional skills (Peker, 2009; Şen, 2009; Tsang &
Wong, 1996). Another important finding of the current study is that some Pre Service Teachers
students pointed out that they learned new activities from their friends, observed different classroom
management procedures, and improved their language skills (e.g., pronunciation). Also, some of them
claimed that they made progress in the following areas as a result of microteaching practices: lesson
planning, giving instruction, preparing materials, adjusting their voices in the classroom, error
correction, creative use of technology and time management. Similar benefits of the pre-service
teacher camp experience for the training of prospective EFL teachers were revealed in some other
studies carried out in Turkey (Ögeyik, 2009; Kavanoz & Yüksel, 2010).

In this research, the candidates of the teacher were trained with specific goals every day. The
facilitator has formatted some goals for each activity. This is in line with what expert said such as
Pelberg (1982) in Rusman (2010) that in the microteaching process, students are trained to develop
certain teaching skills in a more specific and controlled. The implementation of microteaching is
carried out on a simplified scale covering the number of students, the time used, and the material
presented.
Another thing that makes this research successfully conducted is the students were enjoyable
and they can reduce their anxiety in teaching. This fact is supported by Arsal (2014) who states that
microteaching is a quick and enjoyable training tool offering pre-service teachers confidence,
reinforcement, and feedback by giving them with chances to experiment witha small parts of what
they may plan to teach. Furthermore, as indicated by Arends (2000), microteaching activities are useful
in reducing pre-service teachers' anxiety levels and increasing their professional competence to and
awareness about the teaching profession; in addition, microteaching can help them to learn how to
engage with students, have experience in assessment, integrate educational technologies into their
classes, and manage their classrooms successfully. Then, Büyükkarcı (2014) came to the conclusion
that the formative microteaching assessment reduced pre-service teachers' anxiety, and augmented
their professional development. Regarding the effectiveness of microteaching videos on methodology
courses, Savaş (2012) investigated the opinions of EFL teacher candidates and revealed that
microteaching videos supported their English competence and their teaching ability
During this research, there are some weaknesses in teaching skills of the students have been
improvements such as they are still lack of teaching knowledge and still have problems with teaching
practice even though they have learned many lessons about teaching in the previous semester. They
still lack confidence and feel embarrassed about perfume as professional teachers. They still need
training and additional knowledge that focuses on teaching English. There are some students who
211
already have English competence but they still really need more extra teaching skills. This means that
the Pre-service English Teacher Camp Program has become the solution for creating a professional
teacher in the future. Related to this fact, Ho Phuong Chi (2016) explains that in order to create a
professional teacher in teacher education, it is good chance to motivate them through the teaching
practicum.
It was found that during the Pre-service English Teacher Camp Program activities gave the
participants opportunities for self- reflection. In another study dealing with the assessment dimension
of the microteaching sessions. Ögeyik (2009), on the other hand, research the significances and
drawbacks of microteaching as perceived by prospective EFL teachers, and found that microteaching
was commonly trusted to be effective in relating to their self-confidence, professional development,
self-assessment, material development, and teaching competencies. She also found that microteaching
supports reflective practices among pre-service teachers.

There have been some researchers in other areas of EFL teacher education in the world. To
describe many research studies have stated the effectiveness of microteaching on English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) pre-service teachers' professional development both in Turkey (Kavanoz & Yüksel,
2010; Büyükkarcı, 2014; Savaş, 2012; Ögeyik, 2009) and in other EFL contexts (Ismail, 2011; He &
Yan, 2011; Elghotmy, 2012; Rozimela, 2013; Al- Humaidi & Abu-Rahmah, 2015; Ping, 2013). The
studies that have been done in Turkey, Kavanoz, and Yüksel (2010) analyze the effect of microteaching
use on pre-service EFL teachers. Their instruments to gather the data were interview guide, observation
sheet, self-analysis reports and peer-evaluation forms, Ismail (2011) research the opinions of pre-
service EFL teachers in the United Arab Emirates, and revealed that microteaching was deemed to be
beneficial for the improvement of their teaching strategies. Investigating the positive and negative
aspects of microteaching practices from the perspectives of Chinese pre-service EFL teachers, He and
Yan (2011) used reflective paper writing to collect data. They found that while microteaching was
beneficial for professional development, some of the participants felt that the created classroom
environment for the microteaching sessions was artificial.

In Egypt, Elghotmy (2012) proved the views of pre-service EFL teachers and their instructors
about a microteaching course. The questionnaire, semi-structured in-depth interviews, and a reflective
journal were used to collect the data. The researcher concluded that some of the difficulties faced
during the course were modeling the skills, planning the lesson, micro teaching also giving and
receiving feedback. However, the course was found to be good in developing the teaching performance
of pre-service teachers. In Indonesia, on the other hand, Rozimela (2013) tried to bring out the

212
perceived strengths and weaknesses of a microteaching course and the effects of reflective teaching on
pre-service teachers' pedagogical performance. The data collected through journals, observations, and
interviews indicated that the most problematic aspect of the course was confusion among participants
pertaining to the teaching practice. Also, the pre-service teachers need reflective teaching and journal
keeping. More recently, Al-Humaidi and Abu-Rahmah (2015) have used a microteaching model and
evaluated its effectiveness in the Omani EFL context. Reflective questions raised by peer students,
self-assessment forms, and the teacher’s feedback were used to collect the data. The model developed
for the study helped maximize the effectiveness of microteaching as their conclusion.

In an experimental research study involving a pre-test and post-test, a successful application of

Microteaching in the Chinese EFL teacher education context was described by Ping (2013). It was found
in the study that microteaching provides a powerful context for the development of teaching skills.
However, similar to He and Yan (2011),

Conclusion

The Pre-Service English Teacher Training Camp program is effective in enhancing the
students’ teaching skills in Indonesia. It was proven by the data that there was a significant difference
between the students' mean score of pretest and posttest. In the pre-test, the students' mean score is
30.60 and the students’ score in posttest is 55.53. Moreover, it also can be seen by t-test of the
students’ reading fluency achievement was smaller than α = (0.00 < 0.05).

Pedagogical Implication

Based on the result of the research, it can be stated that the pre-service English teacher training
camp can be used to improve the teaching basic skill of the students. The students can learn how to
create an effective learning process. The candidate of teachers can create a good teaching process by
increasing their students' interest and attention in learning. In addition, the pre-service English teacher
training camp can sharpen the teaching skills of the candidate English teachers with regular exercises
through a controlled mechanism.
Furthermore, the pre the pre-service English teacher training camp program can develop the
pre-service teachers’ confidence through some chances to experiment with a small part of what they
may plan to teach. Then, the microteaching activities in the camp are useful in reducing pre-service

213
teachers' anxiety levels and developing their professional competence to and awareness about the
teaching profession; in addition, microteaching can help them to understand how to involve with
students, get experience in assessment, integrate educational technologies into their classes, and
manage their classrooms successfully.

References

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University. Studies in English Language Teaching, 3(1), 28-40.

Arends, R. I. (2000). Learning to Teach. Newyork: Mc Graw-Hill.

Arsal, Z. (2014). Microteaching and pre-service teachers’ sense of self-efficacy in teaching.

European Journal of Teacher Education, 37(4), 453-464.

Bailey, K. M. (2006). Language teacher supervision: A case-based approach. New York:

Cambridge University Press

Blank, A. (2009). Reflection and professional practice. In A. Atwal and M. Jones (Eds.),
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Britton, L. R., & Anderson, K. A. (2010). Peer coaching and pre-service teachers: Examining
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Büyükkarcı, K. (2014). Formative microteaching in teaching and foreign language anxiety.

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Pre-service Teachers of English in an EFL Teacher Preparation Programme:
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Fernandez, M. L. (2005). Learning through microteaching lesson study in teacher preparation.

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He, C., & Yan, C. (2011). Exploring the authenticity of microteaching in pre-service teacher
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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Gender-Fair Language Competence of Teacher Education Faculty

Beatriz G. Clemente, Phd

Cagayan State University, Philippines

Conchita M. Temporal, Phd

Cagayan State University, Philippines

Bio-Profiles:

Beatriz Guiquing-Clemente is an Associate Professor of Cagayan State University – College of

Teacher Education. She is a graduate of Doctor of Philosophy major in Development Education and
currently finishing Doctor of Philosophy in Language Education. She teaches both English and
Professional Education subjects. She can be reached at bethclemente@yahoo.com.

Conchita Malenab-Temporal is an Associate Professor of English at Cagayan State University-

College of Teacher Education. She is a Ph.D. degree holder in the field of Language Education. She
teaches both in the undergraduate and graduate programs of the University. She can be reached at
conchita_temporal@yahoo.com.

Abstract
Gender-fair language competence counts for the dynamic, responsible and sensitive eloquence
and sensible language proficiency of every social being. However, though there is sensitivity in the
use of language, sexism and gender discrimination are still perpetuated and reproduced which is
challenged by linguistic normative in gender language as critically experienced even in the workplace.
Hence, this study aimed to determine the gender-fair language competence of the Teacher Education
faculty through descriptive research design. The study employed complete enumeration of Teacher
Education faculty members of the college. Findings show that majority of the faculty members
manifest gender-fair language competence along sex roles, non-sexist terms in social context and in
identifying gender stereotype, except along formal register. Further, the faculty significantly did not
differ in their gender-fair language competence when grouped according to civil status, religion,
ethnicity, position or rank, college degree, sex and age. Thus, the University in coordination with
Gender and Development Office needs to reinforce the use of gender-fair language in the academe.
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Keywords: Competence, gender-fair language, stereotype, teacher education

Introduction
Language is dynamic. The changes and evolutions of language are integral components of
human civilizations across times and geography. A number of gurus and philosophers of the classical
yesteryears are known for their literary excerpts of hugely numerous genre and immensely thought-
provoking and exceptional styles in writing. Further, a countless number of speakers and
conversationalists are likewise heard of their eloquence in speaking their minds over social, economic,
political and cultural issues, concerns and problems across ages. In the midst of all of these writings
and expressions, there exist richly reflections about the life of great men and women in general and on
how well they are equal in rights and dignity. Men and women are relatively equal in rights,
opportunities and dignity as humans - whether rich or poor, educated or unschooled, young or old, in
whatever race, religion, cultural orientations, and affiliations; however, gender biases still exist. These
gender biases as advanced by Menegatti (2017) are seen in linguistic abstraction which is a subtle
resource used to represent women in less favorable way and thus to enact gender discrimination
without meaning to discriminate or even be aware that this linguistic behavior has discriminatory
results. Furthermore, with reference to characteristics during hiring of applicants, men are considered
dominant, more powerful and independent, while female are kind, less powerful and warm. Likewise,
according to Maera, et al. (2009) as cited by Megatti (2017), gender-bias exists in “gender-stereotypes”
wherein the unknown gender is usually addressed as “he”, “his” or “him”. Also, Stahlberg, et.al.,
(2007) asserted that masculine generics are semantically ambiguous and problematic since they can
refer to men only or to a group of men and women
In the global context, gender biases in language are exemplified in various ways. Studies
carried out in the USA (Schneider and Hacker, 1973 and Spender, 1985) demonstrate that when people
are asked to describe what they think or when they read the word ‘man’ used in a generic sense, they
tend to think male rather than female. As regards parallel terms, it is observed that university staff and
students speak and write in contexts of varying formality and make stylistic choices accordingly. The
conventional titles for women– Mrs and Miss– define women only in terms of their marital status.
Women are therefore identified in terms of their relationship to men, whereas men are hardly ever
described in terms of their relationship to women. Nevertheless, a woman has a preference for Miss or
Mrs.
These language differences and gender-biases in language are alternatively addressed by the
theory of normative linguistics as Silk (2015) posits: ‘language affords a variety of normative and
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evaluative resources for doing so’. One resource for this norm in language is through
linguistic prescription which attempts to lay down rules defining preferred or "correct" use of
language. Sometimes informed by linguistic purism, such normative practices may suggest that some
usages are incorrect, illogical, lack communicative effect, or are of low aesthetic value. Putting it in
context, it is standard practice to use Ms. when uncertain of what a woman prefers. Actually, Ms. is
the only term not linked to marital status and is now widely used by both single and married women.
With work-related gender language, there is a female term that can be used to refer to a woman by
adding a suffix to a masculine term, however, this does not make equality between a man and a woman
but making women feel all the more that men are superior than them. This derivation of female
correspondent from male is based on languages with grammatical gender, such as German, Italian, or
Spanish. It is asymmetrical in form as most nouns referred to female persons are composed by adding
a suffix to the corresponding masculine terms. In Italian essa is added to females while in English, ess
as in hostess and authoress, and this is added to masculine words to create the derived female
correspondent. Another is professoressa (female professor) from the masculine professor, or
studentessa (female student) from the masculine stedente. It is in this asymmetrical context that
Filipinos at times add a suffix to a masculine word to have the feminine correspondent. Examples of
these are the titles “Professor and Doctor”. “Profesor” in Filipino or Professor in English is used to
address a male educator while “Profesora” to a female educator. According to Markel, et. al. as cited
by Megatti, et. Al. (2017), this principle is likewise known as feminization in gender language. But
with the use of the English language particularly gender-inclusive language which does not prefer one
gender over the other (Beare, 2018), “Professor” is used to address both male and female educators,
while “Doctor” is meant to address both male and female medical doctors.
Other legal way of looking into gender biases in language and gender stereotypes is through
the International Human Rights Law which places a legal obligation on States to eliminate
discrimination against women and men in all areas of their lives. This obligation requires States to take
measures to address gender stereotypes both in public and private life as well as to refrain from
stereotyping. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(United Nations Human Rights, 2015) provides in its article 5 that, “State Parties shall take all
appropriate measures to modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a
view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customs and all other practices which are based
on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men
and women.” Other human rights treaties also require States Parties to address harmful stereotypes
and the practice of stereotyping. As regards stereotyping which is a social construct that describes
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generalized and fixed images of either a male or a female identity or of people belonging to a particular
group, the following may be certain features: sex, cultural orientations, religion, ethnicity, occupations,
personal, and others. Stereotypes may reflect elements of truth; they oversimplify and underestimate
individuals’ lives; these are often at the root of adverse treatment of oppressed groups that can result
subtle discrimination (Susan, 2015).
Addressing the issue of gender stereotype and sexist language which depict discrimination
against women in the Philippines is expressed in the Civil Service Commission with its Memorandum
Circular No. 12, s. 2005 (2014) which enjoins government officials and employees to use non-sexist
language in all its official documents, issuances and communications purposely to avoid implicit and
explicit discriminatory language against women and men. With this, there is a need to address the use
of biased language which includes expressions that demean or exclude people because of age, sex,
race, ethnicity, social class, or certain physical or mental traits; which insults the person or group to
which it is applied; and in denigrating others. The use of biased language will surely create division
and separation. Also, in using biased language about races and ethnic or cultural groups, speakers and
writers risk alienating members of those groups, thus undermining the communication and shared
understanding that the language should promote.
Generally, this study took the following as bases in determining the use of gender-fair language
among the teacher education faculty: The Civil Service Commission (CSC) Memorandum Circular
No. 12, s. 2005 (2014), Moffit (2014), the National Council of Teachers of English (2014), the Society
of Music Theory (2014), Linguistic Society of America (2014), the Dominance-Subjection Dichotomy
(Raful, 2014), and Politeness theory of Lakoff (2012). According to these sources, significant rules on
the use of non-sexist terms include: (1) eliminating the generic use of “he, his, or him” unless the
antecedent is obviously male, (2) eliminating the generic use of “man,” (3) eliminating sexism in
symbolic representations of gender in words, sentences, and text (4) eliminating sexual stereotyping
of roles, and (5) eliminating sexism when addressing persons formally.
Since there is a problem on the use of gender-fair language among the faculty in the University
as observed in the given activities and as expressed by them during their series of gender-sensitivity
trainings and seminars sponsored by the University Gender and Development Office, the researchers
who are at the same time proponents of the said seminars seriously considered conceptualizing a
research along this line.
Thus, this research was conceptually framed to determine the gender-fair language competence
of the College of Teacher Education faculty along formal register, sex-roles, non-sexist language in
context, and dominant impressions on gender stereotypes. It likewise uncovered the significant
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difference in the respondents’ gender-fair language competence when grouped according to some
select profile variables.

Objectives of the Study

Generally, this study aimed to determine the gender-fair language competence of teacher
education faculty. Specifically, it ascertained a description of their gender-fair language competence
along formal register, sex roles, and non-sexist language in context.

Methodology
Research Design
This study utilized the descriptive research design to determine the gender-fair language
competence of the College of Teacher Education faculty of Cagayan State University along formal
register, sex-roles, and non-sexist language in context.
Sampling and Participants
With total enumeration, the 58 participants were regular and part-time faculty members of the
College of Teacher Education of CSU for the School Year 2016-2017 teaching various disciplines
which include general education, field of specialization, and professional education.
Instrument
A self-made questionnaire, content-validated by experts and tried out to non-faculty-
respondents who were not regular part-time faculty, was patterned from the Civil Service Commission
GAD framework, the National Council of Teachers of English on Guidelines for Gender-Fair Use of
language, the Society for Music Theory on Non-Sexist Language, and the Linguistic Society of America
on guidelines on non-sexist language usage. It was used to elicit data and information covering the
gender-fair language competence of the teacher education faculty along three categories: (1)-formal
register, (2)-sex roles, and (3) nonsexist language in context. The faculty were instructed to choose the
grammatically correct and appropriately used gender-fair language from the four choices provided in
each item. The instrument underwent reliability test with the use of Cronbach Alpha and index of
0.819818 shows that the test is very good. This means that the internal consistency of the responses of
the faculty is very good. Category 1 has an index reliability of 0.918814 which is very good, while
category 2 and category 3 have 0.781836 and 0.758804 which are both described as good.
Collection of Data
The researchers wrote a letter of request to the University President for the administration of
the questionnaire to test the gender-fair language competence of the faculty. The approved letter was
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forwarded to the Dean of the College of Teacher Education to allow the researchers to personally float
the test to the faculty-respondents purposely to ensure 100% retrieval.
Analysis of Data
The gender-fair language competence of the faculty was assessed through correct responses of
the test administered using frequency and percentage, and with adjectival descriptions of Very
Competent (85% and above), Competent (75% - 84%), and Less Competent (below 75%), along data
covering gender-fair language competence in category 1-formal register, category 2-sex roles, and
category 3-nonsexist language in context. The test was treated with Cronbach Alpha because there
were four alternatives provided to choose from for the correct answer.

Results and Discussion

This section covers the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data and information
generated through the questionnaire. Specifically, it covers inquiries on the gender-fair language
competence along formal register, non-sexist terms on sex roles, non-sexist terms in context.

Gender-Fair Language Competence of the Faculty along Formal Register,

Non-sexist Terms on Sex Roles, and Non-sexist Language in Context

Table 1 shows the gender-fair language competence of the teacher education faculty along
formal register. It is gleaned from the table that from the 35 items of the 14 rules on gender-fair with
58 respondents, 56.9 percent or 33 are found competent in the use of gender-fair language while 41.4
percent or 24 are less competent, and only 1.7 percent or 1 is very competent. This reveals that most
of the faculty members are competent and consciously aware on the use of gender-fair language along
formal register, particularly on the rules on: substituting articles (a and the) for his and using who
instead of he; using one, we, or you; eliminating sexism in symbolic representations of gender in word,
sentences, and text by taking the context of the word, analyzing its meaning and eliminating sexism in
the concept; treating men and women in a parallel manner; and avoiding language that reinforces
stereotyping images. This finding counters that of Talosa and Temporal’s (2018) study where they
found out that pre-service teachers’ written discourses showed use of gendered generic words. The
pronouns he, his and him were used as referents to noun of no specific gender. Among the gendered
generic pronouns, his was found the most reoccurring sexist antecedent to the noun. The contradiction
may be explained by the knowledge level gained by the respondents in the present study as professional
teachers are expected to exhibit more awareness than do pre-service teachers.

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 One of the items that the faculty are found to be less competent in using gender-fair language
is on the rule of Eliminating sexism when addressing persons formally by using Ms instead of Mrs.;
Dr. instead of Dra. Appendix A shows that only 18% of the faculty got the answer correctly. The use
of Doctora which is a Filipino term is commonly used in conversations among Filipinos in addressing
a female doctor. This is accepted in addressing a female doctor in an informal gathering. However, to
observe gender-neutral especially with the use of the English language, Dra is not advisable. Instead,
the use of Dr. is encouraged especially on formal fora. This is supported by Beare (2018) who opined
that with the use of the English language particularly gender-inclusive language which does not prefer
one gender over the other “Professor” is used to address both male and female educators, while
“Doctor” is meant to address both male and female doctors.
Along this context, the findings on the elimination of sexism on titles infer that there is still a
need to make the faculty be aware on the” rules of the use of gender-fair language in formal register”
to be very competent in its use most especially the respondents are in the academe. Using gender-fair
language in the academe will certainly create much better working relationships and healthy social
interactions in any forms of conversations or communications. In this manner, the educators are guided
by standards and rules on the use of gender-fair language in their workplace, as stipulated for in the
Civil Service Commission Memorandum Circular No. 12, s. 2005.
Table 1: Gender-fair language competence of faculty along formal register.
Score Frequency/ Adjectival
(35) Percentage Description
(n=58)
30 – 35 1 Very Competent
(85% and above) (1.7%)
18 – 29 33 Competent
(75 - 84%) (56.9%)
1 – 17 24 Less Competent
(less than 75%) (41.4%)

Table 2 presents the gender-fair language competence of the respondents along non-sexist
terms on sex roles.
As shown on the table, around 58.6 percent or 34 of the 58 faculty members are competent on
the use of gender-fair language along sex roles, while 36.2 percent or 21 are very competent, and 5.2
percent or 93 are less competent. This reveals that most of the faculty members are competent in
choosing non-sexist terms with reference to roles and functions of both men and women in the society.
Appendix B of the non-sexist terms shows that around 90 percent and above of the faculty members

222
are familiar with the following non-sexist terms: Technicians (96.3%), Spokesperson (95%), Servers
(92.5%), Bar Staff and Firefighters (91.3%), and Police Officers (90%). The rest of the non-sexist
terms that around 50 percent or more of the faculty members are familiar with are: authors, human
resources, office staff, sculptor, legislators/lawmakers, chairperson, camera operators, councilors,
business executives, salesperson, poet and TV anchors, respectively. This implies that the faculty
members are consciously using appropriate non-sexist terms with reference to functions and roles in
the society.
On the other hand, the non-sexist terms that the respondents are not familiar with are Ushers
(16.3%) and Caretakers which is 33.8%. The word usher refers to a person (man or woman) who walks
before a person of rank, and caretaker refers to either man or woman who renders services with
diligence, love and patience. This implies that the faculty members are yet to be informed that these
are non-sexist terms especially these words are commonly used even in classroom settings.
Since it is part of teachers’ role to teach the students with appropriate use of language that will
bring about more humane understanding and better relationship, the teachers in their role modelling
take pride in using appropriate non-sexist terms during classroom intellectual discussions, and even in
their written activities and presentations as pointed out by the Linguistic Society of America (1969)
for Non-Sexist Usage and the Civil Service Commission Memorandum Circular No. 12, s. 2005.
Table 2. Gender-fair language competence of faculty along sex roles.
Score Frequency/ Adjectival
(20) Percentage Description
(n=58)
17 – 20 21 Very Competent
(85% and above) (36.2%)
11 – 16 34 Competent
(75 – 84%) (58.6%)
1 – 10 3 Less Competent
(less than 75%) (5.2%)

Table 3 presents the gender-fair language competence of the respondents along non-sexist
terms in context.
The faculty members carefully chose the appropriate gender-fair language that develops sense
of pride and not to demean a person regardless of gender, character traits, religion, cultural orientation,
education, and personal relations. This is shown in the table wherein around 44.8 percent or 26 of the
faculty members are competent in the use of gender-fair language in context, while around 15.5 percent
or 9 are very competent, and 39.7 percent or 23 are less competent. Appendix C shows the gender-
fair language used in context. These are ACADEMICALLY CHALLENGED (91.3%), which is a
223
more appropriate way to describe an academically struggling learner. This statement reveals sense of
respect by using kinder words to describe a person of no offense to academic weakness. Thus, the
faculty members rather choose to use academically challenged which is far better and more humane
words than to describe the struggling learners as dumb which is very demeaning. Another way to
express the use of gender-fair language is to use MODEST/DEMURE (78.8%) to describe the finest
ethics of a lady/woman for being prim and properly behaving in public. This is a way to raise the
dignity of a lady especially in public. On the other hand, the use of COURTEOUS/POLITE (73.8%)
to describe the ethical sensitivity manifested by a well-behaved man is highly regarded. This is also
one way to increase man’s self-esteem and favorable values.
In formal conversations, the finest manner to identify or address an unmarried female person is
LADY. In a wedding, say congratulations to the groom and best wishes to the bride. Never interchange
for it could be demeaning on the part of those who just made their vow as husband and wife. With
reference to the people in the countryside, it is better to use ECONOMICALLY MARGINALIZED
rather than poor. In politics, the non-sexist terms used are POLITICAL MACHINERY and
POLITICAL RIVALS. Moreover, when asked about the language of the indigenous, say CULTURAL
LANGUAGE and not indigenous language. This is one way to uplift the spirit of the indigenous
people because they feel that sense of belongingness with those who don’t belong to their tribe. Still,
majority of the respondents chose the non-sexist terms with reference to the following: Along health,
a more subtle way to call a communicable disease which is tuberculosis is PULMONARY
INFECTION. With gender, a more acceptable oral remark as an impression to an effeminate male is
GAY and a more acceptable oral remark as impression to a known homosexual woman is LESBIAN.
The findings infer that the teachers are competent on the use of gender-fair language in context.
There are also non-sexist terms that less than 50% of the faculty members are not familiar with. These
are Woman, Bar Entertainer, Child out of Wedlock, and Office Head. The use of BAR
ENTERTAINER (43.8%) is a more gender-fair term to use for a known sex worker, CHILD OUT OF
WEDLOCK (41.3%) is used to describe a child who is born from an illicit affair, OFFICE HEAD
(36.3%) is a more collegial way to describe the manager or administrator, while WOMAN (21.3%) is
a more graceful way of addressing a married woman.
It is revealed that the faculty members are competent in observing appropriacy of terms used
in context with reference to non-sexist language. This infers that educators carefully manifest concern
on human relations and choose appropriately gender-fair language that develops sense of
belongingness, integrity, honor and pride regardless of social status, cultural and educational
orientations. This is an affirmation to the Civil Service Commission of the Republic of the Philippines
224
with its Memorandum Circular No. 12, s. 2005 (2014) which enjoined government officials and
employees to use non-sexist language purposely to avoid implicit and explicit discriminatory language
against women and men regardless of their races and ethnic or cultural groups.

Table 3. Gender-fair language competence of faculty along non-sexist terms in context.

Score Frequency/ Adjectival Description
(20) Percentage
(n=58)
17 – 20 9 Very Competent
(85% and above) (15.5%)
11 – 16 26 Competent
(75-84%) (44.8%)
1 – 10 23 Less Competent
(less than 75%) (39.7%)

Table 4 presents the summary of the gender-fair language competence of the teacher education
faculty in the three categories.
The table shows that around 74.1% or 43 of the 58 faculty members are competent in using
gender fair language namely; gender-fair language in formal register, gender-fair language on sex
roles, and gender-fair language in context. This stresses that the faculty members are consciously
aware that there is a need to use gender-fair language in the education par lance in order to establish
higher norms and standards of relating oneself to others especially in the academe. This also infers
that the right choice of words is very necessary to keep harmony and peace in interpersonal
relationships.

Table 4. Overall gender-fair language competence of teacher education faculty.

Score Frequency/ Adjectival
(75) Percentage Description
(n=58)
64 – 75 1 Very Competent
(85% and above) (1.7%)
38 - 63 43 Competent
(75 – 84%) (74.1%)
1 – 37 14 Less Competent
(less than 74%) (24.2%)

Conclusion

225
 The study concludes that generally, teacher education faculty are gender-fair language
competent along formal register, non-sexist terms on sex roles, and non-sexist terms in context.
Emphatically, most of them manifest gender-fair language competence in the context of their
awareness and appropriate usage of gender-fair language particularly along non-sexist terms on sex
roles and non-sexist terms in context. It is ascertained that with this competence, the teacher education
faculty are aware of the gender-fair language usage with reference to their role as man and woman and
the appropriate and ethical terms to be used in social context which are non-gender-bias in nature. This
has significant implication on the dissemination of guidelines on the use of gender-fair language by
the University administration through its Gender and Development Office especially to the college
faculty who are directly involved in teaching. This action calls for a reinforcement in the application
of those guidelines particularly those from the Civil Service Commission Memorandum Circular No.
12, s. 2005 (2014) which enjoins all government employees to use non-sexist terms purposely to avoid
implicit and explicit discriminatory language against women and men, and for the academe to be
directly involved in the advocacy of Gender and Development.

Recommendations
The administration may consider giving seminar to the faculty on the use of gender-fair
language in oral and written forms to intensify the applications of the guidelines on non-sexist terms
set forth, as per Circular No. 12, s. 2005 of the Civil Service Commission.

Pedagogical Implication
This study has contributed more knowledge on the use of gender-fair language particularly
among the faculty members who are directly honing the value system of the learners. Its results are
likewise a baseline information for teachers who are deemed responsible in the development of value-
laden mind-constructs on an exceptional competence required of an educator to the present societies
of millennials.

References

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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
Test Question on Non-Sexist Terms in Formal Register
Gender-Fair Statements Frequency Percentage
(n=58)
A. Using plural nouns and deleting he, his, him 25 43
B. Substituting articles (a and the) for his; using who 30 51
instead of he.
C. Using one, we, or you 31 52
D. Using passive voice 26 45
E. Eliminating the use of “man.” Instead, use people, 19 34
person (s), human (s), human race, human kind,
humanity (Using: ordinary man, mankind, the
brotherhood of man, instead of ordinary people,
humanity, the human family)
F. Eliminating sexism in symbolic representations of 31 53
gender in word, sentences, and text by taking the context
of the word, analyzing its meaning and eliminating
sexism in the concept
G. Eliminating sexual stereotyping of roles by using the 14 38
same term for both genders in terms of profession and
employment
H. Using gender-fair language in lexical terms 14 38
I. Treating men and women in a parallel manner 41 71
J. Avoiding language that reinforces stereotyping images 30 51
K. Avoiding language that catches attention to the sex role 12 21
of men and women
L. Eliminating sexism when addressing persons formally 10 18
by using Ms instead of Mrs.; Dr. instead of Dra.
M. Using a married woman’s first name instead of her 16 28
husband’s
N. Using the title of the job or group in letters to unknown 17 29
persons

APPENDIX - B
Test Question on Non-Sexist Terms on Sex Roles
Frequency
Gender-Fair Terms on Sex Roles Percentage
(n=58)
1. Noli de Castro and Korina Sanchez are experts in broadcast media. They
52 88.8
are known as TV ANCHORS.
2. Former senator Jambie Madrigal and business tycoon Henry Sy are
recognized exceptional BUSINESS EXECUTIVES in the country. 50 86.3
3. Patricia B. Licuanan was confirmed by the Commission on
Appointments as CHAIRPERSON of the Commission on Higher 43 75
Education.
4. The presiding officer informed the OFFICE STAFF to take the minutes
38 66.3
of the meeting during the consultative session with the parents.

228
5. The congressional district representatives across provinces of the
Philippines are otherwise politically known as 44 75.0
LEGISLATORS/LAWMAKERS.
6. The political advisers to the municipal/city mayor are composed of
50 86.3
COUNCILORS.
7. Behind the movie makers are CAMERA OPERATORS tasked to do
47 82.5
documentary films.
8. Making the customers have a feeling of the ambiance of accommodation
while on fine dining are the singing BAR STAFF on stage for some jazz 52 91.3
numbers.
9. A courageous team of FIREFIGHTERS strategically crawled into the
52 91.3
building amidst spots of blazing fire in order to save a baby.
10. The able-bodied members of the Philippine labor force are
36 62.5
likewise regarded as HUMAN RESOURCES.
11. Walking through the dark in the middle of the night is not as easy
as you think when there are no public servants on ‘night watch’ 52 90.0
like the POLICE OFFICERS.
12. To maintain the electronic facilities of a school in functional
condition, four experienced and NC II qualified TECHNICIANS 55 96.3
were hired.
13. Visiting the department store, a SALESPERSON smiled at me
50 87.5
and showed me where the ladies’ gowns are displayed.
14. A SPOKESPERSON of the peace talk with MILF usually takes
the role of delivering or negotiating for or against claims of parties 55 95
in conflict.
15. During formal occasions, the USHERS humbly welcome the
9 16.3
guests with hospitality and respect.
16. In the international exhibit, the carved work of the SCULPTOR
40 70.0
is a feature of a woman.
17. The feminist view was stressed in the poems written by a POET. 51 88.8
18. Looking into the welfare of the students who are far from their 19 33.8
parents are the CARETAKERS.
19. The food caterers of Pension Roma are amiable SERVERS. 54 92.5
20. Scholars who were tasked to write books for the K-12 program
29 51.2
are the known AUTHORS at the national level.

APPENDIX - C
Test Question on Non-Sexist Terms in Context
Frequency
Gender-fair Terms in Context Percentage
(n=58)
1. In a wedding to greet the newlywed groom, say
42 73.8
CONGRATULATIONS.
2. In a wedding, to greet the newly wed bride, say BEST WISHES. 39 67.5
3. During formal conversations, the finest manner to identify/address an
44 77.5
unmarried female person is LADY.
4. During formal conversations, the courteous manner to
12 21.3
identify/address a married female person is WOMAN.
5. When in public, MODEST/DEMURE is used to describe the finest
45 78.8
ethics of a lady/woman for being prim and properly behaving.

229
6. When in public, COURTEOUS/POLITE is used to describe the
42 73.8
ethical sensitivity manifested of a well-behaved man.
7. The tribes’ ancestors who did beheading of enemies as the
manifestation of success and bravery in defending one’s territory 29 50.0
and/or security are called WARRIORS.
8. ISLAM DEFENDERS are the indiscriminate words that can be used
today to describe the Moslem ancestors having been declared by 29 50
Spain’s Christian elders as Church enemies.
9. A more subtle way to call a communicable disease of the lung of a
31 55
person is PULMONARY INFECTION.
10. An openly known or identified sex worker is otherwise called BAR
25 43.8
ENTERTAINER .
11. When a child is born from an illicit affair, that child is called CHILD
24 41.3
OUT OF WEDLOCK.
12. The government uses election as the best strategy to choose the best
public servants. Those who run in any positions from different parties 36 61.3
are known POLITICAL RIVALS.
13. Whenever there is an election, the POLITICAL MACHINERY from
38 66.3
the different parties manifest their all-out support to the candidate/s.
14. Language expresses thoughts and emotions. When asked about the
38 66.3
language of the indigenous, say CULTURAL LANGUAGE.
15. A more collegial way to describe your manager or administrator is
21 36.3
OFFICE HEAD.
16. A more appropriate way to describe your academically struggling
52 91.3
learner is ACADEMICALLY CHALLENGED.
17. Today’s poverty level of our country is alarming as indicated by the
presence of ECONOMICALLY MARGINALIZED people living in 42 72.5
the countryside.
18. An expression “Jesus Christ” on a ruinous, heinous, horrific or
daredevil circumstance in an actual event connotes bad religious
36 62.5
impression against the second commandment. Instead of saying it, it
is better to say WHAT A MESS.
19. A more acceptable oral remark as an impression to an effeminate
male who with him in public is a group of people of mix gender is 31 53.8
GAY.
20. A more acceptable oral remark as impression to a known homosexual
woman who with her in public is a group of people of mix gender is 31 55.0
LESBIAN.

230
 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Pre-service Teachers’ Attitudes toward the Use of Mother Tongue as Medium of Instruction

Jimmylen Z. Tonio
jimmylen_tonio@dlsu.edu.ph
De La Salle University Manila / Catanduanes State University

Jennibelle R. Ella
jennibelle.ella@gmail.com
De La Salle University Manila / Colegio de San Juan de Letran - Calamba

Abstract

The study examined the attitudes of the pre-service teachers in the use of Mother Tongue as a medium
of instruction in Grades 1-3 and the perceived problems associated with its use. It also determined the
relationship between attitude and age, sex, and place of origin (province). Guided by the socio-
educational model of Gardner (1985), the study collected data through a survey involving 150 pre-
service teachers enrolled in Bachelor of Elementary Education program from Batangas, Laguna, La
Union, Catanduanes, and Romblon. Data were analyzed using frequency, mean, mode, and standard
deviation. Relationship between variables was determined through Chi-Square test for independence
using SPSS. Results showed that most of the respondents agree that the use of Mother Tongue as a
medium of instruction is good in principle. They believe it would enable teachers to express themselves
clearly, and it would also make the lessons interesting to pupils. However, some problems associated
with its use were also identified, such as: difficulty in translation, teacher’s low proficiency in Mother
Tongue, pupils’ low proficiency in Mother Tongue, degradation of English proficiency, and lack of
teacher’s training in teaching Mother Tongue. Findings further revealed that the place of origin, not
age and gender, influences the respondents’ attitudes. This study, therefore, proves that the pre-service
teachers, in general, have positive attitude towards the use of Mother Tongue as medium of instruction
and are willing to undergo training to be able to teach using the mother tongue.

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Keywords: attitude, pre-service teachers, Mother Tongue, language proficiency

1 Introduction

The “language in education” construct is not an unambiguously defined notion. Children bring to the
classroom one or more languages which they speak with varying degrees of proficiency (Walter, 2008).
Following Baker (2006), it is assumed that most children enter school with one dominant language
though children in cities often manifest some degree of bilingualism. Teachers may or may not speak
the language(s) spoken by the students in their classrooms. The curriculum may be in a language
spoken well by neither the teacher nor the students or by one and not the other. Thus, the language of
instruction in a classroom is a fundamental in a learner’s educational development. According to Ochs
(1986), language and literacy are viewed as socially constructed, culturally-mediated practices, and
these play a vital role in the act of learning. In other words, the question of which language(s) to use
for instruction in schools is, therefore, a crucial one in bilingual and multilingual contexts, such as the
Philippines.

One of the recent developments in the Philippine educational system is the Mother Tongue- Based
Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE), an educational policy which uses more than one language in
literacy and instruction. However, according to Nolasco (2008), changing the MOI alone is not enough
for the MTB-MLE to work in the Philippine context. Nolasco (2008) cited four crucial conditions that
must be achieved to ensure the successful implementation of the MTB-MLE program and one of these
conditions is community support and empowerment. He also added that one of the recurring issues is
the teachers’ attitude – perceptions, inclinations whether positive or negative- toward the mother
tongue as the medium of instruction.

The attitudes of teachers come to the fore as they reflect upon the language that they use in teaching.
Consciously or unconsciously, their attitudes play a crucial role in language’s growth or decay,
restoration or destruction (Baker, 1988), and as part of their cultural orientation, influence heavily their
younger students (Shameem, 2004). Moreover, the teacher’s preparation should not just be in terms of
knowledge and skills in their specialization but also in their attitude towards the tools that they will
use in teaching their subjects (Vizconde, 2006).

Sarnoff (1970) defined attitude as a disposition to react favourably or unfavourably to a class of

objects. Likewise, Bohner and Wanke (2002) even explained that attitude usually represents an
evaluative response toward an object. Thus, attitude is an evaluative response to any object on

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cognitive, affective and behavioural perspectives. In addition, Eagly and Chaiken (1993) proposed that
attitude can trigger three types of responses. The first one is cognitive responses which refer to
individual’s thoughts and beliefs toward the object of an attitude. Second, affective responses which
trigger feeling or emotions in relation to the object of an attitude, and third, behavioural responses that
involve actions which are carried out with respect to the object of an attitude. These three responses
often overlap that leads to difficulty in separating them (Zhang, 2010). However, according to Bohner
and Wanke (2002), attitude is generally defined as a summary evaluation of an object of thought which
may encompass only one response category, or a combination of two or of all three categories. Thus,
an attitude is a hypothetical construct which is not directly observable but can be inferred from
observed responses (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). In other words, when certain stimuli, for example the
use of mother tongue in teaching Grades 1 to 3 elicit responses, some mental state which can be
referred to as attitude can be created.

1.2 Review of Related Literature and Studies

1.2.1 Teachers’ Attitude towards the Mother Tongue Instruction

According to Haugen (1956 as cited in Grosjean, 1982), “whenever languages are in contact, one is
likely to find certain prevalent attitudes of favor or disfavor towards the languages involved. These
can have profound effect on the psychology of the individuals and on their use of the languages”
(p.118). In the case of the Philippines, where more than 180 languages can be found, linguistic power
struggle between languages is inevitable. For instance, people in regions and provinces far away from
Manila have some level of resistance towards Filipino, the national language (Wa-Mbaleka, 2014),
partly since probably more than 90% of Filipino words come from Tagalog and only a third of Filipino
people can speak Tagalog (Smolicz & Nical, 1997). Moreover, language attitude is always one of the
major factors in accounting for which languages are learned, which are used, and which are preferred
by bilinguals (Grosjean, 1982). Indeed, the well-accepted notion that language is a symbol of social or
group identity along with the attitude and values held by both the user and non-user is true.

The introduction of MTB-MLE policy in the Philippine educational system which highlights the use
of mother tongue as the medium of instruction receives differing reactions from teachers, parents,
students and other educational stakeholders. Given the importance of language in the education
process, the general acceptability of mother tongue as language of instruction (LOI) posed a major
issue, especially in the case of teachers who according to Shohamy (2006) are regarded as one of the

233
key stakeholder groups that are often forgotten in the policy process despite the fact that they hold
much power for carrying out a reform. Some of the identified drawbacks of MTB-MLE that possibly
contributed to teachers’ mixed reactions when MTB-MLE policy is mentioned have been identified
by different researchers (Malone & Paraide, 2011; Oyzon & Fullmer, 2014; Wa-Mbaleka, 2014).
These challenges include the following: (1) instructional materials are not readily available in the
majority of local languages; (2) teachers are not trained in the local languages used for instruction
where they teach; (3) primary school teachers may not have solid training on L1 or L2 learning research
and theories; (4) some local languages may not be perceived as important for formal education.
Likewise, Paulson (2010a) argued that teachers may act as a barrier to effective MTB-MLE due to the
following reasons: (1) deep-seated attitudes about indigenous languages and their suitability for the
classroom, (2) perceived extra work in teaching the mother tongue as a third language in the classroom,
(3) their own unfamiliarity with the grammatical and orthographic system of their mother tongue, and
lack of confidence in teaching reading and writing in that language, (4) attitudes and beliefs about the
best way to learn to read based on their own personal schooling experiences, and (5) fear of losing
authoritative control in their classroom.

Such attitudes and beliefs present a barrier to MTB-MLE because teachers have direct correlation to
classroom practice (Karavas-Doukas, 1996). Consequently, it is imperative to considerably take the
affective attitude of primary school teachers for they play a major role in the formation of the learners’
cognitive and affective language attitude formation (Kovacs, 2011) and in the successful
implementation of MTB-MLE policy.

1.2.2 The Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)

The linguistic and cultural diversity in the Philippines brings much complexity to the issue of language
policy in education. With more than 7000 islands and 181 distinct languages (Lewis, Simons, &
Fennig, 2013), the Philippines offers a challenging environment for implementing a language policy
that can serve the whole country. Consequently, language policies for Philippines’ schools are
modified every now and then over the last century with a different policy for nearly every generation.
Until recently, the 1974 and 1987 Bilingual Education Policies determined the language of instruction
in schools to be Filipino and English. This is despite the fact that almost half of the population does
not speak either of these as a first language.

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In 2009, the Department of Education (DepEd) challenged the Bilingual Education Policy by issuing
an order that called for institutionalization of mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTB-
MLE). This order requires use of the learners’ first language as the medium of instruction for all subject
areas in pre-kindergarten through grade three with Filipino and English being taught as separate
subjects (Philippines Department of Education, 2009). Another order was issued in 2012 that offered
more specific guidelines for MTB-MLE and embedded the reform in the newly adopted ―K to 12
Basic Education Program (Philippines Department of Education, 2012). This order shifted from the
original mother tongue approach by specifying twelve major regional languages to be used as the
languages of instruction.

In the context of education, studies of attitudes in the past years have mostly dealt with the attitudes of
students, teachers, and parents toward learning a second or foreign language (Baker, 1992; Gardner
and Lambert, 1972). However, more recently, the focus of language attitude studies has shifted from
L2 learning to L1 or mother tongue-based teaching in the hope of understanding more about the
intended language innovation and in promoting greater success in education. Although studies in this
field are of significance, research particularly on students’ attitude remains quite so few.

International literature shows that the wealth of information when it comes to mother tongue
instruction policy points to the experiences of most countries in Africa. In 2004, Ejieh conducted a
study to determine the student teachers’ attitudes toward teaching in mother tongue in Nigerian
primary schools and found that students showed a negative attitude towards it due to the inferior status
given to the indigenous language during the British colonial era. Being the official language, English
becomes advantageous as it appears to be the measure of learners’ educational gains. Thus, even
parents believe that early on, their children must be taught in English for it is the language that promises
employment opportunities and economic mobility. Additionally, because of the many years of
exposure to the English language in school, from primary to upper levels, students have made English
their language, which in turn made the indigenous language unattractive. Results further showed that
the problems related to insufficient teaching materials and students’ textbooks were thought to have
contributed to the negative attitude of the student teachers.

Chivhanga and Sylod (2014) compared the attitudes of student teachers toward the use of English and
ChiShona as a medium of instruction in teaching Grade 4 Mathematics in Zimbabwe primary schools.
The study revealed that parents, teachers/lecturers, and college/university learners preferred English
over ChiShona as medium of instruction from primary to university level since for them, English
235
guarantees better job opportunities and empowerment for global competition, clearly echoing Ejieh’s
(2004) findings. On the other hand, indigenous languages to them are soft options as they are made
rarely compulsory.

Since Shona is prescribed to Grades 1 to 3 only, Webster, Mavies, Timothy, and Cordial (2012)
investigated the influence of teachers and students’ language attitudes toward the use of Shona as
medium of instruction if it will be adopted in secondary schools in Zimbabwe. Both the students and
teachers manifested a negative attitude to Shona and opted for English as medium of instruction. The
majority of the students agreed that Shona has limited use in their lives and is presumed to be
inadequate for the effective teaching of science and technology. Based on these results, Webster et al.
(2012) concluded that the attitudes of the users toward the language innovation negatively affects the
implementation of Shona.

In Sidama Zone, Ethiopia, parents and students similarly showed a negative attitude and perception
toward using mother tongue as medium of instruction (Bachure, 2014). However, unlike parents and
students, teachers indicated a positive attitude and perception toward mother tongue-based instruction,
although they were aware of the many challenges as regards the accessibility and availability of the
learning materials in Sidama language. Apart from the perceived problems in learning materials,
Sidama language being a minority language is only used in the local community, and it is noticeably
problematic when the language is used by students in writing.

Another study was carried out using Gardner’s (1985) Attitude and Motivation Test Battery. Magogwe
and Ketsitlile (2015) found that Botswana students have a generally positive attitude toward English
and Setswana. However, for them, Setswana should not be used as language of instruction, but as one
of the subjects instead. The results of the study suggested that students regarded bilingualism or
multilingualism as favorable and they positively viewed indigenous languages in schools.

The teachers in Kenya also recognized the many advantages that mother tongue brings in connection
with the appreciation of culture, building of better relationship between learners, enabling student
participation, and contributing to the smooth transition of learners from home to school among others
(Khejeri, 2014). However, even with these advantages, teachers were not convinced that mother tongue
should be the appropriate medium of instruction as foremost among the challenges they have foreseen
was that it cannot provide sufficient vocabulary to aid the teaching and learning process.

236
Meanwhile, studies dealing with the relationship between language attitude and age, gender, and place
of origin (province) have provided valuable insights in relation to the discussion of the shift from
English to mother tongue in the classroom. Ajepe (2014) revealed that age and gender influence
students’ attitude toward the use of mother tongue. Students between 15 and18 years old in his study
were shown to be more interested in the use of mother tongue. Additionally, female students have
more positive attitude toward mother tongue use than male students. However, in Alieto’s (2018)
study, gender difference on language attitude was not evident. Apart from age and gender, Assefa
(2002) reported that place of origin (province) is another significant factor that can affect language
attitude.

1.4 Research Questions

This study investigated the attitudes of the pre-service teachers toward the use of mother tongue as
medium of instruction in Grades 1-3 and their willingness to teach in mother tongue when they
graduate. Specifically, it sought to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards mother tongue-based teaching in Grades 1-3?

2. Is there a significant relationship between the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards mother
tongue-based teaching and:

a. age,

b. gender, and

c. place of origin (province)?

3. What are the perceived problems in the use of mother tongue as medium of instruction in Grades 1
– 3?

1.5 The Socio-educational Model

This study is guided by the socio-educational model that was developed by Robert Gardner in 1985.
The socio-educational model was constructed on the notion that language learning builds a learner’s
identity that enables him/her to adapt and operate in a new environment. The model presents four
interrelated variables, such as social milieu (i.e., individual’s culture and environment), individual
differences (i.e., intelligence, aptitude, motivation, and anxiety), second language acquisition context
(i.e., formal and informal settings), and outcomes (i.e., linguistic skills and non-linguistic skills).

237
In the field of social psychology, the socio-educational model puts high value on the role of the
individual learners’ characteristics in language learning. Hence, for language learning to occur, a
learner first and foremost must want to learn, show effort to learn, and display a positive attitude to
learn. Gardner (1985) implies that motivation should therefore be viewed in this tripartite complex,
and that each must act as support to another.

In the model, motivation is influenced by socially and educationally relevant attitudes. These
attitudinal constructs are best understood in the way the learner displays his/her attitude toward the
learning situation, particularly the classroom set-up or the school environment, assessment of the
modules, textbooks and other course materials for instance, and evaluation of the language teacher and
the language course. This attitudinal construct acknowledges the difference that is likely to exist
between a skilled teacher who has a good command of the language and a less skilled teacher who
lacks the proficiency in the target language. Another attitudinal construct is the integrativeness, which
reflects the willingness, interest, and openness in learning the target language in the community for
socialization and for learning their culture as well (Lovato, 2011). This clearly emphasizes the ability
to understand the language of a community to which the learner is unfamiliar and become cognizant
of the different culture the particular community has (Lovato, 2011).

Further, the model postulates the interdependent relationship between motivation and attitude as these
two variables directly or indirectly influences successful language learning both in formal settings
where language acquisition is the primary objective, and informal settings where language acquisition
appears to be secondary and incidental (Gardner, 1985).

2. Methodology

This descriptive-quantitative study involved 150 pre-service teachers enrolled in Bachelor of

Elementary Education from Laguna, Batangas, Catanduanes, Romblon, and La Union through a
survey. There were 30 respondents for each province. The respondents were composed of 39 (26%)
males and 111 (74%) females. In terms of age, 75 (50%) of the respondents were between 18 to 19
years old; 54 (36%) of the respondents were 20 to 21 years old and lastly, 21 (14%) of the pre-service
teachers were 22 years old and above. There were 54 (36%) of the pre-service teachers who reported
that their L1 is different from the mother tongue declared by DepEd, while 96 (64%) reported no
difference as to their L1 and the mother tongue identified by DepEd for their city or province.
238
The survey questionnaire was adapted from Ejieh (2004). Some modifications on the statements were
made to fit the Philippine context. The modified questionnaire earned a reliability rating of 0.80 using
Cronbach’s Alpha. Also, the researchers opted for a 4-point Likert Scale that varied from strongly
agree to strongly disagree instead of yes/no response. The survey questionnaire was divided into two
parts. In Part 1, respondents were asked to provide pertinent personal information such as gender, age,
province, first language, and whether or not their native language different from the mother tongue
identified/declared by Department of Education for their city or province. Meanwhile, the 15
statements included in Part II are made up of three levels; Level 1 includes items one to 12 which seek
the opinions of the pre-service teachers on some issues and problems related to teaching and learning
in mother tongue such as the benefits of teaching and learning in mother tongue to pupils, teachers and
parents, as well as the limitations of instruction in mother tongue. On the other hand, Level 2 is made
up of items 13 and 14 that explore the pre-service teachers’ readiness to undergo training in mother
tongue instruction and their willingness to teach in mother tongue upon graduation. As for the final
level, item 15 which is an open-ended question was included. The item requires the respondents to list
down problems that they foresee in teaching mother tongue in primary schools, specifically in Grades
1 to 3.

Following the research ethics procedure, the researchers sought the approval of the designated deans
and administrators of the institutions involved through a communication letter prior to the
administration of the survey. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, namely: frequency count,
mean, mode and standard deviation. Chi-Square test for independence using SPSS application was
used to establish the relationship between variables. Moreover, qualitative approach was employed to
analyze the perceived problems in the use of mother tongue.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Attitude of pre-service teachers towards mother tongue-based teaching in Grades 1-3

Table 2

Attitude of Pre-service teachers towards mother tongue-based teaching in Grades 1-3

Statement SA A D SD Mean DE

1 A policy on the use of mother tongue in the Philippine 56 85 9 0 1.69 A

primary schools (Grade 1-3) is good in principle.
239
2 It is possible to teach all primary school subjects from 43 82 24 1 1.89 A
Grade 1-3 in the mother tongue or language of the
local community.

3 It is possible to teach my own subjects completely in 16 75 53 6 2.33 D

mother tongue.

4 Teaching in mother tongue will enable teachers to 52 88 10 0 1.72 A

express themselves clearly in class.

5 Teaching in mother tongue will enable pupils to 60 80 8 2 1.69 A

understand easily.

6 It will make lessons interesting to pupils. 40 95 13 2 1.85 A

7 It will enable children to perform well in English 14 83 47 6 2.31 D

language in the future.

8 It will enable parents to participate in the education of 45 99 6 0 1.75 A

their children.

9 All technical terms and expressions in my subject 13 71 57 9 2.41 D

area(s) can be easily translated into mother tongue.

10 Textbooks for teaching my own subjects can easily be 12 78 56 4 2.35 D

produced in mother tongue.

11 My education and training, which have been in 7 102 38 3 2.26 D

English, will not interfere with my teaching children in
mother tongue.

12 Use of mother tongue in teaching will degrade the 9 50 66 25 2.71 D

teaching profession in the Philippines

I am willing to undergo any special training that will

13 64 82 4 0 1.60 A
enable me to teach in mother tongue.

I am willing to teach in mother tongue when I leave

14 41 96 10 3 1.83 A
college.

Legend: SA – strongly agree; A – agree; D – disagree; SD – strongly disagree

DE – descriptive equivalent

Table 2 shows that statements 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, and 14 generated a weighted mean of 1.69, 1.89,
1.72, 1.69, 1.85, 1.75, 1.60 and 1.83 respectively or a descriptive equivalent of “AGREE.” On the
contrary, statements 3, 7, 9, 10, 11, and 12 earned a weighted mean of 2.33, 2.31, 2.41, 2.35, 2.26, and
2.71 correspondingly or a descriptive equivalent of “DISAGREE.” Based on the above findings, it can
240
be claimed that pre-service teachers agree that the use of mother tongue in Grades 1-3 is good in
principle and that its use as a medium of instruction in Grades 1 to 3 would enable teachers to express
themselves clearly and would make the lessons interesting to pupils, thus allowing pupils to understand
the lessons easily. Likewise, pre-service teachers view the use of mother tongue as a way to enable
parents to take part in the learning of their children. However, pre-service teachers also realized that
the use of mother tongue as medium of instruction in teaching all the subjects in Grades 1 to 3 is not
feasible since pre-service teachers agree that it is impossible to translate in mother tongue all the
technical terms and expressions in their subjects, not to mention the difficulty to produce textbooks in
mother tongue that could help them in teaching. Similarly, pre-service teachers also held a negative
view regarding the use of mother tongue to enable children to perform well in the English language in
the future. Surprisingly, pre-service teachers also believe that their education and training which were
acquired using the English language would pose a problem in their teaching of the mother tongue to
the pupils, and even though this is the case, still, the majority of the respondents agree (82 out of 150)
and strongly agree (64 of the pre-service teachers) to the idea of undergoing special training that will
help them teach in mother tongue. The result showing the pre-service teachers’ willingness to undergo
training is also supported by their positive attitude toward teaching in mother tongue upon graduation.

The results of the study correlate the findings of the local study conducted by Wa-Mbaleka (2014)
which revealed that English teachers believed that MTB-MLE will facilitate learning of mother tongue,
but not learning the English language. Meanwhile, the pre-service teachers’ negative attitude toward
availability of textbooks, possibility of concrete translation and vocabulary, and compatibility of
teachers’ education and training is supported by the study made by Lartec et al. (2014) which revealed
that lack of textbooks, vocabulary and teacher-training are the main problems encountered by teachers
in implementing mother-tongue based instruction.

Along international studies, the findings of this study contradict Ejieh’s (2004) findings that student
teachers had a generally negative attitude towards the teaching and training in mother tongue in
primary schools. On the other hand, in a study conducted by Adesina and Okewole (2014) also in
Nigeria which involved teachers’ opinions on mother tongue instruction in nursery schools affirm
results of this study showing teachers have relatively positive attitude toward the use of mother tongue
as medium of instruction.

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3.2 Relationship between attitude and age, gender, and province

3.2.1 Relationship between attitude and age

Table 3 presents the results of the Chi-Square test. It shows that there is no significant relationship
between attitude and age since the p value (0.15) is greater than the alpha (0.05). The absence of the
relationship between the two variables can be explained by the fact that the recruited respondents did
not vary greatly in terms of age.

Table 3

Correlation between attitude and age

Asymptotic Significance (2-

Value df
sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 3.851a 2 0.15

Since they have the status of pre-service teachers, most of them belong to 18-19 years old and 20-21
years old age group, with 75 and 54 students respectively. The majority of the respondents belong to
the normal age group of pre-service teachers, and they relatively share, more or less, the same
perspective and positive attitude as regards the use of mother tongue as medium of instruction. Thus,
this indicates that age does not influence the positive attitude of the pre-service teachers toward mother
tongue. However, in Ajepe’s (2014) study involving undergraduate Nigerian students, age influences
the use of Mother Tongue, and that the younger group of students (15-18 years old) are more interested
in using the Mother Tongue than the older group of students. It was noted that the younger group are
more at ease in expressing themselves in the Mother Tongue while the older group are more inclined
to use English.

3.2.2 Relationship between attitude and gender

Moreover, Table 4 illustrates the findings of the correlation between attitude and gender. The Chi-
Square test reveals that the p=0.44 and is greater than the alpha (0.05), and hence implies that there is
no significant relationship between attitude and gender.

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Table 4

Correlation between attitude and gender

Asymptotic Significance (2-

Value df
sided)

Pearson Chi-Square .592a 1 0.44

Table 5

Test of homogeneity of variances

Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.

1.279 1 148 0.260

To determine if there is statistically significant difference between males and females in terms of their
attitude, Levene’s test was performed (Table 5). Results show that the Sig. value of 0.260 is greater
than 0.05, and hence, at 0.05 level, the difference in mean attitude of male and female pre-service
teachers toward the use of Mother Tongue is not significant. Clearly, despite the female domination in
the present study, attitude toward using the Mother Tongue as a medium of instruction is not dependent
on gender, implying that both male and female respondents have positive attitude toward Mother
Tongue. This finding supports previous studies (Alieto, 2018; Assefa, 2002) that both male and female
students find the mother tongue useful in making themselves feel more comfortable in explaining
difficult concepts and expressing ideas. This result can further be viewed as a product of the early
and long years of exposure of the respondents to the language, so it is understandably rooted in the
individual, social, cultural, and ethnic identity (Assefa, 2002). Thus, it may not be a surprise that,
regardless of gender, the positive attitude toward the use of mother tongue greatly contributes to the
teaching and learning process. However, other studies still suggested that gender tends to be a function
of language attitude (Bacon, 1992; Baker, 1998). Ajepe (2014), for instance, claimed that female
students express a more positive attitude toward the use of Mother Tongue than male students.

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3.2.3 Relationship between attitude and province

A significant relationship between attitude and province was noted in Table 6. This result may stem
from the value that the respondents put on the implementation of MTB-MLE, despite some problems,
since they believe that this can be mostly beneficial to the students in the provincial areas.

Table 6

Correlation between attitude and province

Asymptotic Significance (2-

Value df
sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 11.111a 4 0.03

Their awareness of the complexity of the linguistic and cultural diversity in relation to the issue of
language policy in education may have been a factor. Result shows that it is consistent with the report
of Assefa (2002) in which it was discovered that rural dweller high school students of the Sidama Zone
demonstrated a more positive attitude toward the use of Sidama language compared to urban dweller
students. Assefa (2002) explained that urban dweller students have less positive attitude towards
Sidama language as medium of instruction probably because of their exposure to multiple languages
being spoken in the area. In addition to multilingual setting, the author cited “the effect of
globalization, television, contact with diversified ethnic groups, loss identification with their ethnic
identity, and mixed cultural exposure” could have caused the negative attitude of urban dwellers to
Sidama language (p. 85). This exhibited a stark contrast to the rural dwellers as they are presumed to
have limited opportunity to speak other languages; thus, they have been used to speaking in Sidama in
the community and found themselves more expressive in the language. As a result, they favored
Sidama as the medium of instruction over other languages and gained higher grades in Sidama
language than those who disfavored the language. Similar explanation can be offered in the Philippine
setting. Students from the rural areas who have not been practicing English would prefer to speak using
their mother tongue inside the classroom because it is the language that give them power and higher
rate of academic success. Admittedly however, the scarcity of studies along this line has posed
limitations in extensively providing relationship cases involving the above variables.
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3.3 Possible problems associated with teaching mother tongue

Table 7 summarizes the possible problems that pre-service teachers might encounter in teaching
mother tongue in primary schools, specifically in Grades 1 to 3. As shown in the table, there are 11
problems identified. The five most common problems identified by pre-service teachers as ranked from
highest to lowest are: first, difficulty in translation with 25.71%; second, teacher’s low proficiency in
mother tongue with 16.57%; third, pupil’s low proficiency in mother tongue with 12.57%; fourth,
degradation of English language proficiency with 11.43%; and fifth, lack of teacher’s training in
teaching mother tongue with 8%.

Table 7

Problems identified by pre-service teachers with regards teaching mother tongue

Problem f % Rank

Difficulty in translation 45 25.71 1

Degradation of English language proficiency 20 11.43 4

Lack of textbooks, references and instructional materials 13 7.43 6

Lack of teachers’ training in teaching mother tongue 14 8 5

Low teachers’ proficiency in mother tongue 29 16.57 2

Low pupils’ proficiency in mother tongue 22 12.57 3

Incompatibility of MT used by pupils and of MT assigned by DepEd 12 6.86 7

Difficulty in teaching the different varieties of MT 6 3.43 8.5

Language barrier for transferees and pupils with different L1 6 3.43 8.5

Difference in teacher’s and pupils’ L1 4 2.28 10

Resistance of parents in using MT as medium of instruction 3 1.71 11

TOTAL 175 100

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Based on the above findings, it appears that the primary challenge identified by the pre-service teachers
is the difficulty in translation of technical terms and concepts, specifically in the subjects like
Mathematics and English. The following excerpts below provide basis for the claim:

1. Difficulty in translating in Math.

2. Technical terms may be difficult to translate.

3. Translation may be hard.

4. Some English terms do not have exact translation in mother tongue.

5. Using mother tongue in Math is difficult.

6. Difficulty to translate Math concepts in mother tongue.

Following the definition of translation forwarded by Kelly (2005) as “the skill of understanding the
source text and rendering it in the target language by using the register, the background knowledge,
and other language resources according to the intended purpose” (p.26-27), it suggests that translation
process requires the translator high level of proficiency both in subject language (English) and target
language (mother tongue). Thus, it appears that the difficulty in translation can be traced to three others
problems also identified by the pre-service teachers; these include: low proficiency of teachers in the
mother tongue, lack of teachers’ training in teaching mother tongue and lack of textbooks, references
and instructional materials. Not to mention that the pre-service teachers as discussed above also
DISAGREE with the statement, “My education and training, which have been in English, will NOT
interfere with my teaching children in mother tongue.” The fact that the pre-service teachers were
trained and educated following the old curriculum using textbooks, references, and instructional
materials written in the English language, the majority of which are written by foreign authors and
where the English language served as the medium of instruction for teaching Mathematics and English
subjects, it is not surprising to know that the pre-service teachers feel a relatively negative attitude
towards using mother tongue in teaching Math and English subjects. Likewise, the problem with lack
of training in teaching mother tongue is also seen as one of the contributory factors that could affect
the effective teaching of mother tongue by the pre-service teachers. The above problems identified
support the drawbacks well outlined by previous studies on MTB-MLE (Malone & Paraide, 2011;
Oyzon & Fullmer, 2014; Wa-Mbaleka, 2014) showing the following challenges: (1) lack of
instructional materials in local languages, (2) absence of teachers’ training in the local languages used
246
for instruction, (3) insufficient training on L1 or L2 learning research and theories of primary school
teachers, (4) local languages may be perceived as insignificant resource for formal education, and (5)
parents’ resistance towards MTBE due to future employability concerns.

Moreover, findings of this study are consistent with the local studies like of Lartec et al. (2014) study
which showed that teachers teaching mother tongue encountered difficulties due to absence of books
written in mother tongue, lack of vocabulary, and lack of teacher-training. Likewise, the above results
corroborate that of Valerio’s (2015) findings which revealed teachers’ uncertainty with the
instructional materials they possess due to lack of localized translation of these materials. Also, of the
difficulty experienced by in-service teachers in teaching pupils who are culturally unfamiliar with the
same mother tongue that can be traced to the level of expertise of the teachers of the different dialects
(Valerio, 2015). Moreover, Wa-Mbaleka’s (2014) study which revealed the teachers’ belief in the
negative impact the use of mother tongue will bring to English language teaching are echoed in the
above findings. The same can be seen in the results found by Cabansag (2016) where different
stakeholders’ perceived the benefits of the implementation of MTB-MLE to include the following: (1)
expressing better ideas, (2) building self-confidence, (3) better retention, and (3) promoting friendly
environment, whereas the challenges covered the following themes: (1) multilingual environment, (2)
difficulty in translation, (3) inadequacy of instructional materials, and (4) mandatory compliance to
the Department of Education (DepEd) order. Lastly, Cruz’s (2015) study on the status of
implementation of MTB-MLE in Grade 1 also highlights the results of this study. Cruz (2015) revealed
that majority of the instructional objectives in the mother tongue as a subject are not being met,
particularly in the areas of grammar awareness, vocabulary development, and reading comprehension.
Moreover, the Grade I teachers use another language as accessory to the mother tongue and teachers
encounter serious problems with the implementation of MTBMLE such as attendance to relevant
trainings and the provision of evaluation instruments.

On the other hand, results presented above contradict the findings of Vizconde’s (2006) study on
student teachers’ attitude towards the use of English as language of instruction for Science and
Mathematics in the Philippines. The study found that most student teachers reported that concepts and
topics taught in English are not comprehensible to students and although English should be the medium
of instruction in teaching Science and Math subjects, using the English language alone is found to be
not effective.

247
Along foreign studies, Ejieh’s (2004) study in Nigeria supports findings of this study wherein Ejieh
(2004) also found the following problems as ranked from highest to lowest: (1) adverse effect on
English language learning; (2) mother tongue promotes weak foundation in education; (3) problem of
translating some concepts in some subjects; (4) problem of teaching pupils from different ethnic
backgrounds; and (5) poor development of language competence. The problems identified by Ejieh
(2004) are very similar with the drawbacks outlined by the pre-service teachers in this study, however
with one exception, laying of weak foundation in education.

4. Conclusion

With the implementation of the Mother Tongue Based-Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE), the
current study aimed at investigating the attitudes of one of the important possible stakeholders of this
policy, the pre-service teachers who will soon join the roster of full-time teachers. Likewise, this study
provides empirical data on the attitude of the would-be primary school teachers toward the use of
mother tongue as medium of instruction in Grades 1-3 and their willingness to teach in mother tongue
when they graduate. The results of this study also provide some insights to Philippine language policy
planners on the prospects of the MTB-MLE policy. Hence, in view of the above findings, the following
conclusions were drawn:

First, the pre-service teachers, in general, agree on the use of Mother Tongue as a medium of
instruction in Grades 1-3. This indicates that they have a positive attitude toward Mother Tongue,
which can be explained by the advantages that it can bring as it is popularly believed that it creates a
positive impact on students and thus enhances students' learning experience and achievement. Their
willingness to be trained to teach using the Mother Tongue implies that they support the
implementation of the new language in education. Further, Alieto (2018) even noted that the training
and discussions provided by their institutions could have conditioned the pre-service teachers to accept
the idea of teaching in mother-tongue, hence establishing a positive attitude towards its
implementation.

Second, there is no relationship between age and attitude, and between gender and attitude. Attitude is
not in any way dependent on age and gender. Regardless of age, both male and female respondents
have positive attitude towards the use of Mother Tongue as medium of instruction. Meanwhile, a
significant relationship is found between place of origin (province) and attitude, implying that attitude
is influenced by place of origin. Intervening factors like limited or varying levels of exposure of the
students to multiple languages, diverse social and cultural settings, or ease of expressing themselves
248
using the Mother Tongue in both formal and informal settings among others appear to be crucial in
this case. However, these results cannot be generalized and should be considerably taken with caution
as these can only be true in the current study.

Finally, the many and different problems pertaining to translation of learning materials, teachers’ and
pupils’ proficiency in Mother Tongue and in English, trainings, and development of instructional
materials as perceived by the pre-service teachers imply that the implementation poses a great
challenge to the educational system and to the pre-service teachers who will be future teachers. The
country's inadequate preparation for the shift to Mother Tongue can directly affect the certainty of the
full and successful implementation of the language program.

5. Recommendations

Based on the conclusion, the following recommendations are hereby forwarded:

1. Training in the use of Mother Tongue as a medium of instruction must be incorporated in the
education curriculum to prepare the pre-service teachers in their future role.

2. Training for teacher proficiency in the use of Mother Tongue especially in science and math subjects
must be provided to assist the teachers in the transition and to clarify the ambiguities in implementing
the new system.

3. Translation of textbook content and other learning materials must be prioritized to support learning.

4. Design and development of instructional materials that will cater to the specific needs of the students
in the regions should be properly coordinated and evaluated by experts in the fields of education and
linguistics to ensure quality instruction.

5. Future studies should explore similar research in a larger scale and with varying research designs
that include but should not be limited to experimentation, interview, observation, diaries, and the like
to provide a clearer picture of the learner, the teacher, and the classroom.

6. Pedagogical Implications

The practical use of the study can be applied for pedagogical purposes. First, pre-service teachers, in
the process of learning to effectively teach in an MTB-MLE program, must not be taught with
emphasis on theory alone. Understanding theories taught in an L2 does not guarantee learning how to
249
teach in the L1, let alone to expect them to do what they needed to do. Hence, application of teaching
in L1 in a real-world context must be demonstrated for the pre-service teachers. Second, pre-service
teachers – centered activities must also be prioritized during class time in teacher education, rather
than teacher educator – centered activities. This practice will encourage them to value active learning
and teaching through various group activities, simulations, and practice teaching which the MTB-MLE
program demands. Lastly, pre-service teachers must acquire the familiarity with and application of
theories and good practices relating to using L1 and L2 as languages of instruction. This means that
pre-service teachers must be trained on how to use the L1 as a bridge to subject matter content in L2.
Understanding the two interrelated yet separate concepts as language learning and concept learning
will enable pre-service teachers to construct feasible and effective learning goals for language learning
and for concept learning. This will eventually lead to the quality production of lesson plans and lesson
materials that are challenging but not frustrating at the level of language that pupils can manage.

250
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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Analysis of Indonesian-English Code-Switching Performed by the English Lecturers in PNUP

(Politeknik Negeri Ujung Pandang)

Shanty Halim
Politeknik Negeri Ujung Pandang, Makassar-Indonesia

Bioprofiles:

Shanty Halim is an English lecturer at Politeknik Negeri Ujung Pandang, Makassar-Indonesia. Her
research interests include English Teaching and Sociolinguistics. She has a master degree in English
Language Studies at Hasanuddin University, Makassar-Indonesia and currently teaching English
Skills. She can be reached at shantynurul@poliupg.ac.id

Abstract

This research is intended to find out the characteristics of Indonesian-English Code-Switching

in the conversation of the English lecturers. The code switching performed by the English lecturers of
PNUP (Politeknik Negeri Ujung Pandang) are in three aspects; the switched segments, the switched
points and types of code-switching. The study also attempts to identify the reasons for the lecturers
switched their codes. The method used were both qualitative and quantitative where code-switching
phenomena are identified, analyzed and classified into the structure evolved by Poplack (2004) and
Hoffman (1991). The data are taken from the conversations of the English lecturers when they were
chit-chatting at SPUP (State Polytechnic of Ujung Pandang). The findings showed that the noun phrase
and single noun as the most switched segments occurred in the conversations which comprised of
64,28 %. In terms of switch points, the points where the switches occur are Indonesian preposition and
the English Noun Phrase consists of 40% of the data. Concerning with the types of code-switching, it
is found intra-sentential switching as the most type occurred in the lecturers' conversations, which
comprised of 43,75% of the data. Relating to the reasons for code-switching taken from questionnaires
indicated that most of the lecturers switched their codes because of English is simpler and more
practical as 60% of the data. Since English is more or less to be used in the environment, it affects the
lecturers when communicated to each other.

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Key words: Code switching, switched segments , switch points and types of code switching

Introduction

Language as a communication medium plays a very important role in human activities to

communicate meaning, to exchange ideas, feeling or wishes. Using language humans can convey ideas
to other people, also as one aspect of total communication behavior by which a number of societies
can interact with each other. Language is always changing. It is flexible. There are many thousands of
languages in this world. People used many of them to communicate among others. Of those languages,
a person may acquire one or more. The acquisition of various languages, two or three or four brings
out language choices to be used in a community.

In the era of globalization nowadays, English is used as one of the most important languages
as well as international language which is used to communicate with people around the world to share
knowledge, opinions, and ideas through the medium of the internet which provide social networking
system. The acquisition of two or more languages may make a community become bilingualism and
multilingualism.

One of the phenomena which are happened in bilingual community is code-switching, that is
the way of speaking that combines two languages in the same sentence or discourse. It is a natural
process that often occurs between multilingual speakers who share two or more languages in common.
Code-switching is not a strange thing for Indonesian people now, especially in big cities. This
phenomenon can be much found in an electronic medium such as in television, radios, some people
like leaders or politicians, entertainers, business executives, teenagers or even housewives frequently
combine Indonesian and English when they are talking.

In natural conversation among English lecturers at PNUP (Politeknik Negeri Ujung Pandang),
the writer has observed this phenomenon. The lecturers frequently switch their codes in chit-chatting,
without being aware of it. This seems to happen naturally because the teachers habitually speak English
in teaching. That habit could be influencing their way of speaking in conversation. The following
example is taken from one of the teachers' conversation observed by the writer.
1. Lecturer 1: Sis A, besok jadikah kita visit Pak M?
Lecturer 2: Jadi, mungkin kita bisa berangkat after the class yah at 12 .
255
 Lecturer 1: Ok, nanti kita saling contact saja yah.

2. Lecturer 1: Laparma! I’m so starving.

Lecturer 2: Let’s eat then. Kantin Bu Acha kayanya enak disitu.

Based on the background explained previously, the researcher proposes to identify and
evaluate: 1) The switched segments the lecturers’ code switch, 2) The point where the switch occurs
3) The types of code-switching used by the lecturers in conversation, and, (4) the reasons for the
lecturers switched their codes.

The significance of the research are; 1) The findings will give some information for Indonesian
people, especially for teachers and sociolinguists in concerning the phenomenon of code-switching.
2). The findings will provide a description of the pattern of Indonesian-English code-switching,
especially those who switch their code from Indonesian to English. 3). The study will reveal a natural
phenomenon of language development in the society.

Literature Review

There have been several studies on bilingualism and code-switching. Arifin (2018) states that
although most of the studies now have shown the bi/multilingual advantage over their monolingual
counterparts, there are also studies that find no coherent evidence of this advantage.

Yusuf, Y.Q, et al.,(2018) investigated the types of code-switching between Indonesian and
English and vice versa in an Indonesian novel Antologi Rasa. The results showed that the most
frequently used code-switching type in the novel was inter-sentential switching (62.3%), followed by
intra-sentential switching (20.9%), tag switching (12.4%), and establishing continuity with the
previous speaker (4.4%). Inter-sentential was presumed to be used the most because this type of code-
switching signals bilingual proficiency and the novel does focus on readers who are adults and live in
the metropolitan area. These readers are believed to be fluent speakers of both Indonesian and English.
Establishing continuity with the previous speaker was the least frequently used code-switching type in
the novel. This type of switching is mostly affected by social distance whereas, in the novel, most of
the characters had a close relationship with each other, perhaps explaining this low frequency.

Yassi (2003) found 20 patterns of socio-pragmatic functions of Indonesian-English code-

switching, such as message repetition, desire to play with a well known English expression, quotation,
lack of a set Indonesian word, message neutralization etc. Yassi (2003) also found 5 strategies, which

256
mainly function to harmonize the sentences and utterances whenever the speakers code switch such
as: to naturalize the utterances, to avoid repetition, to transform the syntactic function, etc.

Zirker (2007) conducted research on Intrasentential Vs Intersentential Code-switching in early

and late bilinguals. The result shows that 26 early and late Spanish-English bilingual speakers made
acceptability judgments on intra and intersentential switches. The results also indicate that there is no
statistical difference between early and late bilinguals when responding to whether a mix was good or
bad, and how good or bad a mix was. There were, however, trends in the results which indicate that
early bilinguals may respond faster to code switches than late bilinguals, suggesting that early and late
bilinguals may process language differently.

Meanwhile, Iqbal (2011) shows the findings from Urdu/English code-switching corpus,
collected from universities of Lahore city, are presented and analyzed. It is investigated that while
making use of code-switching, there is frequent use of different linguistic features of code-switching
between Urdu and English by university teachers. It is found that intra-sentential codeswitching
(37.15%)is the leading code-switched area, and code-switching at word (31.21%), clause (21.54%),
and phrase (6.42%) level, being a part of inter-sentential code-switching, are the successive areas. On
the other hand, inter-sentential code-switching (3.66%) makes the least of it.

A basic concept in sociolinguistics is the speech community. It can be defined as a group of

people who habitually interact with each other linguistically (Hudson 1987:25). Further explanation is
given by Shridar in McKay and Hornberger (1996:49) speech community is a community sharing
knowledge of the rules for the conduct and interpretation of speech. Such sharing consists of
knowledge of at least form of speech and knowledge of its patterns of use.

State Polytechnic of Ujung Pandang (SPUP) is one of the famous vocational campuses in
Makassar. In this institution, there are a lot of people get along together. They are coming from
different backgrounds. For the English lecturers in SPUP also come from different backgrounds. They
are university graduates. They also come from different areas. Some are from Bugis, Toraja, Makassar,
and the others are from areas outside South Sulawesi. These different origins give an impact to their
interaction through language. For instance when they are talking, sometimes they use vernaculars.

Outside the classroom, the lecturers always meet and chat with each other. At SPUP, there is
no strict rule that all English Lecturers must speak English all the time. However, the lecturers possess
an awareness that they teach English and it means they have to always use the language. Therefore,

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when they are in a conversation, they never forget to use English. They mix it with Indonesian or even
vernaculars. It happens very often. Beside this awareness, this phenomenon probably can be happened
because of the frequent use of English in the classroom. When the lecturers are outside the classroom,
consciously or unconsciously they use some expressions from the lesson in their classroom in their
conversations.

Code-switching may be defined as follows: the use of more than one language by two people
engaged in a speech act (Poplack, 1980; Lipski, 1985; Gonzales-Velásquez, 1995; Myusken, 2000
cited in Zirker, 2007. p. 7). It can occur between the speakers involved in a conversation or within a
speech turn of a single speaker. Code-switching involves the alternate use of two languages or
linguistic varieties within the same utterance or during the same conversation (Hoffrnann, 1991, p.
110). Redlinger and Park (1980, cited in Hoffmann, 1991, p. 105) say "Language mixing refers to the
combining of elements from two languages in a single utterances." According to (Wardhaugh, 1990,
p. 103) code- mixing occurs when conversant uses both languages together to the extend that they
change from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance.

In code-switching, one language may be more dominant than others. It happens when a speaker
uses one language mostly than the other in a discourse. The dominant language is termed as "matrix
language" while the subdominant one is "embedded language". Thus, for example, the speakers of
Indonesian-English code-switching use Indonesian more than English, then Indonesian is the matrix
language (ML) while English is the embedded language (EL). Myers Scotton, 1993, cited in Halim,
(2004, p. 15) define the matrix language as "the higher frequency of morphemes in a discourse".

In terms of the grammar of code-switching. Poplack’s study (2004) cited in Jacobson (1998, p.
54) proposed that a model of grammar, which is governed by two constraints, could generate
Spanish/English code-switching. Firstly, the free morpheme constraint, where the switch may not
occur between a bound morpheme and a lexical form unless the lexical form has been phonologically
integrated. Into the morpheme. Secondly, aquivalence constraint. This constraint predicts that code
switches will tend to occur at points where the juxtaposition of elements from to the two languages
does not violate a syntactic rule of their language. In addition to grammatical constraint of code-
switching, Gumperz (1998, p. 87-89) proposed permissible switch points, syntactic relationship
(Spanish-English code-switching) as in the following examples (the segments under consideration are
in italics) :

1. Switching is blocked between subject-predicate construction:

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 - My uncle sam is the most Americanized
2. Switching is blocked between noun complement construction:
- That’s the book the one that was lost
3. Switching is blocked between verb-verb complement constructions:
- You should go to the field
4. Conjoined phrases
- Jhon stayed at home because his wife was at work
5. Switching is blocked between verbs of proportional attitude
- I think he went to the field

From various study of code-switching in the world. Shoji azuma (1998, p. 117) concluded, the
words that can be easily code switched are those that can meaningfully stand-alone. Among them are
open class words or content words such as noun, verb, and adjective.

Other segments that easily switched are conjunctions, tags and various phrasal categories
(Azuma, 1998, p. 114-6) as shown in the following examples:

1. Conjunction (lingala /French )

A-li-tu-ambia, THEN tu-ka-enda
(he told us, THEN we left)
2. Adverb (Malay/English)
Where did you go PETANG INI, Zam?
(where did you go this afternoon, Zam?
3. Adverb and tag (Japanese/English)
Soredakara, ANYWAY, asokode smoked salmon, katta no yo
(so, anyway we bought smoked salmon there)

For Indonesian, the English language is a foreign language. Therefore, English is not widely
and daily used in the community. The people still have the Indonesian language and vernaculars to be
used every day. English is just used in certain situations and by certain personalities.

According to Poplack (2004) and Esen (2016) classified types of code-switching into three
categories, they are Inter-Sentential code-switching, which the language switch is done at sentence
boundaries. This is seen most often between fluent bilingual speakers. For example: If you are late for
the job interview, işe alınmazsın.. the second is intra-sentential code-switching, the shift is done in the

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middle of a sentence, with no interruptions, hesitations or pauses indicating a shift. The speaker is
usually unaware of the shift. Different types of switch occur within the clause level including within
the word level. Some researchers call it also code mixing. For example: You are sleepy coğu zaman
because you spend a lot of saat in your bed.. The last type is extra-sentential, that is there is an insertion
of a tag from one language into an utterance that is in another language. For example: Turkish students
use some boundary words like ama (but) or yani (I mean) while speaking English. The present study
supports those studies in terms of grammatical constraints by Poplack (2004), Azuma (1998) and
Gumperz (1998). Dealing with the reason for code-switching, the present study in line with Hoffman
(1991, p. 116) and Halim (2004, p. 77) and Tajudin (2013, p. 106) mentioned several reasons for code-
switching such as; The reasons are the need to talk about a particular topic, the necessity of quoting
somebody else, being emphatic about something, the essential of using interjection, the need to use
repetition for clarification, the necessity of intention in clarifying the speech context for interlocutor,
and the need to express group identity, desire to use English, use popular word, show tendency to use
the integrated words, to show respect, and as habitual action.

Methodology
This research used a descriptive qualitative method. In this research, the writer provides a
description on Indonesian-English code-switching phenomenon in order to disclose the code-switching
used in terms of grammatical categories, such as, the switch segments of switching takes place, the
switch points where they occurred, the types of code-switching, and the reasons of the lecturers
switched their codes in the conversations at PNUP (Politeknik Negeri Ujung Pandang). The
conversations were on various topics such as daily life and career.

The subjects of this research are English Lecturers in PNUP. There are 10 (ten) English
lecturers from 15 (fifteen) who are selected randomly. In order to observe the code-switching which
happens around the lecturers, the researcher listens and records tentatively to the conversations carried
especially when they have finished teaching and go chit-chatting, in their daily conversations with
others. There are 50 samples of dialogue that contain switches, the researcher randomly draws 26
switches as the sample of the data, and 6 switches taken for explaining the reasons for the lecturers to
switch their codes.

The questionnaire as another instrument is also used to investigate the reasons for the lecturers
switched their codes in conversations. It is needed to support the finding which is analyzed textually.
There are 15 respondents ( all the English lectures) who have filled out and returned the questionnaires.

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 In analyzing data, the researcher presents the illustration of the general patterns of syntactic
features namely switched segments, switch points and types of Indonesian-English code-switching
found in the lecturers’ conversation. The data were analyzed by transcribing and sorting out the code-
switching discourse, then putting them in a tabulated form, consisting of switch segments, switch
points and types of code-switching as well as the reason for switching the codes. The frequency of
occurrences then counted and described.

Findings and Discussion

• Switched Segments of Indonesian-English Code Swiching among the Lecturers in

Conversation
After analyzing the data, it is found 42 switched segments employed by the lecturers
in conversation. It is found ten types of swiched segments indicated by the data in lectures’s
conversation. See table 1, the table details this feature.
Table 1. Switched Segments
Switched Samples Code
No. Total %
Segmnets 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Single N 3 1 1 2 0 2 0 0 1 2 12 28,57
2 NP 2 2 3 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 15 35,71
3 Indep Cl 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 4 9,52
4 Verb P 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 4,76
5 Dep Cl 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2,38
6 Conjunction 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2,38
7 Minor Cl 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 4,76
8 Adj P 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 4,76
Idiomatic
9 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Exp 0 1 2,38
10 Prep. P 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4,76
Total 42 100

As can be seen from the table above, the data show that single Noun and Noun Phrase as the
most frequent switched segment comprising 64,28% of the data.
1. A: Posisi HEADSTAND itu berat sekali, kak. (Headstand position is quite difficult, sis.)
B: Iya yah..... (No 1, Sp 2-9)
In this example above lecturer A is talking about a kind of sport that is yoga. The word HEADSTAND
is one of the pose which becomes famous and widely known, since they became the exercise used
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in yoga, breakdancing and acrobatics. Even the people who have a very limited English or not at
all have used and known the word. The word is rather ackward if it is translated to Indonesian
“kepala diatas”, so people prefer to use the former than use the translation.

2. A: Saya orangnya “SIMPLE” dan tidak suka menyusahkan orang lain”. (I’m a simple person
and don’t like to make troubles with others)
B: AWESOME .... (No 2, Sp 3-4)

Here, the conversation is taking in a meeting of English Lecturer. Lecturer “A” is talking about
herself to lecturer B. In example no 2 the word SIMPLE has been integrated into Indonesian. This
word is written and pronounced “simple”, a little bit different from the English word. The lecturer
switch their codes into English when they come to such an expression because the subjects have been
familiar enough with those integrated words. The word “awesome” is then mentioned by lecturer B
indicates that she feels amazed and as compliment to her friend’s personality.

3. A: Saya suka SELF CONFIDENCEnya, mau tampil ke depan kelas .... ( I like his self
confidence for coming in front of the class) (No 3, Sp 1)
In the example above lecturer A is talking about one of the student in her class, switching
occurs in Noun Phrase as SELF CONFIDENCE since it is known that English is more practical
rather than explain them in long word (Weinrich in Tjalla, 2003:59), therefore she probably
prefers to switch them.
4. A: Ke Jepang saja (Just go to Japan)
B: Tapi kayanya mahal itu Kak, I’M AFRAID WE CAN’T AFFORD IT. (but it seems quite
expensive, sis) (No 15, Sp 2-1)
5. A: JUST IN CASE dikau lupa kunci lab, ada di lemari saya simpan. (Just in case you forget
the lab key, I put it in the cupboard) (No 16, Sp 5).
Code-switching then occurs in the form of clauses, i.e independent Cl, dependent Cl, and minor
Cl comprising 4,76 % of the data. It is exemplified in 4 (indep Cl), and 5 (minor Cl).
In example no 4, the speakers are talking about general topic; taking vacation. Switching occurs
in the form of independent clause, then followed by minor clause in example no 5. It is understandable
that they are English lecturers they always use English, they sometimes forget the Indonesian version.
It might be happen since they rarely use the language.
The other switched segments which also show a high of occurences are adjective, prepositional
P, and verb P. It is exemplified in sentence 6 (adj), 7 (prep P) and 8 (Verb P).

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 6. A: Mereka ENTHUSIASTIC banget ikut lomba,.... ( They are very enthusiastic in joining the
competition). (No 5, Sp 7)
7. A: Kalo saya begitu metodenya, DURING THE CLASS mereka tidak hanya speaking, tapi ada
listeningnya juga. ( I use the kind of method, during the class they’re not only speaking but
also listening) (No 6, Sp 3)
8. A: Jangan makan kuenya, SMELLS BAD...... ( don’t eat the cake, it smells bad).( No 9, Sp 9).
The data found to support the previous researchers in which a single noun and noun phrases
are the most popular switches segment (Tjalla, 2003, Halim 2004). In addition to a single noun and a
noun phrase, it is also found clauses. The tendency of the speaker to switch in larger constituents such
as clauses probably caused by their habits. Since the subjects of the research are English lecturers, they
have a good ability of English. It is proper when they switch to clauses. Another reason for the lecturer
to switch their code in smaller constituents such as noun, noun phrase, adjective, adverb, and verb
phrase because they found it more convenient, much easier and free to switch rather than in large
constituent like a sentence. It also shows that noun, adjective, adverb, and verb are the easiest parts to
be switched since they are the basics lessons in English vocabulary. Therefore, the lecturers probably
also have good ability in those word classes above.
It is also found the switch of an English idiom which is shown in the following example:
9. A: Ahhh, YOU DON’T BEAT AROUND THE BUSS lha, tak usah bertele-tele. Ada gosip
apakah? (you don’t beat around the buss, okay? what’s the news?) (No 10, Sp 1)
B: Ada deh! Sabar yah, nanti saya cerita detailsnya.
In this example above the conversation occurs between the two lecturers which ask about the
news. She is curious about what happened so here the the code-switching occurs by using idiom, then
it is translated to bahasa Indonesia, for clarifying and emphasizing on the important point she wanted
to focus on.

• Switch Points of Indonesian-English Code Swiching among the Lecturers in Conversation

The study has found six combinations of Indonesian-English Code-switching used by the respondents.
See table 2, the table details this feature.

Table 2 Swich Points

Samples Code
No. Switch Points Total %
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Prep+NP 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 6 40,00

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 Eng Free
2 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
Morp+Indo 0 3 20,00
3 Prep+V 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 13,33
4 Verb+NP 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 13,33
5 Aux+verb 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 6,67
Tag+Interrogative
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cl 1 1 6,67
Total 15 100

In this combination the switch occured between Indonesian preposition and noun
phrase is the most frequent switch point, comprising 40% of the data. It is shown in 10 (the
segments under consideration are underlined).
10. A: Di Malino bagus UNTUK OUTDOOR .... (It’s better to have outdoor in Malino,....)
B: Tadi kakak bilang .... (No 5, Sp 2-1)
In the example above, the speaker tends to code switch only the noun rather than
preposition “untuk” because it belongs to closed class items, eg determiners, quantifiers,
helping verbs, auxiliaries, and tense, cannot be switched.
The other combination of switch point is between English free morpheme and
Indonesian bound morpheme, and between preposition and verb, comprising 20% and 13,33
%. It is shown in 11, 12, and 13.
11. A: Itu bapak SENSE OF HUMOURnya tinggi sekali, hahahhaa, saya ketawa terus dengar
ceritanya. (that man has a high sense of humour, hahahha, I kept laughing after listening his
stories). (No 7, Sp 5)
12. A: Apa ENGLISHnya ini perkedel jagung, yah? (What do you call perkedel jagung in English?)
B: Ohh itu kalo tidak salah corn patty, namanya. (ohh If I’m not mistaken, it’s called corn
patty). ( No 16, Sp 5-10).
13. B: Kayanya susah kalau suruh orang lain yang handle itu. (It’s rather difficult if we asked the
other person to handle it).
C: Kenapa tidak DIORGANIZE sendiri saja, Kak. (No 14, Sp 8-9)
As can be seen from the example above the switching occurs between English free
morpheme humour and Indonesian bound morpheme –nya, which functions as possessor.
According to Yassi, 2003 cited in Halim, 2004, p. 17 this is called naturalizing strategy. The
suffix –nya plays a crucial role in the sentence in terms of both meaningfulness and
naturalness of the sentence. It is arguable that the exclusion of such a suffix from the sentence
of the noun phrase will risk the meaning and the naturalness of the sentence.

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 There are also examples which are similar to Gumperz’s study found in the data they
are proposed constraint; conjunction must be in the same language as the conjoined sentence
and the other proposed constraint; switching is blocked between auxiliary and verb. Gumperz
in (Yassi, 2003:198-199). They are exemplified in 14 and 15 below.
14. A: Kenapa itu Jalil sudah dua hari absent dan tidak ada kabar?
B: oh iya, ibu S wali kelasnya toh?
C: Sebaiknya perhatikan kembali RULEnya, WHENEVER A STUDENT DOESN’T COME
TO CLASS, HE SHOULD INFORM TO THE CHAIRMAN OR AT LEAST TEXT THE
LECTURER. (No 20, Sp 1,3,7)
In the example above the switching WHENEVER functions as the subordinator conjunction.
It is support Gumperz’ view who states that the conjunction must be in the same code as the
conjoined sentence, which means after the subordinator conjunction must be followed by the
same language.
15. A: Harusnya kau bilang dulu kalau mau datang, biar kita bisa PREPARE-PREPARE makanan
gitu deh...
(You should tell me first if you want to come, so that we can prepare the food) (No 19, Sp 9).
In example no 15 the switching occurs in the form of verb, the English verb is pluralized in the
code-switching. This also means the matrix language is dominant in Indonesian – English code-
switching. In communication strategy, this is called compromising strategy as Sebba, 1998, cited in
Halim, 2004, p 82. In order to achieve the goal of communication, the switching occur although the
structure is ungrammatical according to the rules of grammar of one of the languages involve in the
case of Indonesian – English code-switching. Yassi (2003:230) states that the speakers to compromise
the Indonesian grammatical system used in the English words regardless of the fact they infringe the
grammatical system. This is because the speakers do not have many alternatives to avoid such a
violation. The speakers would not switch the code of the plural marker because it belongs to segment
that cannot stand alone. As Azuma 1998, cited in Halim, 2004, p. 67) explains, the segment that stand
alone cannot be switched.

• Types of Code-switching

The data also shows the types of code-switching used by the lecturers at SPUP (State
Polytechnic of Ujung Pandang), see table 3.

Table 3 Types of Code-switching

No. Samples Code Total %
265
 Types of
Code- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
switching
1 Intrasentential 3 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 14 43,75
2 Intersentential 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 8 25,00
3 Tag 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 4 12,50
4 Intralexical 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 6 18,75
Total 32 100

The English lecturers mostly prefer to make intrasentential switching since it is the most
dominant of other types. It comprises of 43,75% of the data. The second larger is intersentential code-
switching consists of 25% of the data. It is then followed by intralexical 18,75% and tag 12,50%. The
intrasentential switching is the most dominant probably because the lecturers found this is easier and
more practical also they have at least good knowledge in English.

The examples of both intrasentential and intersentential code swiching can be seen below in 16
and 17. (The segments under consideration are underlined).

16. A: Ayomi kita SAVE MONEY TO MAKE OUR DREAMS COME TRUE.... ayo nabung yuk
yuk...(Let’s save money then, to make our dream comes true). (No 18, Sp 1)
17. A: Itu di Pancious enaknya es krimnya. IT’S VERY TEMPTING. (At Pancious the ice cream
is so delicious. It’s very tempting)

Here the switchings occurs in the form of independent clause. According to Gumperz (1988:78)
code-switching repetition is used to clarify what is said or to emphasize a point. to make it clear also
to avoid misunderstanding, so she repeats the English expression in the indonesian’s equivalences.

The followings are intralexical in no 18, while tag switching are exemplified in 19 and 20.
18. A: Ehh ada PRINCESSnya Kak S datang! Sama siapa nak? ( Ehh here comes the princess of
Kak S! With whom do you come, dear? (No 17, Sp 10)
Here the speaker uses switching in the form of Noun. In Indonesian the word princess
sometimes is used for calling the daughter. The speaker tends to qualify the message and
specified it by addressing her friend’s daughter.
19. A: Barusan datang ke pesta makanannya habis. Pestanya petinggi di sini lagi. (I’ve just come
to a party and they ran out of the food.
B: Ahh REALLY? ARE YOU KIDDING ME? (No 23, Sp 2-3)

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 The conversation in no 19 is about going to party, here the speaker seemed to be annoyed
because she came to the party and did not have some meals there, the lecturer B then replied
by switching at the form of idiom which referred to surprising that she could not believe the
situation happened at the party.
20. A: YOU KNOW, mereka sebenarnya tahu kondisinya begitu, tapi mereka diam saja. (You
know, they actually realize the condition, but they just keep silent) (No 25, Sp 10).
Here the switch occurs in the form of simple clause. The verb phrase You know is as filler
which also means that the speaker has some kind of shared knowledge with his/her
interlocutor.

• The reason for the Lecturers to code-switching

The distribution of reasons for code-switching can be seen in the following table.
Table 4. Reasons for code-switching among lecturers at PNUP
No Reasons for code-switching The number of Percentage
respondents
1 English is more practical and
simpler 7 47
2 The good proficiency of English 8 53
3 Lack of Indonesian expression 5 33
4 Just habit 7 47

It is found several reasons for code-switching among lecturers at PNUP. The finding is based
on the questionnaire given to the respondents. Most of the respondents relate to the second reason, the
good ability of English because English can be said as their environment. The reasons are English is
more practical and much simpler, the good proficiency of English, and the lack of Indonesia
expression. The variety of reasons can be said to show every lecturer’s difference with their use, target,
and development in English. But, they have something in a foundation. They can overcome the
problem of the limited Indonesian expression by this. Therefore, good proficiency in English is the
most dominant reason.

1. English is More Practical and Simple

It is said that the use of English for the words that have on single correspondence
in the matrix language is more practical than explain them in long words as Weinrich,

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 1998 cited in Tjalla 2003, p. 59. Therefore eight respondents consider this as their reason
for code switching. They probably think that they had batter express their concept in
English because it is shorter and their addresses are likely to understand since they are
all English lecturers. Besides, if they say in Indonesian, it would sound awkward, also it is
considered that the English expressions are more axplicit, as far as meaning is concerned,
and simpler from the view point of the word numbers. Therefore, some lecturers prefer to
switch into English when they arrived at a certain word expression. Some examples can be
seen as following:
1. Kalau mau jadi pengusaha, sebaiknya punya jiwa ENTERPRENEURSHIP yang bagus (if
you want to become a businessman, you should have a good ENTERPRENEURSHIP
skill). (No 40, sp 5)
2. Ayo jalan-jalan ke Mall MP yuk, sudah lama tak SHOPPING (Let’s go to MP mall, we
haven’t go shopping for a long time). (No 35, sp 6-8)
3. EVENT bagus seperti itu jangan dilewatkan. (Such a good event, shouldn’t be missed). (No
34, sp 6-8)

In examples above, English expressions such as ENTERPRENEURSHIP and SHOPPING

used in the code-switching belong to the words specially used in business and tourism, in other words
these expression are strictly technical terms, and as such they are more explicit in specifying the things
or phenomena that they refer to compared with their Indonesian equivalence. For instance, the word
EVENT in 3 refers to specific events such as cultural ceremonies, dances and any other cultural
performing arts that are usually performed for the sake of tourism and benefit. However, when the
word is translated into Indonesian, the meaning will then indicate something in more general such as
sport event, accidents, fires, robbery, and the likes, Consequently, the real actual or meaning that
speaker intend to convey seems to be unclear, and such as, it may create a misunderstanding. Therefore,
in order to avoid such a misunderstanding between the speakers and the addresses since the message
is a bit unclear, the speaker decide to use the English expression EVENT rather than its Indonesian
translation by switching their code into English.

2. The Good Proficiency of English

All the respondents are English lecturers. Moreover, some of them are teaching English at
English courses. Therefore, it can be assumed that the respondents have a good proficiency in English.
They show their abilities through their teaching and also their conversation. They talk in English or
mix their natives languages, Indonesian or vernaculars with English. Even for the sake of variation,
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they use Indonesian and English simultaneously. It also becomes and encouragement for them and
their students to always use English.

4. A: Bagaimana VACATIONmu? (What about your vacation?)

B: THAT’S VERY EXCITED, bos. I WENT THERE WITH MY FRIENDS (No 44, Sp 3-
6).
The conversation above sounds show off. Yet it is understandable, since all the speakers are
quite good in English.

3. Lack of Indonesian Expression

For most Indonesian people, English is a foreign language. Therefore, only a few of them know
English well. For an English lecturers, he/she included in the letter group. English is his/her language;
he/she must prepare himself/herself with good English ability to interact to other people. Since they
always use English, they sometimes forget the Indonesian version. It might be happen since they rarely
use the language. Therefore, their responses within a conversation usually in English, not in
Indonesian.

5. A: Siapa namanya yang tugas di FRONT OFFICE,… ( Who is taking responsibility at the
FRONT OFFICE?) (No 31, Sp 9-12).
The word FRONT OFFICE has equivalence in Indonesian, “kantor depan”. Yet in this
conversation, it will sound ackward and uncommon if the speakers use “kantor depan” rather than
FRONT OFFICE”.
6. A: berapa no HPnya Mam? (What’s your phone number, mam?)
B: eh biar saya MISSCALL saja. (Let me phone you, first)
(no 38, sp 2-1).
The word MISSCALL has equivalence in Indonesian which is rather long, “panggilan tak
terjawab”. But not everybody knows this. Therefore, this fact makes the word MISSCALL is known
better than “panggilan tak terjawab”.
For reason number 4, it relates to the respondents’ ability in English. They make English as
their habits. Therefore, they code-switch between Indonesian and English also habitually.

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Conclusions
First, in the discussion of the switched segments, it is found the pattern of a noun phrase, single
noun, and clauses as the most frequent switched segments. The clauses are an independent clause,
dependent clause, and interrogative clause. This led to the conclusion that since the subjects of this
research are English lecturers, they have a good ability of the language. English is their environment,
they always use to teach to the students. It is proper for them to switch to the larger constituent like
clause. The more frequent the use of English will form a habitual use of English. Therefore, the
speakers tend to switch words in phrases and clauses.

Second, in terms of the switch points, it is found the pattern between Indonesian preposition
and English Noun Phrase and between English free morpheme and Indonesian bound morpheme. This
led to the conclusion that the preposition belongs to the closed class items (structrural words). This is
in line with Joshi, 1985 cited in Halim, 2004, p. 69 who claims that “closed class items” eg.
determiners, quantifiers, preposition, helping verbs, auxiliaries, tense etc cannot be switched.

Third, in terms of types of code-switching, it is found four types that are used by the speakers:
intrasentential, intersentential, tag and intralexical switching. This led to the conclusion that probably
the lecturers found this is easier and more practical. They have no doubt to use English in their
conversations, especially among them. All lecturers have done code-switching, even maybe only once.
It is understandable since they have to keep practicing their English and they have to encourage their
students to speak English. In doing so, they can speak English all the time or they can mix English
with Indonesian or even their vernaculars.

In the discussion of the reason for code-switching, it is found four reasons for code-switching;
English is simpler and practical, the good proficiency of English and the lack of Indonesian
expressions. This led to the conclusion that in delivering their message, the lecturers have certain
purposes during the interaction. To sum up the concluding points above, the researcher synthesized
that the lecturers employed Indonesian-English code-switching; they have certain grammatical
features that denote certain social meaning during their interaction.

For developing the study to farther research, it strongly suggested to carry out a further
study aims to find out a set of English expressions that will be classified as popular English
expressions used in Indonesia. In terms of conducting a similar study in the different analysis
it would be much to carry out a study on conversational code-switching by using

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 conversational analysis approach (CA) analysis by looking at from the analysis of
conversation such as overlapping, back channel, turn taking, and adjacency pairs.

References
Arifin, Muhammad Ahkam. (2018). Bilingualism: The Beneficial and Contradictory Findings. Asian
EFL Journal, 20 (5): 264-275
Auer, pater (1998). Code-Switching in Conversation. USA, New York: Routledge
Azuma, Shoji, (1998). Meaning and form of code-switching. Mouton de Gruyter: Berlin
Fasold, Ralph.(1984). The sociolinguistics of Languange. New York: Basil Blackwell
Gumpers, J. J. (1988). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
Halim, Shanty (2004). Conversational Functions of Indonesian-English Code-switching among the
Teachers in MANELS English Course. Unpublished Thesis. Makassar. Postragraduated Studies
Program. Hasanuddin University.
Hoffman, C. (1991). An introduction to bilingualism. Longman Group UK: Essex, England

Hunddleston, Rodney. (1988). English Grammar : An Outline. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
Hudson, R.A (1980): Sociolinguistics . Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, London
Jacobson, Rodolfo. (1998). Conveying a Broader Message Through Bilingual Discourse. An Attempt
at Contrastive Code-switching Research.In Rodolfo Jacobson (Eds).Code-switching
Worldwide. Berlin: Mounton de Gruyter
----------- (1998). Code-switching World Wide. Berlin: Luderitz and Beur.
Klein, Wolfgang. (1996). Second Language Acqusition. Cambridge university Press: Cambridge, New
York
Mc Kay, Sandra Lee and Hornberger, Nancy H. (1996). Sociolinguistic and Language teaching.
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Seliger, Herbert and Shohamy, Elana, (1989). Second Language Research Methods. Oxford University
Press : Oxford
Suganda, Lingga A. (2012). Code-switching and Code Mixing Done by the Teachers of SMA Kusuma
Bangsa Palembang. Holistics 4(7), 68-73.
Scotton, Carol Myers. (1993). Common and Uncommon ground : Social and Structural factors in
code-switching. Lanuage in Society, 22 (4) 475-503 .Cambridge University Press. doi:
10.1017/s.004704500017449
Skiba, Richard. (1997). Code-switching as a Language Countenance Interference. The Internet TESL,
3 (10)retrieved on 12 Maret 2017

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Tajuddin, (2013). The Occurrence of Code Switching on Personal Message of Blackberry Messenger:
Journal of English and Education, 1 (2), 103-114. Retrieved on 10 February 2019
Tjalla, Maghdalena, (2003). An Analysis of Indonesian-English Code Swtiching of Radio
Broadcasters. Unpublished Thesis. Makassar. Postragraduated Studies Program.Hasanuddin
University.
Poplack, Shana. (2004). Code-switching. Sociolinguistik. An international handbook of the science
of language, 2nd edition, ed. by U. Ammon, N. Dittmar, K.J, Mattheier & P. Trudgill. Walter
de Gruyter: Berlin

Yassi, A. Hakim, (2003).Code-switching as A Communication Strategy in Indonesian-English

Bilingual Discourse.Unpublished Dissertation.Makassar. Postgraduate Studies
Program.Hasanuddin University.
Yusuf, Y. Q., et al., (2018). Types of Indonesian-English code-switching employed in a novel,
Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2018.02.004

Zirker, Kelly Ann Hill, (2007) Intrasentential vs. Intersentential Code-switching in Early and Late
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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Textual Analysis of School Graffiti

Alma Bangayan-Manera, PhD

Cagayan State University, Andrews Campus
almamybangayan@gmail.com

Abstract
The study unraveled the meaning conveyed from graffiti through textual analysis. Three public
schools and three private schools were used in the study. There were 125 respondents who were
selected through purposive and snowball sampling. A total of 263 pictures of graffiti were collected
and analyzed through thematic and textual analysis. Findings disclosed that the three dominant reasons
in performing graffiti are: to express one’s emotion or self-expression; to communicate a message
and to get revenge or to rebel. Essentially, the denotative and connotative meanings reveal that
students’ graffiti is produce solely by gang communication and partly as a claim of territoriality and a
political cry to register political dissidence. The study concluded that graffiti is a manifestation of
students’ aggressive assertion to speak, to fight, to love and long to be recognized. It is their way of
ventilating their emotions, feelings and thoughts and a show of declaring their concept of territoriality
of a public place which they cannot do in formal avenues.

Keywords: vandalism, textual analysis, connotative, denotative

Introduction
Communication is a basic need. This is the reason why people choose different and creative ways
to communicate. Some use verbal and non-verbal ways like talking, yelling, and shouting some
communicate with visual pictures. Still others forward a mail or text, some chat using the internet
while others leave a note for others to be discovered in interesting places. In any of these forms, two
things are clear. First, many people use artistic expressions to give words and visuals to their thought.
Second, people have a need to let people know that they exist and that they do not want to be ignored
(Ong,1990).

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 Graffiti is a language by itself. It is a form of visual communication that expresses manifold
meaning meanings. It is usually used by youth to express themselves. It may come into a form of text
or symbols like drawing, or any abstract thing. This is the reason why some artists, sociologists and
writers even regard a graffiti as sophisticated form of art calling it “spray –painted art” or an artistic
creativity, its stylistic symbol usually on the wall (Decker & Curry,2000).
There are formal means instituted by schools to allow the students to express themselves. Notable
of which are writing in the school organ or bulletin and conducting non-violent activities through the
students’ organizations. Unlike these formal vehicles of self-expression, graffiti is an informal and
freer way of expressing of one’s thoughts, sentiments, aspirations, concerns, preoccupations and
emotions. Its authorship is private and the writers are anonymous as well.
While graffiti maybe interpreted as a form of expression, authorities in the academe view it as a
menace. It is for them a destructive form of culture and it is regarded as a common problem of teachers
and school administrators. Graffiti has focused primarily upon the illegality of graffiti, how it is often
associated with more violent crime, how the deviant label is assigned how the culture of graffiti
provokes a reaction within society, (Williams,2007). Hence school administrators are looking means
and ways to eradicate graffiti in school. The prevalence of graffiti art images publication led to the
publication of books and magazines entirely devoted to graffiti art and even suggested to use graffiti
wall in school or public places (Synder,2006).
In secondary schools in Tuguegarao City, graffiti is seen in restrooms, benches, walls, armchairs
and fences. Despite the implementation of Department of Education Manual restricting students to be
involved in this kind of subculture, there are still many students becoming graffiti art writers. Year in
and year out, many students are caught and penalized by school authorities. The voices of the students
are constantly etched in their graffiti art writings yet school authorities failed to listen to these voices.
When these voices are properly heard, then school authorities can provide positive environment where
students could properly and healthily express their thoughts, sentiments and feelings.

Objective of the Study

The fundamental purpose of this study is to interpret the meanings conveyed in school graffiti
and the reasons why students write graffiti. Such is done so as to listen to the inner voice of the
students who want to be heard.

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Methodology
Study Design
The study used the qualitative –textual analysis research design. Textual analysis is a systematic
analysis of the content rather than the structure of the communication to determine the objectives or
meaning of the communication.

Respondents of the Study

The 125 respondents were students who have records of graffiti in their schools. They were taken
from the Guidance Office ( public schools) and Prefect of Discipline ( private schools) as they keep
records of students. Purposive sampling was used and the criteria for selection were as follows: (1)
They are still studying in the school at the time of the study; (2) They had record of performing graffiti
in the school; and (3) They had done graffiti for the span of 4 years in the school where they enrolled.
The study used an interview guide as the primary data gathering instrument. The first part determined
the profile of the respondents. The second part would focus on the meaning/message in the graffiti.
Pictures were also made as a way of documenting the graffiti in all the schools. Basically the interview
guide was pre-tested in order to determine its weaknesses and to make the necessary modifications
to guarantee the accomplishment of the concerns of the study.

Data Collection Procedure

Permission was requested from the Principals of the identified schools. After the approval, the
researcher sought the assistance of the Guidance Counselor for the determination of the students who
have committed graffiti. An examination of the records of the students was made. These were records
for the past four years from SY 2010-2014. An interview with the students either individual or group
was done upon invitation with the student graffiti artists in the school place of the researcher. Pictures
and videos were taken from the different places or things in the identified schools.

Analysis of Data
Textual and thematic analyses were performed. The textual analysis is done in three stages : First,
analysis of the rhetorical context or determination of the characteristics of the vandals; second, analysis
of the textual features of the graffiti; and third, the placing the text in a new context.

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Results and Discussion
Meanings Conveyed in Performing Graffiti
Based on the interview conducted to the student graffiti writers textual features of mgraffiti,
the most dominant reasons for performing school graffiti are to are to express one’s emotion or self-
expression ; to communicate a message ; and to be become known or famous. Students performed
graffiti as an outlet of their suppressed emotions, thought and feelings (Mcauliffe,2012). They wanted
recognition of the things they do. In the results presented , men dominated the writers of graffiti. It
was believed by Lomabard (2013) it is because of masculinity of men and their power in the
community they belong.

To Express One’s Emotions

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 It is through performing graffiti that students can release their state of mind, their madness,
sexuality, happiness, anger, rebellion and affection. According to Wolf (2011) , there are many people
who feel they do not have a forum for effectively voicing their concerns and so they resort to perform
graffiti or write somewhere in the school or any public places. They find graffiti as a form of relief
from pressures, stresses and challenge their experience in life. The pictures of the graffiti depict the
authenticity of their emotions since they did or performed the writings without reservation and with
full convictions.
As a form of connection, graffiti also provides them a link with their friends, classmates,
schoolmates and gangsters who are the target readers or audience of their craft. In the sense, their
graffiti writings is their way of claiming their identity and belongingness. This reality is a vivid
manifestation of the desire of the youth to put “personal stamp” of their school which is a part of their
culture wherein to desire for recognition, search for identity and autonomy.
The presence of numerous tags among youth is a call for recognition and assertion of one’s
identity. As claimed by Power (1996), the purpose of tagging is about “getting up” in as many places
as possible. For the tagger recognition as a prolific writer is an important goal. Through prolificity,
fame and a sense of power are acquired by how many tags a writer can complete. Power is exercised
by how writers make personal claims to the surfaces they tag. The writer also feels a sense of power

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by participating in an activity and culture that is so active and has such a visible effect on their physical
surroundings. Taggers are also inspired to continue their exploits because of the rebellious nature of
these actions. They constantly challenge the normative values of the popular culture, and as new
strategies are implemented to reduce the incidences of tagging, they constantly figure new methods to
counter them.
Connotative analysis of the tags in the study shows that tags are not only the externalization
of the writer’s identity, but in addition the only expression of their identity that is presentable in the
vandalism world. Being someone in vandalism language is ‘making a name’. Without the tag, the
writer does not exist. Since it is strongly believed that identity is something people create rather than
what people are, the tag is the identity that writers create to introduce who they are to the world.

To Communicate a Message

With this data, it can be deduced that to express one’s self is the primary motive
of the respondents to do writing of graffiti . This motive to write graffiti was clearly
articulated by some of the respondents who said the following statements:
- Nag-vandal ako para malaman ng mahal ko na mahal na mahal ko siya (I
performed vandalism to convey my love to my love one);
- Nag vandal ako para malaman ng buong mundo ang feelings ko (I did
vandalism to make known to the whole world how I feel);
- Gusto kong ipahiwatig ang aking nararamdaman sa pamamagitan ng pag
vandal (I want to express my feelings through vandalism);
- Para maging sikat ako (For me to be famous);

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 - Gusto ko lang i- share ang aking nararamdaman (I just want to share my
feelings);
- Para malaman ng lahat na may galit ako sa taong yun (So people would know
that I hate that person);
- Gusto kong ilabas ang libog ko (I just want to express my sexual desire)

The pervasiveness of school graffiti culture and its underlying reasons reveals that it is the
youth’s coping strategy to communicate because of the lack of less restrictive avenues for them to
express themselves, be recognized and to convey the messages on a real life issues and concerns
affecting them. There seems to be a need to provide avenues to develop a culture of self-expression
and social environment is much desired (Moonwomon, 1992).

To Revenge or Rebel
Although the students know that performing graffiti or writing graffiti is an unacceptable
behavior, they persist to do this because they are in the company of friends who allow them anything
and who support them in such kind of endeavor. As substantiated by Matza (1990), the deviant
behavior is legitimated or neutralized by the perpetrators or writers of graffiti. As believed by Lannert
(2015), the graffiti artists do not see themselves exclusively or even primarily as a criminal. They
view themselves as artists who are eager to share their craft with society or to the group they belong.
A significant facilitating factor for nurturing graffiti in this regard is the culture of silence
( apathy students not to the report the writing of graffiti) among students which allow the graffiti to
reside in the schools. Moreover, through an in-depth textual analysis of the denotative and connotative
meanings of graffiti , it reveals that are also produce solely as means of gang communication and
partly as a claim of territoriality.

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 The picture above underpins an example of political graffiti. This is manifested in
the wall stating “ Ibagsak ang NPA salot! ( Dismantle the New People’s Army, Menace!)
This conveyed the hatred against the New People’s Army and writer is expressing a point of
view to dismantle it. Perharps, this political cry revealed the presence of the NPA movement
in the province which is the underground movement in the country. It may also reveal that
person had bad or tragic experience with NPA. It may also imply loose of property which
the subversive movement has done to the graffiti writer either directly or indirectly.
Excellently stated by Fellows (2014), political groups take advantage of graffiti as
communication because it is the safest, the most economical and highly efficient way of
reaching desired audience. The message of political graffiti are fragments of truth, a hurried
summary of facts that include themes associated with the labour conditions, freedom,
political power, homelessness, unemployment, religious thought and civil rights.

The picture above conveys that the writer wants to oust the President of the republic. It brought
to the audience a sense of dissatisfaction to the leader of the country. The dismay to the president may
be accounted to the fact that there are some public pronouncements or declarations that were not
realized. Dissatisfaction may spring from the lack of basic social services delivered and the poor
delivery of government programs. Ousting the president may also convey that they are not politically
supporting the President of the Philippines. The writer’s political belief may not be consistent with
what the president was doing. It may also be that the writer is a supporter of another political party and
not the party of the President

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 Interestingly, the study found out that the politics became also the subject of graffiti and this
ignited students’ deep emotions against the government and subversive groups. It basically shows the
political awareness of the students. These student graffiti artists reveal the strength and depth of their
convictions as regards the political reforms they want to institute in the society. Evidently, the photos
shown are used to discredit the New people’s Army and to impeach the President. These are political
cry to register the political dissidence and express their social alienation. Long and Barke (2014) claim
that political graffiti has always been inextricably linked to student protest and it may become an
excuse for wanton destruction.
Generally, the recurrent themes expressed in the collected pictures of the graffiti are centered
on love and sex which are expression of the concerns of the adolescents.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Graffiti is a manifestation of students’ aggressive assertion to speak, to fight, to love, and long
to be recognized. It is their way of ventilating their emotions, feelings, thoughts and a show of declaring
their concept of territoriality of a public place which they cannot do in formal avenues. It is a way of
their communication that they exist in a society where they belong.
Hence, it is suggested that graffiti must be given appropriate and immediate attention by school
administrators and teachers that can be formally discussed with students, teachers, parents and other
stakeholders as this is a symptom of the issues, problems and concerns of the youths.

References
Fellows, Emily. (2014). Graffiti As A Canvass For Popular Culture. My Communication Herald.
Lachmann, R. (1988). Graffiti as Career And Ideology. American Journal of Sociology, 94(2),229-
250.doi:10.1086/228990
Lombard,Kara- Jane.2013.Men Against The Wall: Graffiti(ied) Masculinities. Journal of Men’s
Studies.21 (2), 178-190. doi: 10.3149/jms2102.178
Lyn, Nick; Lea, Susan J. (2005). Racist Graffiti: Text, Context and Social Comment. Visual
Communication. 4:39-63. doi: 10.1177/147035205048935
Mcauliffe, Cameron.2012. Graffiti or Street Art?: Negotiating the Moral Geographies of the Creative
City. Journal of Urban Affairs,34 (2),189-206.doi: 10-1111/j.1467-9906.2012.00610.x
Moonwomon,B. (1992). Rape, Race and Responsibility: A Vandalism-Text Discourse. Berkeley
Women and Langauge Group.

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Powers, Lynne A. (1996) Whatever Happened to The Graffiti Art Movement. Journal of Popular
Culture, 29 (4), 137-142.
Synder, G.J. (2006) Graffiti Media and the Perpetuation of An Illegal Subculture. Crime Media
Cuture,2(1),93-101.doi: 10.1177/1741659006061716
Lannert, Camille (2015). The Perpetuation of Graffiti Art Subculture, Butler Journal of Undergraduate
Research: Volume 1 http://digitalcommons.butler.edu/bjur/vol1/iss1/5
Williams, J.P. (2006). Youth –subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts.
Sociological Compass, 1(2) 572-593.doi: j.1751-9020.2007.00043.x
Wolff, Brett. (2011). The Writing on the Stall: Graffiti, Vandalism and Social Expression.
Kaleidoscope: Vol9, Article 11 available at :
http:/uknowledge.uky.edu/kaleidoscope/vol9iss1/11

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Appendices

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY AND ECONOMY INDEPENDENCY IN THE

FISHERMEN’S HOUSEHOLDS OF BANTEN

Evy Clara
Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Science,
State University of Jakarta,
Email : evyclara@unj.ac.id

Komarudin
Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Science,
State University of Jakarta,
Email : komarudin@unj.ac.id

Ubedilah
Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Science,
State University of Jakarta,
Email : ubedilah@unj.ac.id

Ahmad Tarmiji Alkhudri

Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Science,
State University of Jakarta,
Email : tarmiji@unj.ac.id

ABSTRACT

This research aims to know financial management in the fishermen’s households of Banten. From
the side of methodology, this research uses post positivistic paradigm (mixed method). The key
research subjects are wives, fishermen, and other stakeholders. Meanwhile there are 135 chosen
respondents, each 45 people from Teluk Village, Labuan, Pandeglang and 90 people from
Karangantu, Banten Lama Village, Serang. Research time, counted since April 2016 - October

286
2017. The research result indicates that the role of fisherman’s wife in fulfilling the household
economy needs is very significant, from becoming farm workers, breeders, opening
shop/stall/grocery store, becoming fish seller, process fish, sell shrimp paste, sell dried salted fish,
until becoming Female Migrant Workers. From those roles done, the average of income in a month
reaches 40% family needs. Meanwhile, the strategy of household financial management is done
through social gathering mechanism, saving, debt, and receivables. The gathering of fisherman
wives is also a momentum of education for fellow fishermen households, regarding the importance
of language education, especially in English, as a catalyst for the economy of coastal communities,
because capital in the form of language is believed to help the economy on the external side.

Keywords: strategy, financial management, fishermen’s households, banten

1. INTRODUCTION

From 67.439 villages in Indonesia, around 9.261 villages are pesisir villages. Coastal potential
and Indonesian maritime affairs per year is very abundant, reaches 6,7 million tons per year. This fact
is inversely proportional with the fishermen’s welfare level. The poverty in the fishermen’s households
become more chronic and complex. The study of Sajogyo indicates that the fishermen’s households
are considered poor, besides narrow farm households, farm workers, and craftsmen. Therefore, various
efforts are done by the fishermen’s family, one of them is by the improvement of household economic
strategies which includes resource allocation efforts, especially labor in two sectors at once, which are
production and non-production sector. The effort in production sector points at various household’s
activities in the field of production economy. Meanwhile non production effort points at the
involvement of household members in various social welfare institution in society.
In poor families in villages, the involvement of all family members in earning a living is one of
the efforts to survive and also is the family response to inadequate conditions. The children from poor
families enter working world earlier if compared to children from well-off families. Generally, they
have started working in the age of 12 years old, even can be younger than that. Besides child labor,
wife’s workforce is also a very helpful assest to family economy because the wives of family of
fishermens workers usually have double roles, that they also work to fulfill their family living
expenses.
In the previous studies, it has shown the important role of female fishermen in the survival of
fishermen’s households. Like Hutapea (2012) that reviews “The Role of Female Fishermen
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(Fishermen’s wives) Gill Nets in Improving Family Economy in Bejalen Village, Rawa Pening Swamp
Waters, Ambarawa Sub-District, Semarang District”. The purpose of this research is to know the
income earned by female gill net fishermen in the contribution to the family income and to know the
factors that affect gill net female fishermen in Bejalen Village. With descriptive method based on caset
study, the research result shows that the income of female fishermen averagely is able to give
contribution about 37,11 percent. With lowest income detail of female fishermen are able to contribute
to household’s income about 26 percent. Meanwhile the highest income is able to contribute about
75,8 percent.
Other studies like what have been stated by Ekaningdyah (2005) entitled “The Role of Female
in Improving the Income of Fishermen Families in Tasikagung Village, Rembang Sub-District,
Rembang District, Central Java”. Ekaningdyah sees the percentage of female fishermen bigger than
male fishermen as a big potential to improve fishermen’s income.
The position of women who had only functioned as housewives or improved as breadwinner.
The result obtained from this research, that working in labor market done by fisherman’s wife as a side
job and also to increase income in order to fulfill daily living expenses. The contribution of female
fishermen that works in fisheries sector especially fish processing workers, either scaning, drying, or
making crackers in fact is quite big. This is proved from the average percentage of female fishermen
contribution in family income about 38,14% - 43,47%.
Then, study of Nugraheni (2012) about “The Role and Potential of Women in Fulfiling the
Economic Needs of Fishermen Familites” explaints that gender bias in family economic life already
seems blurred because the wives are also demanded to meet family needs. By using the gender analysis
approach of Harvard model and also qualitative analysis, Nugraheni sees wife participation at
improving family welfare in Bedono Village (research location) is manifested in household
environment, either in economy field or society. The obstacles encountered by female fishermen are
less time to gather with family and take care household that also affects family harmony and children’s
education becomes neglected.
From some of those studies, there are some “analysis emptiness” that becomes a gap and the
significance of study novely of the important role of women in fishermen’s households. Either
Hutapea, Ekaningdyah, and Nugraheni, first, trapped in the woman role that is more seen as additiona
productive household power, so that the average research result are contribution percentage of female
income for the households. Eventhough income that increases from productive business that is done
by women will be in vain if not accompanied by knowledge and skill of managing household finance,
then the income obtained nor can be managed well.
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 This is like what happened in Ponela Village (Arafah, 2013), which money that runs out for a
moment and not managed properly, so that in famine season, the fishermen families are not separated
from debts. Second, Hutapea, Ekaningdyah, and Nugraheni focus to see the female efforts either
productive or reproductive on one level only, which is micro level. There is a bigger potential that can
bring positive impact and support husband’s job (male) as the main job if that financial potential can
be managed well. Third, the coastal development with gender perspective becomes more important.
The majority of suggestions from previous studies are always about female fishermen productive
sectors. Even though what must be considered is that female fishermen works in two functions at the
same time, reproductive and productive, so that the next development plan must be really based on the
needs of female fishermen. Therefore, this writing is intended to fill “the emptiness of study and
analysis” about the strategy of financial management in the fishermen’s households (case study of
Banten fishermen).

2. METHODOLOGY
This research uses post-positivism paradigm (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000) and descriptive
quantitative and qualitative approach. The research location is Teluk Village, Labuan, Pandeglang and
Karangantu District, Banten Lama Village, Serang, Banten. The research time counted since April
2016 – October 2017. The main research subjects in thi research are fishermen wives and fishermen
husbands (90 KK in Karangantu and 45 KK in Teluk Village). The supplementary subjects are the
involved stakeholders in coastal activities.
The data collection technique used are : (1) literature review: done to obtain data and information
about theories and concepts about financial management of fishermen households. The documents and
libraries are obtained from files, research result, books, various publications, related scientific journals
with research objects. (2) in-depth interview; done in the effort to know the information about social
condition, economy potential, social structure, and potential for household financial management of
fishermen household in detail. (3) life history; done to obtain typical data about each ex-migrant
potential; (4) FGD as a deepening form. Meanwhile, data analysis is done by using quantitative and
qualitative data analysis.

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 3. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1 General Description of Bay and Karangantu Fishermen

Teluk Village, Labuan and Karangantu, Banten Lama Village, Serang are two coastal villages in
South and North Banten. Both of them are one of the biggest fishing base, especially Karangantu
fishermen have historical strength with the history of Banten journey.

Figure 1 and 2. The Map of Teluk Labuan Village and Banten Serang Village

Source: Documentation, 2016-2017.

Teluk Village has an area 1,97 km2 or about 12,59% from the sub district area. The total
population of Teluk Village, Labuan is based on population monograph data about 5.920 lives,
consisted of 2.973 men and 2.947 women. The majority of the population works as fishermen. There
are two fishermen categories in Teluk village, which are local and immigrant fishermen. The
immigrant fishermen generally come from the areas of Central Java Surabaya, Dadap, and Tegal.
The income of Teluk village fishermen is determined from fishing result. Besides that, the
income specification is also determined by the role and total catch obtained. Therefore, it is hard to
estimate their monthly income for sure. However, if roughly calculated, the monthly income of
fishermen in this village are estimated to be around Rp. 1.500.000,00 – 3.000.000,00. Meanwhile, the
expenditure per day are Rp. 50.000,00 – 100.000,00. Seen from education level, the majoritiy of
education of fishermen’s households in Teluk village is still low. On average they only graduate from
Primary School, with a very high dependency to fraud.

290
Figure 3 and 4. Portrait of Teluk Village Fishermen

Source: Documentation, 2016-2017.

The condition that is not much different from what had been experienced by the majority
fishermen of Karangantu Banten Lama Village. Based on the data obtained, that the education level of
Karangantu fishermen fimilies are still considered low (only graduated from Primary School).
Meanwhile, the daily expenses are about Rp. 50.000,00 – 100.000,00.

Table 1. Characteristic of Respondents

No. Characteristic of Category f %

Respondents
1. Education Level Primary School 106 78,52
Junior High School 29 21,48
2. Total Family Members 1-3 people 54 40,00
Above 4 81 60,00
3. Length of Stay 15 – 40 57 42,22
Above 40 78 57,78
4. Length of Becoming a 1-14 years 11 8,15
Fisherman
15 – 40 51 37,78
Above 40 73 54,07
5. Income Level 500.000,00 – 1.499.000,00 23 17,04
1.500.000,00 – 3.000.000,00 107 79,26
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 Above 3.000.000,00 5 3,70
Source: Processed from field data, 2016-2017.

High and low income of fishermen families, as explained above, is very influenced by the
weather condition and fishing season. There are three fishing seasons such as:
1. Peak season or east season, on this season the fishing activity reaches the highest frequency, so that
it causes fish landing peak season that usually occurs in around May until August. The fishermen
call it rejeh (the season when many fish are acquired).
2. Normal season or transitional season, on this season fishing activity done by the fishermen are at
normal frequency and produce normal fish production volumes occur twice a year, which are early
transition season that happens in around March until April and final transition season that happens
in around September until October.
3. Famine season or west season, on this season the weather is in a bad condition so that the fishermen
rarely or almost never go to sea due to safety and security so that this causes low frequency of fish
landing it usually happens in around November until February. The fishermen call it paila season
(the season when less fish are acquired).

Regarding to capture zoning, the fishing catchment area are Sunda strait waters, Java Sea,
Panaitan Cape, Well, Thousand Islands, Krakatau, Rompang, Pucang Island, Kalianda, Kelapa
Koneng, Karang Bawah Cypress, Item Stone. The fish type produced from catch results in those
catchment areas are cobs, mackerels, red snappers, and squids. Meanwhile, the catching tool used are
umbrellas, purse seine, gillnet, dogol, fishing rod, and chart.

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Figure 4 and 5 Fleet and Purse Seine Fishing Gear

Source: Documentation, 2016-2017.

Box 1. Description of Purse seine Catching Tool

Purse seine Catching Tool

A cpurse seine ship has 25-30 labor fishermen. Purse seine or trawl ring is considered
the type of circular net, which the operation way is by wrapping around the net to a
group of fish in a waters and then pulled to the ship. The Purse seine used in PPN
Karangantu and PPP Labuan Banten are the type of purse seine with the size of length
400 – 700 m2 with the depth of 40 – 70 m2. The mesh size used is 1 – 1,25 inch. Purse
seine is able to survive for seven months. Purse seine is pulled by using the type of
motor boat with the weight of 10 – 30 GT. The size of small purse seine operating
boat kecil has the length size of 5 – 15 m2; width of 3,5 – 4,3 m2; and height of 1,5 –
4,25 m2. The size of purse seine big size starts from the length of 16 – 23 m2, width
of 4,5 – 5,7 m2, and height of 4,25 – 6 m2. The endurance of purse seine operating
boat is around 5 – 25 years.
.
Source: Processed from field data, 2016
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 The problem of fishermen with average low income, of course, has implications for their daily
lives, which is “Two wrong don’t make a right”. Greater expenditure than income. This becomes one
of the signs of fisherman poverty. In addition, other factors that also contribute to fishermen’s
households poverty in those two locations such as: (1) debt bondage with the skipper; (2) damage to
marine ecosystems that have a significant effect on catches; (3) incompatibility of fishing gear; (4)
development programs that have not taken sides with small fishermen; (5) low investment (6) limited
human resources for fishermen, and (7) consumptive lifestyle; (8) fishermen institutions /
organizations are not yet established; (9) capture zone zoning conflicts. See table 2 and figure 6 below.

Tabel 2. and Figure 6. Nine Poverty Causative Factors in the Fishermen’s Households (Teluk
and Karangantu)
No. Category f %
1. Tied to debt with 6 4,44
skipper
2. Damage to marine 23 17,04 Terikat hutang
dengan juragan
20
konflik zonasi 18 kerusakan
ecosystem wilayah tangkap
16
14
17.04
ekosistem laut
12
10
6.67 8 4.44
3. Incompatibility of 21 15,56 belum mapannya
kelembagaan/
6
4 ketidaksesuaian alat
15.56
3.7 2 tangkap
organisasi nelayan 0
fishing gear program
11.11 pembangunan yang
gaya hidup
belum memihak
4. Development 27 20,00 konsumtif 8.15

13.33
20
kepada nelayan
kecil
keterbatasan SDM
rendahnya investasi
nelayan
programs that have
not sided with small
fishermen
5. Low investation 18 13,33
6. Limited fishermen 11 8,15
human resources
7. Consumptive life 15 11,11
style
8. Not yet institutionally 5 3,70
established /
fishermen
organization

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 9. Capture zone zoning 9 6,67
conflict
Ʃ 135 100
Source: Processed from field data, 2016-2017.

3.2 The Role of Fishermen's Wives in Arranging Household Economic Needs

The husband's income from fishing for fishermen’s households in Teluk and Karangantu
Villages, Banten Lama Village ago felt to be lacking, let alone the needs of each of their families issued
every day differently. This situation demands the role of the wife to work side-by-side to improve the
fishermen's household economy. The activity of the fisherman's wife in working every day has become
a habit, because the additional work can cover the shortage of household needs. The following are
presented in table form, regarding the roles of fishermen's wives in sustaining fishermen's households
economy.
Table 3. The Role of Fishermen’s Wives in Helping Family Economy
The Role of Fishermen’s Wives
No.
Teluk Village Karangantu, Banten Lama Village
1. Farm workers Opening shop/stall/store in long-
time tourist area of Banten Lama
pilgrimage
2. Livestock Selling fresh fish
3. Fish seller Processing fresh fish
4. Processing salted fish, pindang, Selling dried salted fish
and fish crackers
5. Making and Selling shrimp paste Making and Sellig shrimp paste
6. Dried salted fish seller Migration (Female Migrant
Workers)
Source: Processed from field data, 2016-2017.

Outpouring of working hours of fishermen's wives per day between 10-12 hours. This time is
outside the time of parenting and other domestic spheres. In addition to actively supporting the family's
economic endeavors, they are also active in community activities such as pengajian, arisan, and PKK.
From the roles performed, the average monthly income reaches 40% of the family's needs. Here, the

295
wives of fishermen have worked productively in increasing their income and the economic
sustainability of the fishermen's households.

3.3 Household Financial Management Strategies Conducted by Fishermen's Wives

Governance strategies are carried out in order to maintain the stability of life in fisherman
households. In this context, the wives of the fishermen play an important role in managing household
finances. The financial arrangements are focused on the cost of fishing (including fuel, renewing
fishing gear, and boat maintenance), children's education, the cost of eating (the need for rice a day
reaches 2 kg at a price of Rp. 10,000 - 12,000 per / kg), the cost of clothing, family members' health
costs, household furniture costs, assistance or donations.
For this purpose, Teluk and Karangantu fishermen rely on savings and savings mechanisms. Both of
them are the main foundation for meeting the fishermen's household needs. In addition, they also rely
on deposits in the form of gold, debt and receivables.
Figure 7. Financial Management Strategy

• Social Gathering
• Saving
• Gold
• Debts
• Receivables
Source : Processed from field data, 2016.

The financial management strategy, first carried out through social gathering. The fishermen's
wives followed the social gathering held through the Moslem Reciting Communities Institution, a
group of women's organizations, and the like. The size of the social gathering varies, between Rp.
100,000.00 - 500,000.00 per month with participants between 50-70 people.
Second, saving money. Most of the fishermen in Teluk and Karangantu Village, Banten
Village are reluctant to deviate their money from the Bank, only a small portion of them save their
money at the Bank. The wives of fishermen in both villages are saving money in their homes (buying
household appliances, etc.) and traditional institutions around them. Third, buy gold. Gold is a
financial governance mechanism that is very much carried out by the wives of fishermen. As with
buying household appliances, buying gold is often translated as saving money for the future. They
bought gold jewelry when the harvest season arrived, while during the famine they pawned the gold
jewelry to the pawnshop.
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 Finally, the debts between ship owners / skipper and fisherman laborers. In general, the ship
owner deducts money from the fishermen's labor from the sale of the catch, and so on until the debt
is paid off. There are also those who choose debts to the nearest neighbors, because the needs are
increasing. However, most of the families of fishermen in the two villages carry out debts at the fishing
cooperatives and shops / kiosks around the fishing settlements.

3.4 English Education Strategy of Fishermen's Household Empowerment in Conducting

Financial Management
Seeing the persistence of the spirit of fishermen's wives in managing finances, maintaining
stability, and the sustainability of household life, it is necessary to have the right empowerment to
carry out financial management in fishermen households. this is important as an effort to encourage
the development of transformative, independent and sustainable coastal villages.

Figure 8. Strategy for Empowering Fishermen’s Households

Financial Group Strengthening/

service organization Coastal
Management
Strategy (social Analysis of Village that is
gathering, Strengtheni transformative,
saving, gold, ng Training, Education, independent,
debts, and Governance and Accompaniment of and continuous
receivables) fishermen’s wives

Micro Economic
Institutions and coastal
village cooperatives

External Enviroment:
support from country,
private, and Company

Source: Processed from field data, 2016.

To realize the strategy above, after knowing the financial management carried out by the wives
of fishermen, the next step is strengthening the group / organization of services; training, education,
and assistance; and finally build economic development & coastal rural cooperatives. Training and
education provided by the government as an effort to empower fisherman households is in the form of
language education and training, specifically in English. This is the empowerment of the wives of
297
fishermen on the coast who are believed to be the catalyst for economic growth on the external side in
order to realize a transformative, independent and sustainable Coastal Village.
Forms of education in the field of training and English language education, namely by inviting
non-governmental organizations incorporated in the “Indonesian Teachers Room” community.
Although the teaching method process still uses two languages between participants and teachers, this
is done so that English in the community of fishermen's wives is easy to understand and continues to
be effective. In a subject where the medium of instruction is English, and both teachers and learners
are bilingual, a switch from the first language to the target language or vice versa can be very common
and may automatically occur (Dela Cruz, 2018, p. 39). Teaching is done two meetings in one week,
with the simplification of the English language competency curriculum, including:
a. Conversation & Writing in English
b. Vocabulary and Grammar
c. English Business
Vocabulary acquisition is a crucial factor in foreign language learning. In general, as
vocabulary skills develop, the totality of a learner’s capability to fluently speak the language increases
(Pamintuan, Mallari, et al, 2018, p. 33). Three indicators are multi-language that will be used daily,
and use an approach to the competitiveness of seafood products for the production and exports selling
to overseas. So it will be easier for fishermen to sell seafood in the domestic and overseas market. It is
expected that the wives of fishermen who can use dual languages can realize trading creation of export
and import, through seafood products. And one of the pattern to supports Indonesian Government's
program that continues to promote exports in order to improve the living standards of urban and rural
communities.

4. CONCLUSION
The wife of fishermen as economic actors should not be ignored, because their potential and
participation in supporting the family's economic needs is very significant. He also has a strategic
position in developing the welfare of fishermen households, both in Teluk Village and in Karangantu,
Banten Lama Village. Its productive efforts support the family economy which ultimately can
strengthen and promote the economy of coastal communities. However, the access of fishermen's
wives in business development is often hampered by gender inequalities constructed and enforced by
the government. In fact, the assistance program for empowering coastal communities is more for male
fishermen.

298
 Specifically, it is necessary to empower fishermen's wives in carrying out financial
management in their households. This is important, because fishermen's wives have a significant role
in supporting family life. Furthermore, there is a need for fisherman financial governance institutions
based on local wisdom of the local area. Meanwhile, in general, to develop a prosperous coastal
community, several strategic programs need to be formulated, namely: 1) increasing the productivity
of fishermen; strengthening the role of fishermen's institutionalization; 3) conservation of fish
resources. Besides that, education in the field of training and English language education by
“Indonesian Teachers Room” community will be held two meetings in one week, with simplification
of the English language competency curriculum, including:
a. Conversation & Writing in English
b. Grammar
c. English Business

REFERENCES
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[download 2015,April 28].
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pundak-perempuan
Anonim. (2014). Peran Wanita Nelayan. [download 2015, April 28].
http://kmip.faperta.ugm.ac.id/peran-wanita-nelayan/
Anonim. (2013). Kiara: Tinggal Setahun, Program Peningkatan Kehidupan Nelayan (PKN) Belum
Dinikmati Nelayan. [download 2015, April 28].
http://www.kiara.or.id/kiara-tinggal-setahun-program-peningkatan-kehidupan-nelayan-pkn-
belum-dinikmati-nelayan/
Dela Cruz, Shella D. (2018). Code – Switching Patterns and Functions in Philippine Literature: Asian
EFP Journal Vol. 14, Issue 7.2, p. 39
Denzin, N.K. and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds). (2000). Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2th Edition.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publ. Inc.
Ekaningdyah, Astrid. (2005). Peran Wanita dalam Peningkatan Pendapatan Keluarga Nelayan di Desa
Tasikagung, Kecamatan Rembang, Kabupaten Rembang, Jawa Tengah. Tugas Akhir.
Perencanaan Wilayah dan Kota Fakultas Teknik Universitas Diponegoro. Semarang.
Hutapea, et. al., (2012). Peranan Wanita Nelayan (Istri Nelayan) Jaring Insang Dalam Meningkatkan
Pendapatan Keluarga Di Desa Bejalen, Perairan Rawa Pening, Kecamatan Ambarawa,
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 Kabupaten Semarang : Journal of Fisheries Resources Utilization Management and
Technology, Vol.1, No. 1, 2012.
Nugraheni S.W. (2012). Peran dan Potensi Wanita dalam Pemenuhan Kebutuhan Ekonomi Keluarga
Nelayan : Journal of Education Social Studies, Universitas Negeri Semarang 2012.
Pamintuan, Cavin F., Mallari, Donnabelle G., Garcia, Nicole T., Galang, Jeniezen P., & Buduan,
Reggie Mark B. (2018). The Use of WeChat Application on CFL Learner’s Vocabulary
Acquisition : TESOL International Journal 26th Vol. 13, Issue 4, p. 33.

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About The Author
Evy Clara is an Associate Professor in Universitas Negeri Jakarta. Completed Doctoral Program of
Human Resource Management in Universitas Negeri Jakarta. Became Chairman of the Indonesian
Sociology Forum, and was a speaker at Korean Women Development Institute. Area of Interest Social
Sciences, Literatures, Woman and Gender, and Economics.
Email : evyclara@unj.ac.id
Affliation : State University of Jakarta
Address : Jl. Rawamangun Muka Raya, Rawamangun, Pulo Gadung, Jakarta Timur, DKI Jakarta,
Indonesia

Komarudin, is a Doctor of the Pancasila and Citizenship Education Study Program, Faculty of Social
Sciences, State University of Jakarta. He is currently the Deputy Chancellor II of the State University
of Jakarta. Active as a researcher at the Laboratory of Social and Political Sciences. His areas of
expertise include Research and Evaluation, Statistics, Political Sociology, and Educational Theories.
Email : komarudin@unj.ac.id (co-author)

Ubedilah, is a lecturer in the Sociology Education Study Program, Faculty of Social Sciences, State
University of Jakarta. He is active as a Senior Researcher, while serving as Head of the Sociology
Laboratory. Areas of expertise include: Theories of Education, Political Sociology, and Political and
Development Economics.
Email : ubedilah@unj.ac.id (co-author)

Ahmad Tarmiji Alkhudri, is a Doctor of the Sociology Education Study Program, Faculty of Social
Sciences, State University of Jakarta. He is a Researcher at the Sociology Education Laboratory. His
areas of expertise include: Theories of Education, Statistics, Rural Sociology, and Environmental
Sociology.
Email : tarmiji@unj.ac.id (co-author)

301
 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

DIFFICULTIES OF ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS IN DEALING WITH

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE IN POETRY

Chelito Malamug
Cagayan State University – College of Teacher Education

Abstract

This research aimed at determining the difficulties encountered by the third-year English major

students in dealing with poetry. It also determined the prevalent figures of speech they find difficult

to understand in a poetic text, their self-assessment learning in figurative language, the importance

of learning figures of speech and the strategies they believe to be effective in teaching and learning

figurative language in poetry. The study involved 75 third year English major students attending

literature classes in the first semester. A survey questionnaire was used as main instrument. Data

analysis showed that 100% of the respondents encountered difficulties in poetry and 83% said that

it is due to language style. They have positive attitudes towards the importance of figurative language

to develop their mental, verbal, and writing skills and to understand literature and diversity. Students

process figurative language through dictionary use and contextual clues.

Key words – Figurative language, difficulty,

Introduction

What poses a real handicap for the learners is not poetry itself, but it is likely to be the figurative

language chunks in poetry (Bouali, 2014). Because figurative language is replete with connotative

meaning, it becomes doubly hard for the learners to understand the text if the differences of these are

not clear.

302
 To thresh out these difficulties encountered by students vis-à-vis the understanding of poetry,

the study was conceived to give light to these complications.

1.What are the difficulties encountered by the English major students in dealing with poetry?

2. What are the prevalent figures of speech do they find difficult to understand?

3. How do the students assess their ability in dealing with figurative language in poetry?

4. What learning skills do the respondents develop in studying figurative language?

5. What relevant strategies do students employ to help them understand figurative language?

6. In the perspective of students, what are the effective strategies to be used by their teachers when

dealing with poetry?

METHODOLOGY

The researchers used descriptive method to describe the difficulties of the students in dealing

with figurative language in poetry through a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire used was adopted

from Amina Boauli (2014) where the researcher has given the priority to the use of a structured

questionnaire “in which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions.” The questions

presented were modified and localized to make it relative to the students. Hence, the questionnaire

sheet consisted of open-ended questions, close-ended questions and mixed questions and has been

designed in a structured format. It consists of 14 questions modified and aligned accordingly with the

objectives of the study. The questionnaire was pilot tested to the Senior High School students of

Cagayan National High School, where it was validated and critiqued by the Master Teachers of said

school.

RESULTS and DISCUSSION

Difficulties respondents encounter in poetry

Starting from the least, 12 respondents or 16% assert that they hardly understand poetry
because of inappropriate selection of the poems. One factor could be because the length of the text
303
where Duff and Maley (1990) found in their study that students feel frightened to have to work with
long texts yet there are also some who find shorter texts more difficult to handle with since shorter
texts provide a limited contextual support which can help them understand it better. This implies that
although selection of literary pieces is already in the syllabi, teachers have the great part to cater to the
needs of their students through asking them what literary pieces the students want to add aside from
the designed course outline. Cross-cultural differences ranked second where 29 respondents or 39%
admit that such difficulty is propped to their incapability to assimilate the cross-cultural divergence
between their own culture and the target language. It strengthens the study of Duff and Maley (1990)
that cultural factors might present difficulties to the point of making it clearly impossible for an
outsider to fully understand and share the scope of references of an insider. This denotes that setting
or presenting a brief background about a certain literary piece is of great help for the learners to fathom
its meaning.

Language difficult style is on top among the perceived difficulty where 62 respondents or
83% agreed that it is the chief difficulty that they encounter since some poems are characterized by
tough poetic style, words polysemy and the linguistic deviation of the figurative languages. This
corroborates the study of Savvidou (2014) that the reason

Language difficult style is on top among the perceived difficulty where 62 respondents or 83%
agreed that it is the chief difficulty that they encounter since some poems are characterized by tough
poetic style, words polysemy and the linguistic deviation of the figurative languages. This corroborates
the study of Savvidou (2014) that the reason why students often feel that literary language exploits and
even distorts the language is because its creative use is far from the conventions of Standard English.

Table 1. Difficulties of the Respondents in Understanding Poetic Genres

Difficulties in Dealing with Poetry Frequency Percentage Rank

Language Difficult Style 62 83% 1
Cross-cultural differences 29 39% 2
Inappropriate selection of the poem 12 16% 3

n.b. Multiple responses

304
Bar Graph 1. Difficulties of the Respondents in Understanding Poetic Genres

Prevalent figures of speech that are difficult for the respondents

Knowing that they consider figurative language as the premier factor that hinders them to
understand the poetry, Table 2 below shows the prevalent figures of speech that respondents find
difficult.

Table 2. Prevalent Figures of Speech Learners Found Difficult

Figures of Speech Frequency Rank

Chiasmus 39 1
litotes 34 2
paradox 32 3
Pun 28 4.5
antithesis 28 4.5
synecdoche 25 6.5
allusion 25 6.5
oxymoron 23 8
euphemism 22 9
metonymy 20 10
anaphora 16 11
rhetorical question 13 12
understatement 11 13
Irony 8 14.5
apostrophe 8 14.5
Climax 4 16
personification 3 17
hyperbole 2 18
metaphor 1 19
Simile 0 20
n.b. Multiple responses

305
Bar Graph 2. The Prevalent Figures of Speech t

Figures of Speech Frequency Rank

Chiasmus 39 1
litotes 34 2
paradox 32 3
Pun 28 4.5
antithesis 28 4.5
synecdoche 25 6.5
allusion 25 6.5
oxymoron 23 8
euphemism 22 9
metonymy 20 10
anaphora 16 11
rhetorical question 13 12
understatement 11 13
Irony 8 14.5
apostrophe 8 14.5
Climax 4 16
personification 3 17
hyperbole 2 18
metaphor 1 19
Simile 0 20

n.b. Multiple responses

Figures of Speech Frequency Rank

Chiasmus 39 1
litotes 34 2
paradox 32 3
Pun 28 4.5
antithesis 28 4.5
synecdoche 25 6.5
allusion 25 6.5
oxymoron 23 8
euphemism 22 9
metonymy 20 10
anaphora 16 11
rhetorical question 13 12
understatement 11 13
Irony 8 14.5
apostrophe 8 14.5
Climax 4 16

306
 personification 3 17
hyperbole 2 18
metaphor 1 19
Simile 0 20

n.b. Multiple responses

oxymoron 8
23
euphemism 9
22
metonymy 10
20
anaphora 11
16
rhetorical question 12
13
understatement 13
11
Irony 14.5
8
apostrophe 14.5
8
Climax 16
4
personification 17
3
hyperbole 18
2
metaphor 19
1
Simile 20
0

n.b. Multiple responses

Interestingly, chiasmus can be the most difficult because only few poets use this device whereas in
the study of Brad McCoy- “Chiasmus: An Important Structural Device Commonly Found in Biblical
Literature”, one scholar noted there that “On [both] micro and macro levels chiasmus has been shown
to be a basic element in the formal structure of biblical literature.” In an important work on biblical
interpretation entitled The Hermeneutical Spiral, Osborne affirms the strategic importance of chiasmus
in biblical literature: “[A] technique that highlights major themes [in the Old Testament writings] is
307
chiasm, which reverses words or events in successive parallel clauses or sections.” He goes on to
affirm, “Chiasm is also found frequently in the New Testament.” An example of this is Matthew 6:24:

A No one can serve two masters;

B for either he will hate the one

C and love the other,

C’ or he will be devoted to one

B’ and despise the other.

A’ You cannot serve God and wealth.

With this information, it can be inferred that the reason why students fail to identify
this is because this is unfamiliar to them especially to those who do not read much their bible.

Students’ self-assessment of their figurative learn ability

With the data provided below, the srespondents were asked to assess their ability in dealing
with the poetic figurative devices. The result is as follows:

Table 3. Students’ Self-Assessment of the Figurative Learn-ability

Self-assessment Frequency
Poor (1) 0
Very Bad (2) 0
Bad (3) 2
Average (4) 35
Good (5) 31
Very good (6) 7
Excellent (7) 0
TOTAL 75
Over-all mean 4.57 (Good)

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Pie Graph 1. Students’ Self-Assessment of the Figurative Learn-ability

In the self-assessment, a scale was used to describe their abilities having 1 as Poor, 2 as Very
Bad, 3 as Bad, 4 as Average, 5 as Good, 6 as Very Good and 7 as Excellent. 2 respondents assessed
themselves bad; 35 average; 31 good; and 7 very good. Furthermore, Pie Graph 3 shows that most of
the respondents or 47% of them said that they are average learners, 41% good learners, 9% very good
learners while 3% being weak learners.

Going back to Table 3, it yielded an over-all mean of 4.57. Based on the scale, the mean 4.57
falls under Good. Therefore, English major students believe that they are good in figurative language
in poetry. Contradicting to the study of Boauli (2014) where the respondents are average, it can be
because it depends to the level of her respondents wherein they are the students taking Literary
Studies in their first year at University of Tlemcen compared to the respondents of this study who are
already in third year earning much units of literature subjects.

Skills developed by learning figurative language

According to their responses, figurative language in general aids them in enhancing their
language and literary skills as shown in the table and bar graph below:

Skills developed by learning figurative language Frequency Rank

Understanding of literary texts 71 1
Writing skills 60 2
Verbal skills and fluency 52 3
Mental skills 51 4
Cross-cultural understanding 28 5

n.b. Multiple responses

Bar Graph 3. Skills Developed by Learning Figurative Language
Table 4 and Bar Graph 4 clearly show the effectual benefits of learning figures of speech of
the third year English major students of Cagayan State University –Andrews Campus. Through
learning figures of speech, they can foster their mental skills, writing skills, verbal skills and fluency,
understanding of literary texts, and cross- cultural understanding. Based on the survey, top on the list
is it develops one’s understanding of literary texts with 71 out of 75 respondents. This bolters the idea
of Boers (2000) in his text “Enhancing metaphoric awareness and vocabulary retention” that figures
of speech is the map that guides the readers to better understanding. Apparently, Waggoner et. al.

309
(1985) and Doan Ha (2015) both agreed to the idea that metaphoric awareness can be a way of
sharpening basic reading skills as well.

Not far from this, respondents also believe that learning figures of speech will mold them to be
proficient in using the language in honing their writing skills wherein 60 respondents agreed to it while
52 respondents noted that learning figurative language is an avenue for the betterment of
communication- verbal skills and fluency. This settles to the response of a student in Devet’s (1988)
study saying he found the literary piece more helpful because it made him see the effect of such writing
tools on the piece that will enhance his writing skills. This sustains the conclusions of Phillips (1986)
which was also cited by Bush (1993) that literature was extremely beneficial, particularly with regard
to technique, sentence length, and sophistication, and also suggested that literary materials be used
regularly to further student language development.

Interestingly, 51 informants asserted that the study of figurative language develop mental skills.
Boauli (2014) emphasized that poetic languages require metacognitive skills because of the puzzles
need to be solved to completely visualize its possible meanings. The implication is that the increased
use of figurative language skills will generate a stronger thinking ability among learners.

Lastly, 28 respondents affirmed that learning figures of speech is also an eye opener to
understand different cultures. Hence, this support the stand of Boers (2004) that figurative language
awareness as the ability to recognize the underlying themes and cross-linguistic variety in the linguistic
instantiations of figurative expressions. Above all, the benefits that figurative language can give is
important not only because they are English majors but because they need these skills to become a
well-molded English intellects who will also mold English learners in the near future.

Strategies helpful in learning figurative language

Learning figurative language involves important processes that will help the learners
understand figurative expressions.

Table 5. Learners’ Strategies to Understand the Figurative Language

Strategies Frequency Rank

Using dictionary meaning of words 68 1
Depending on the context of the poem 56 2
Using mental skills 35 3
Translating to first language (L1) 30 4
Negotiating the meaning with the teacher 25 5

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n.b. Multiple responses

Bar Graph 4. Learners’ Strategies to Understand the Figurative Language

Table 5 and Bar Graph 5 show the strategies of the learners to understand figurative
languages. Sixty eight (68) respondents use dictionaries, 56 respondents depend on the context of the
poem, 35 respondents use their mental skills, 30 respondents translate in their first or native language
and 25 respondents negotiate with the teacher to know the meaning of it. Their understanding of
figurative language relies primarily in the use of dictionaries as it ranked first in the list. It can be
perceived that to understand the meaning of it, learner’s vocabulary is important and looking through
the meaning of the unfamiliar words that constitute the figurative language can aid understanding as
Wang (2014) averred. It is also useful for the students to look for the contextual clues that may help
them which also supports the study of (Suleiman, et. al. 1995) that this is an important concept because
language is not used in vacuum; it is used in a sociocultural context that determines meaningful and
mutual understanding among participants in the communicative situation.

However, the least strategy that the respondents use is negotiating it outspokenly with the
teacher .

However, the least strategy that the respondents use is negotiating it outspokenly with the
teacher. An inference for this can be because there are times when students cannot decode the meaning
anymore and they do this as a last resort.

An inference for this can be because there are times when students cannot decode the meaning
anymore and they do this as a last resort. Aside from the given options, respondents also wrote
suggestions to help the learners overcome these difficulties.

Table 6. Learners’ Suggestion to Overcome Difficulties

Frequency
Read more 11
Paraphrase poems 4
Use figures of speech in writing literary pieces 3

To enumerate, students should not stop reading because it will widen their horizons in learning

not only literally but figuratively, paraphrase poems to easier words to understand them especially if

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poems are in English of the older versions, and use figures of speech in writing literary pieces this

way, they will be able to master the figurative language by applying it.

Effective strategies to be used by teachers from respondents’ perspective

The respondents believe that there are customary strategies that their teachers should do which

are timely and relevant to their needs as 21st century learners. The table and graph below show the

strategies they believe to be beneficial in teaching and learning poetry:

Table 7. Effective Strategies in Teaching Poetry as perceived by students

Strategies Frequency Rank

Talk it out 48 1
Group collaborative work 45 2
Different activities and exercises 43 3
Providing visual aids 18 4

n.b. Multiple responses

Bar Graph 5. Effective Strategies in Teaching Poetry as perceived by students
The suggested strategies were talking it out, providing visual aids, group collaborative work,
and different activities and exercises. Students are allowed to choose more than one. The most
preferred strategy by the students is talking it out with 48 students responding to it. This backs Bouali’s
(2014) findings that a more student-centered method in learning where the teacher initiates verbal
interaction within the class create more opportunities to further discussion and for negotiating the
meaning of the poetic text. That is, they are comfortable discussing it with their teacher in a
conversational manner in explaining the words or phrases that are figurative in form. For example, the
teacher doesn’t immediately reveal the meaning of it to let his students think then he will elicit ideas
from them. The teacher as the moderator will guide the students in the point of generalizing it so that
they can come to a point of understanding. Collaborative work came in second, with 45 respondents
acceding, which allows them to work in group or discover things through their concerted efforts. Forty
three of them enjoy different activities and exercises that the teacher is introducing. Klippel (1984) as
cited by Dalton (2006) came up with the statement “The students’ curiosity leads can be aroused by
texts or pictures containing missing pieces which lead them to find out, to put right or to complete.”
Group works and differentiated instructions are the characteristics of Outcomes-Based Education and

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this is what the curriculum has designed: to create an interaction within the class while learning in the
most conducive and free-willing atmosphere.

Table 8. Other Suggested Strategies for Teachers (accdg. to the respondents)

Frequency
Cite more examples 15
Use songs as springboard 6

Respondents also added that citing more examples and integrating songs or making it
as springboard are of great help as well.

CONCLUSION and RECOMMENDATIONS

Learning figures of speech helps students easily grasp the main or central idea of the texts as
well as it serves as their avenue to be competent in using the language and hone their writing and
communicative language. It is also their way to enhance their mental skills as well as understanding
and exploring diverse cultures.

Based on the findings and conclusion, the researchers posit the following recommendations:

1. Different pedagogical figurative oriented activities and figurative-based tasks such as integrating
songs as springboard that are best appropriate in teaching poetry and figures of speech will help
teachers in capturing the interest of their learners to make the teaching –learning process more
engaging.

2. Students should not just acquaint themselves in learning the commonly used figurative languages
such as simile, metaphor and hyperbole but they should also endeavor themselves to learn and use the
more difficult ones such as chiasmus, litotes, paradox etc.

4.Engaging in reading literary texts will widen their vocabulary for it is one of the emphasis of poetry.
The wider the vocabulary the more the students understand the in depth meaning of the poem.

3. Students should engage themselves in reading literary texts for it is one avenues in improving
Higher Order Thinking Skills.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 21 Issue No. 2.3 March 2019

Lived Experiences of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education Teachers in Teaching

Diverse Pupils in Zamboanga City

Melanie F. Lear
Western Mindanao State University,
Normal Road, Baliwasan,
Zamboanga City, Philippines.
centrochabacano@gmail.com
melanieflear@su.edu.ph

Bioprofile:
Associate Professor V, Melanie F. Lear is a full-time faculty of the College of Liberal Arts, Western
Mindanao State University in Zamboanga City, Philippines. Currently, she is finishing her Ph.D.
degree in Research and Evaluation at Silliman University, Dumaguete City as a scholar of the
Commission of Higher Education (CHED).

Abstract

There is an increasing movement around the globe to support mother tongue instruction in the early
years of a child‘s education. In Southeast Asia particularly in the Philippines, this is apparent in a rising
number of educational programs that utilize this approach. It is a phenomenological study which
investigated the lived experiences of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education teachers in
teaching diverse pupils in Zamboanga City. Ten (10) teachers participated in the study. Results
indicated that the instructional materials are not sufficient, the texts in the books are translations and
not contextualization in the local setting, the utilization of poems, stories, and songs to unlock
difficulties among pupils, the need for multilingual teaching in a multilingual classroom setting, and
the continuous seminars and training for teachers from K1 to Grade III. Moreover, for coping, the
study revealed that teachers frequently code switch to another language during the presentation of
lessons in the classroom and the knowledge of more than one language is needed not only when code-
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switching but particularly in translation. There must be the establishment of a supportive environment
for the MTBMLE via awareness-raising at the most local level for the success and sustainability of the
program.

Keywords: mother tongue instruction, lived experiences, code-switching, translation, coping,

challenges

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Many countries are bilingual or multilingual societies, and some of them have more than one national
language. However, the majority of countries are monolingual, meaning that they have established the
use of only one language for government and legal purposes. People have to see that literacy grows
out of the general learning that children have already done. Children do not start learning the minute
they enter the classroom; they start learning from the moment they are born.

Given the linguistic intricacy in the Philippines, it is not extraordinary that the country has
struggled in initiating one national language and establishing a medium of instruction (MOI) for public
schools. While there had been a bilingual education in Philippine public schools using English and
Filipino in the past, the utilization of the vernaculars is always part of any school systems (Gonzalez,
2003).

In the past decades, the Philippine educational system was using the "1987 Bilingual Education
Policy" where the official languages are Filipino and English unless provided otherwise by law. The
order mandated the national language and English as the languages of instruction, recognizing regional
languages as ‘auxiliary media of instruction' particularly in Grades 1 and 2 (DEC Order No. 52).

Instead, the illustration of the outcomes of more than 20 years of education using this bilingual
national policy is in a study that shows the extreme disparity between reading levels of children in
Manila, where Tagalog is the first language in the region. While on Mindanao, Filipino is at best a
second language for nearly everyone. The study of Gove and Cvelich (2011) as cited by Skoropinski
(2012) show stark regional differences with a tiny number of learners who are not able to read in
Filipino and English with 1% and 2% respectively in Manila than the 24% and 30% of students in
Mindanao.

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 Pupils in the Metro Manila area enjoy the advantages of being taught first in their L1 (first
language) and of having enough written materials available in their mother tongue (MT), a luxury that
majority of the pupils in most other regions of the country do not have particularly those in rural
communities.

Despite this, the bilingual policy remained in place until 2009, when, the Department of
Education (DepEd) issued Order No. 74, “Institutionalizing Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
Education” mandating the use of the local languages or the mother tongue as media of instruction from
preschool through Grade 3.

In the first place, teachers’ narratives serve as a window into the experience of perhaps the
most important direct beneficiaries, the pupils themselves. The purpose has been to understand the
program outputs from their perspective so that there will be the introduction of improvements. It is
one way to listen to the voices of teachers, expressing in narratives their responses and judgments in
accord with their values since they have potential impact in the lives of the pupils, parents, educators
and even communities.

In the Philippine setting, MTB-MLE aims for children to be multicultural, multilingual, and
multi-literate (Nolasco, 2009). Despite the advantages, implementation of MTB-MLE is not smooth.
One common challenge against it in developing countries concerns the lack of instructional materials
in the Mother Tongue (MT).

Other challenges to the implementation of MTB-MLE in the Philippine context are the
matching teachers with languages and classrooms. Very few teachers speak the mother tongue, and
those who do often lack experience in teaching Grade 1. Furthermore, teachers themselves have been
educated in Filipino and English and have experience in teaching curricula in those languages (Paulson
Stone, 2012).

The mother tongue curricula coupled with lack of experience in teaching in their languages
presents a combination of challenges that produce fears and uncertainty in some (Paulson Stone, 2012).
These are issues faced as implementation progresses. In an ordinary public school classroom in the
Philippines particularly in Zamboanga City, a class is composed of pupils coming from multicultural
and multilingual backgrounds. So, what happens now is that the language used in the classroom is not
the pupil’s or teacher’s mother tongue.

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 This study dealt with the experiences and challenges of the teachers teaching Mother Tongue-
Based (MTB) Multilingual Education Teachers (MLE) in Zamboanga City. Selected MTB MLE
teachers participated in the study. It focused only on the experiences and challenges these teachers
encountered in the implementation of the program such as instructional materials, multilingual
languages in an MTB-MLE classroom, and seminars, including their coping in teaching MTB MLE
like the use of code-switching and numerous translations in the MTB-MLE classes.

Related Literature
In the Philippines, the latest language policy is to use the Mother Tongue as MOI from Kindergarten
to Grade 3. However, Filipino and English are introduced slowly as subjects in Grades 1 to 3.

1.2 Challenges encountered in teaching MTB-MLE.

The utility of languages became a problem when some Mother Tongue education researchers argue
that the utilization of home languages in schools will not raise the value of indigenous languages until
they are languages of opportunity as espoused by Skutnabb-Kangas, (2008) and Heugh, as cited in
Ouane & Glanz (2011). For this to happen, minority languages need to be accorded functions in
political and social domains, used in the standardized assessment and made visible in the community’s
and the nation’s linguistic landscape.

Some of the teachers felt the forced compliance with the program particularly after the initial
MTB-MLE implementation in Bicol, Philippines. The teachers who felt compelled to implement the
program manifested a form of silent resistance to it by designing lessons that deviated from the MTB-
MLE concept as highlighted by Burton (2013). A lack of recognition about the program may lead
teachers to adopt practices that are inconsistent with its rationale or to implement it without enthusiasm.

2.1.1 Instructional materials in MTB-MLE

The study of Skoropinski (2012) focused on three pilot schools the execution of the MTB-MLE
program as part of a nationwide transition. The goal has been to identify early pieces of evidence of
the possible impact of MTB-MLE through narratives from immediate stakeholders such as teachers
and parents of Grade 1 pupils. Qualitative and direct classroom observations were used to monitor
change through the academic year in two research domains: the changes in teachers’ practices and
attitudes toward the MTB-MLE Program and in the utilization of the MTB-MLE instructional
materials. Findings show that the non-Mother Tongue educational materials were largely ineffective.

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Educators and parents were frustrated, seeing the pupils’ low rate of success and lack of enjoyment of
their educational experience.

In contrast, under MTB-MLE, stakeholders accounted for increased comprehension by

learners, success in learning to read and improvement in the teacher-pupil relationships. They
perceived the MTB-MLE program as the beginning of the transition of a dysfunctional system.
Analysis of emergent domains in stakeholders' accounts also revealed positive perceptions of Mother
Tongue instruction as motivating pupils to learn, supporting the high value the community places on
education for their children as revealed in this study.

The absence of books written in the mother tongue is a common problem encountered by the
MTB-MLE teachers of the Department of Education (DepEd). It is a typical situation in a Philippine
classroom where there are no or a deficient number of textbooks in the mother tongue. There are no
dictionaries that are needed to accommodate the needs of the learners with various first languages. One
of the plans for the implementation of MTB-MLE is the improvisation of instructional materials
written in the mother tongue; however, teachers need books that are also reliable and accurate.

Dekker et al. (2008) said that no teacher could teach effectively without appropriate materials.
These are the two components: establishment of curriculum goals and the pupil’s previous
understanding, his cultural background, and values. With limited books available for most of the 170
languages of the Philippines, materials development appears a daunting task.

Books are one of the most necessary materials in the learning process of the pupils. Teaching
and learning cannot be effective without the adequate and relevant use of instructional materials
(Grant, 1978 as cited by Sunday & Joshua, 2010). Malone (2007) stated that the maintenance of
literacy is possible if there are adequate reading resources.

Valerio in 2015 as cited by De Guzman and De Vera (2018) showed that teachers were not yet
confidently certain whether the instructional materials they presently have can assure that they can
really appreciate the MTB Education due to the unavailability of localized translation along the
instructional materials. The study also provided empirical evidences to show that the mother tongue
based instruction cannot really improve the learners’ academic performances. Several other factors can
be considered in dealing with MTB instruction. Teaching materials and assessment have not been
transcribed into the regional or native languages of the learners. Results also showed that the
respondents believed that MTB-MLE policy must consider the development of graded transcribed
reading materials in the learners’ home language. Significant differences existed when the respondents

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were grouped according to their ethnicity and according to the number of years of teaching experience.
This implies that linguistic background or their ethnicity has caused variations or differences on the
way they perceived the mother tongue based education. There were also significant differences on
their perceptions when they were grouped according to the number of years they have been teaching.
This implies that the way they perceive the mother tongue based instruction differs based on their
teaching experiences. The use of the mother tongue in its pedagogic aspect reflects the desire of
learners to promote national identity, however the teachers seemed to be unprepared yet with the
mandate of the new curriculum on the use of mother tongue based instruction. Indeed, the use of local
dialects along instruction is clearly a complex process that is continually being redefined by the
bilingual and multilingual system of education.

2.1.2 Multilingual Language in MTB-MLE classrooms

Multilingual teaching is when teachers use various languages in the whole duration of teaching for the
reason of accommodating learners who do not speak a particular language and including them in the
discussion. It is the ability to speak and understand two or more languages in a growing worldwide
phenomenon (Milambiling, 2011). Since the people who live in Zamboanga City are speakers of
different languages, the teachers need to explore and use all possible languages to cater to the needs of
learners with various first languages or mother tongues. A teacher uses several mother tongues for the
pupils to understand the lesson better.

Milambiling (2011) espoused that multilingual language realization is a need for teachers
handling multilingual pupils. Aside from knowing about the subject matter, languages, and teaching
strategies, the teachers should have a grasp of the political challenges and social situation of these
pupils. This action allows pupils to explore and familiarize the language of others.

Milambiling (2011) further stated that teachers who speak more than one language are also
generally more knowledgeable of sociolinguistic elements and purpose compared to those who speak
only one language. These teachers are also proficient at shifting between various regional diversity,
and formal and informal language technique. The same author said that the advantage of being
multilingual is the creation of different kinds of connections in the brain, which gives these individuals
an advantage in some respects compared with monolingual individuals.

2.1.3 Trainings and seminars on MTB-MLE

Training and seminars are essential for MTB-MLE teachers who are handling multilingual learners.
Through training and seminars, these teachers enriched their knowledge because of their involvement

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in the different workshops during seminars. Similarly, seminars and training also served as a vehicle
for the teachers to learn from and interact with the different participants. The sharing of the respondents
supports Dutcher (2004) who emphasized that the teachers need training in using the first language in
the classroom and that the materials have to be appropriate, available and engaging to the pupils, as
well used. When the materials are not used then learning will never progress. Most teachers needed
training in methodology so that they can explore the advantages of teaching in the language that
learners can understand. It means less emphasis on ritual learning, copying, and repeating, and focus
on peer interaction and motivating pupils to think for themselves and make conclusions (Dutcher,
2004).

These problems can hinder the success of the implementation of mother tongue-based
instruction. Not all teachers are literate in all the various languages of their learners and the region or
city; thus, the production of mother tongue textbooks and dictionaries is a must.

2.2 Coping in teaching MTB-MLE

The term “mother tongue” can be understood in two ways: as a heritage language, it is the true language
that is spoken by the parents or as a dominant language, the strongest language of the child. Majority
of these cases are the same language; it seems that in some contexts there was some confusion in the
schools investigated. Some students were assigned to a “mother tongue” class by the MT being their
heritage language or the regional lingua franca, although it was not the language in which they were
most influential. There seems to be a contradiction of a fundamental principle of MT education.
However, it is a pragmatic response, given the current knowledge of students in Filipino or even
English, and an application of the principle of building on students’ current knowledge and
understanding to extend their learning, which is also part of the rationale for MTB-MLE.

2.2.1 Code-switching in MTB-MLE

The literature likewise cites code-switching as a natural linguistic phenomenon in bilingual settings
and among bilingual people (Montes-Alcala, 2000). Code-switching, or switching between languages,
is an issue in MT education. At times, pedagogical, cognitive, communicative, and social functions
justify classroom code-switching. However, it has also a contribution to some inadequacies in the
target language (Chick, 1996). Code-switching is something to look out for in the use of the MT as
MOI since it appears to be an advantage when used for pedagogical and communicative purposes.
Teachers and pupils face the challenge of how to use code-switching in a way that will facilitate rather
than hinder goals of MT education.
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 Williams et al. (2014) investigated the best practice in MTB-MLE in the Philippines where
phase 1 of the study included the strategies and challenges in MTB-MLE implementation in the early
years. It revealed a wide range of circumstances in which the use of code-switching serves as an
instructional strategy in classrooms. Some of these involved the use of Filipino or English when pupils
or teachers experienced difficulties with comprehension or were unfamiliar with academic terminology
in the MT. It raises a dilemma in the context of MTB-MLE. The rationale for using and teaching the
MT in the early years is to use a language familiar to students as a foundation for the development of
necessary learning and literacy. This part of the data from the study suggests that this is problematic
for some languages, as students do not always have this level of understanding in their MT, and
ironically, the relatively less familiar languages of Filipino or English are used to assist
comprehension.

2.2.2 Translation in the MTB-MLE classes

Dubria and colleagues (2017) conducted a study utilizing qualitative method specifically interviews to
determine the problems and challenges encountered by teachers teaching Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE). Based on the teachers’ viewpoints in using the mother tongue,
it affects the student’s academic progress and classroom participation. The selection of the teachers
from the different public schools is through inclusion criteria: the teachers are handling MTB-MLE as
a subject. The results revealed that teachers translate instructional materials and worksheets to mother
tongue; then they use the translated materials as motivation in introducing Kapampangan words to the
pupils. They also conduct remedial classes and at time improvise instructional materials. The problems
experienced by MTB-MLE teachers include the deficiency of materials in the mother tongue, dearth
of vocabulary, and the impact of social media over the pupils.

A qualitative study was implemented by Lartec et al. (2014) which analyzed the strategies of
teachers in implementing Mother Tongue-Based Instruction in a Multilingual Classroom and identified
some problems that teachers encounter in implementing them. Interview served as the primary tool in
data gathering. The selection of the teachers was from the suggested pilot schools of Mother Tongue-
Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) in Baguio City. From the phenomenological exploration,
the findings showed that the teachers used strategies like the translation of the target language to
mother tongue, utilization of multilingual teaching, utilization of lingua-franca, improvisation of
materials in the mother tongue of the pupils, remedial classes, and utilization of literary piece written
in the mother tongue as stimulus. Some of the problems experienced by the teachers in implementing
Mother Tongue-Based instruction include the non-existence of books written in the mother tongue,

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lack of appropriate vocabulary, and lack of teacher training. Nevertheless, the study indicated that
significant attention and effort are still necessary for the approach.

With pupils who non-speakers of the same mother tongue, teachers have difficulty when they
are not expert of the different mother tongues. In this situation, the teacher would instead use the
language that is understandable to the pupils. It, therefore, weakens the implementation of the mother
tongue.

Method
The phenomenological inquiry is the most appropriate to address the meanings and perspectives of
this study. The primary concern of phenomenological analysis is to understand “how every day, the
inter-subjective world is constituted” (Schwandt, 2000 as cited in Bu & Pares, 2018) from the
participants’ perspective.

3.1 Participants and Procedure

The participants were limited to only ten (10) selected teachers of MTB-MLE from different public
elementary schools in Zamboanga City. The respondents were chosen using purposive sampling. The
criteria included the following: a teacher in K-1, Grades I, II, and III. These teachers have rich
experiences in employing and implementing the MTB-MLE in their respective schools, and they tried
different methods of teaching in the early grades in a multilingual classroom. Zamboanga City is
known to be a melting pot of different language and culture in the Southern Philippines, so the pupils
have a diverse background concerning language and culture.

Permission and willingness to participate were solicited from the respondents personally before
setting of the schedule for an appointment for a one-on-one interview based on their availability. All
the participants were interviewed in locations of their own choice and lasted for about 45 minutes to
one hour to elicit natural responses to the questions. The in-depth interviews were conducted in the
English language since the respondents are proficient in English, but they have the freedom to answer
the questions in other languages like Filipino or Chabacano which they are comfortable with to ensure
the richness of data.

3.2 Data Analysis

The researcher initially looked into a particular point of view through the realization of subject
consciousness as perceived in the objects, to understand human phenomena as lived and experienced,

325
which Giorgi (1985) pointed out as the significant characteristics of a phenomenological psychological
method. Interviews were the primary data source for this personal perspective.

Phenomenological data analysis proceeds through the technique of reduction, the investigation
of particular words, phrases, sentences, and themes, and a quest for all possible interpretations. The
researcher was required to set aside all prejudgments, bracketing his or her experiences as emphasized
by Creswell (1998).

Results
4.1 Challenges encountered in teaching MTB-MLE

Based on the answers given by the teacher respondents and the observations conducted by the
researcher in the implementation of mother tongue-based instruction in a multilingual setting, several
themes emerged. These themes are (a) instructional materials, (b) multilingual languages in an MTB-
MLE classroom, and (c) training and seminars for the challenges they encountered in the teaching of
Chabacano to diverse pupils.

4.1.1 Instructional materials in MTB-MLE

Instructional resources make students learn more and retain better and also promote pupils’ interest.
These resources allow the pupils to discover themselves and their abilities. One respondent mentioned,
“I use improvised materials like stories, songs, poems, and charts written in Chabacano.” Others said,
“To motivate the pupils, I use songs and poems written in Chabacano” and “there are teacher-made
instructional materials and big books written in the English language, but I translate them to the mother
tongue of my pupils.”

The effectiveness of these instructional materials is in the following statements: “It is beneficial
because my pupils participate and respond positively. They also interact in discussions, games, and
the like.” Besides, “It is effective because half of the class are participating during class discussion, so
it means they understand.” In the use of English, only 2 or 3 pupils recite unlike in the local language.”

The respondents also explained that their pupils interact well if the materials are in their mother
tongue. The result also revealed that they actively participate when their mother tongue is the medium
of instruction. It means that pupils favor materials in their mother tongue because they can understand.

Another respondent said, “There are signages in written in the mother tongue.” During the class
observations, that there are indeed signages everywhere written in the pupils’ mother tongue. There
are also headings and letterings in mother tongue and English equivalent beside them.

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 “In the case of diverse speaking pupils, there are no available instructional materials for them
since Chabacano is the Medium of Instruction (MOI) in the city,” according to one of the teacher
respondents. Other respondents revealed that what they do in the classroom is to “translate the
Chabacano text to the mother tongue of our pupils; however, it is a problem if the teacher, for example,
could not even speak another language.”

4.1.2 Multilingual in MTB-MLE classrooms

The people living in Zamboanga City are speakers of varied languages, the teachers need to explore
and use all possible languages to cater to the needs of the pupils coming from various ethnolinguistic
groups. A teacher utilizes each mother tongue for the pupils to comprehend the lesson. “I use
Chabacano for those who could understand the language and for those who cannot speak or still
understand, I use either Tausug or Binisaya.”

The above statement shows that the teacher uses various languages in delivering her lesson. It
shows that she can use different mother tongues which make a good point of what mother tongue
teachers should be, they must be multilingual. Through this strategy, the teacher can say that it is useful
because the pupils are motivated. During observations of the classes, the pupils tend to be very active
in recitation and other activities when the teachers use various languages in the class. One respondent
revealed: “So for some pupils, I use Chabacano as a medium of instruction, but for those pupils who
cannot understand Chabacano I go to the extent of using Tausug or Binisaya for a better understanding
of the lesson.”

One respondent said, “to motivate the pupils; I utilized songs and poems in Chabacano.” The
teacher shared that in order to get the interest of the learners; she utilized songs and poems in
Chabacano because if she uses native songs, the learners will develop love and appreciation of their
language and culture. Also, using songs in the mother tongue allow the pupils to comprehend the
meaning because they use the language in and out of the school premise.

4.1.3 Training and seminars on MTB-MLE

The respondents felt that training and seminars should be on a regular basis and appropriate academic
support from the experts on various issues and trends of mother tongue teaching is also a necessity.
One of the respondents stated that “I never expected to teach using the mother tongue. Then the school
administrator called me to teach Grade I. I told them, I do not know Chabacano since my parents are
Binisaya. Even my pupils are having a hard time comprehending.”

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 Also, the respondents were just coerced to use mother tongue in teaching regardless of their
background knowledge about the language of their learners. One of the teachers mentioned, “My
vocabulary is not enough because I am not used to Chabacano. And not all pupils understand
Chabacano, although there are some who can but have a low level of comprehension of the language.”

4.2 Coping in teaching MTB-MLE

Based on the responses and observations conducted by the researcher concerning the coping of
teachers in teaching mother tongue subjects among diverse pupils, the following themes emerged: (a)
code-switching and (c) translations.

4.2.1 Code-switching in MTB-MLE

The non-Chabacano speaker pupils have difficulty understanding concepts across subjects. They
cannot understand, memorize, and use terminologies in newly-translated subjects like Araling
Panlipunan, Values Education (ESP), Science, Mathematics, and Mother Tongue because they do not
possess the new vocabulary. According to one teacher, “The pupils like to converse in their mother
tongue. However, they prefer their lessons in English because the mother tongue seems more difficult
and English is easier for them.” The teachers likewise reported that “the pupils replied in English
whenever they asked in the mother tongue.” The pupils often asked for the English translation of
unfamiliar words.

One teacher shared that a mother complained to her that “my child cannot understand
Chabacano (mother tongue) because his first language is Bahasa Sug. He can barely read words in
Chabacano.” Moreover, several teachers told me that according to the parents of their pupils “their
children frequently use and do better in English than in the mother tongue.” Another teacher revealed
that “even among Chabacano pupil speakers when in school, they still ask for the translation of words
to English due to the deviance of mother tongue at home from that in school.”

According to the teacher respondents, the child devotes much time in pronouncing and using
the words than engaging in meaningful interactions. This pupil’s statement, “hende yo ta puede
entende” meaning “I cannot understand” is very common in the MTB MLE classroom, especially in
the lower grades. Code-switching is done very often such as observed in the following phrases from
the teachers: “Hende sila ta puede contesta” (They cannot answer); “Maga bata ta almarea” (The
children are confused); and “Hende yo ta entende lodemas palabra” (I cannot understand other words
or terms).

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 The teachers explained that “the mother tongue words are highly new, so they often switch to
English and vice-versa when they run out of words.” They disclosed that parents related to them that
“we encountered communication gap whenever our children were confused with meanings because of
the difficulty in interpreting the terms.”

Another teacher revealed that a parent admitted to her that “we find it difficult to tutor our child
because we, too, have to translate the terms from Chabacano to English.” It became an issue because
parents were often worried whether the information they provided was accurate or not. This widening
gap is not only felt by parents but also by teachers, “the problem with DepEd is its stringent policy in
using Chabacano as a medium of instruction, but their books are complicated.”

This sentiment comes from another teacher who believes that when materials are not
contextualized they fail to address the real learning needs of the children; thus, reducing opportunities
for maximum development of potentials.

4.2.2 Translation in the MTB-MLE classes

It is common that translators are better at translating into their native language than into a second
language. For the respondents, translation is essential since it assists them to address the needs of the
pupils with diverse languages. Moreover, teachers need to translate the lesson utilizing the pupils’
mother tongue for better understanding. It is evident from the following statements of the teacher
respondents: “So for some pupils, I use Chabacano as a medium of instruction, but for those pupils
who cannot understand Chabacano, I go to the extent of using Tausug or Binisaya for a better
understanding of the lesson.” At times, “I translate it all from Chabacano to either Tagalog or English.”

The respondents mentioned: “that there are teacher-made instructional materials and big books
written in the mother tongue; however, I translate them to the mother tongue of the pupils.” Moreover,
teachers translate for the pupils to have a better comprehension of the lesson. The following statements
of the respondents confirm the effectiveness of this strategy: “It is effective because my pupils respond
positively and they also interact during discussions, games, and the like.” “It is effective because half
of the class are participating during class discussion, so they understand.” “Evaluation is done through
tests and checklist.” “Formative and summative tests are given to my learners.”

When children read, pronounce or use the term in school, there is a decrease in the retention
due to its deviance from the language at home. Some non-Chabacano speaker pupils complained to
their teacher that "all books in Mother Tongue, MAPEH, Math, Science, and HEKASI are in

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Chabacano. We do not understand the majority of the words." These pupils feel alienated from the
current language used in all the subjects since their mother tongue is not Chabacano.

The translation of other subject areas into mother tongue poses a challenge because the number
of more terminologies to read, understand, memorize and use accumulates in the children’s brain
frequently causing ‘mental traffic.’ It means that it can slow down the process of acquiring and
applying the concepts.

Discussions
The lack of contextualized materials in the mother tongue pushes administrators and teachers to adopt
materials whose content, activities, language and culture appropriateness are in question. Instead of
the school contextualizing materials to suit the children's needs, the children are the ones struggling to
fit into the materials that are from others and which fail to address their real needs; thus, children have
lower chances of maximizing their full potentials. The participants here are trying to point out that in
crafting materials in the mother tongue, it would be more comfortable and convenient to use the
common terms in day-to-day life rather than translate the content verbatim and substitute technical
terms with archaic words.

Instructional materials are the primary channel of communication in the classroom to bring
about successful teaching and learning process. From the given responses, it is evident that there is a
necessity for materials in the pupils’ native languages. These IMs must be entertaining at the same
time educational and can cater to the different senses. It is one way of motivating the class to participate
during the discussion. Instructional materials are vital to the teaching and learning procedures (Sunday
& Joshua, 2010). Teaching is successful when there are adequate and relevant instructional materials
according to Afolabi et al. (2006) as cited by Sunday & Joshua (2010).

Literary pieces are also used by teachers as a springboard to teach other concepts or ideas to
the pupils. Teachers integrate literature in the discussion, and they are in the preferred mother tongue.
Four main reasons which encourage a teacher to use literature in the classroom: cultural enrichment,
authentic materials, language enrichment, and personal participation (Hismanoglu, 2005 citing Collie
& Slater, 1990).

Teaching and learning cannot be effective without the appropriate and relevant IMs (Grant,
1978 as cited by Sunday & Joshua, 2010). One of the respondents emphasized that to implement MTB-
MLE effectively, there must be the updating of curriculum, textbooks, and teaching materials should
be made available in advance.
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 This perennial problem can be a hindrance in the success of the implementation of MTB MLE
since the teachers are not that educated in all the ethnolinguistic groups of their pupils. Thus, the
production of textbooks and dictionaries in the mother tongue is a must in the City of Zamboanga.

In an ordinary classroom in Zamboanga City, whether it is K-1, Grades I, Grade II, or Grade
III, pupils' languages are so diverse and range from Chabacano, Bahasa Sug, Ilonggo, Binisaya,
Sinama, Filipino, and English among others. Multilingual needs multilingual teaching wherein
teachers use various languages in the entire time of teaching to accommodate learners who do not
speak the mother tongue and make them part of the discussion. It is the use of two or more languages
in a growing worldwide phenomenon (Milambiling, 2011).

The responses show that the teacher uses various languages in delivering her lesson. It shows
that she can use different mother tongues which make a good point of what mother tongue teachers
should be, they must be multilingual. Through this strategy, the teacher can say that it is useful because
the pupils are motivated. During observations of the classes, the pupils tend to be very active in
recitation and other activities when the teachers use various languages in the class.

It means that the teacher is versatile in making ways to cater to the needs of the pupils. Hence,
a multilingual teacher is an advantage since learners have different languages. The response of the
teachers provides evidence to the hypothesis of Garcia (2008) as cited by Milambiling (2011) that
multilingual language cognizant is a necessity for teachers in a multilingual setting. This strategy
allows the pupils to investigate, discover, explore, and learn the language of their classmates.

It was also confirmed from the observation of the researcher, that all learners were very
participative in the discussion because the majority of them could understand since the teacher
translated some words from Chabacano to their L1.

The non-Chabacano pupils have difficulty understanding concepts across subjects. They
cannot understand, memorize, and use terminologies in newly-translated subjects like Araling
Panlipunan, Values Education (ESP), Science, Mathematics, and Mother Tongue because they do not
possess the new vocabulary.

The pupils struggle in pronouncing and using archaic terms. Indigenization of materials means
that the content of the subject is translated into the “chosen” mother tongue using extremely unfamiliar
words that substitute technical terms. Examples of these are “abio” (baon), “arco iris” (rainbow), or
enseña (teach). The pupils prefer to use English terms for practical reasons. For instance, instead of
using “discuti” pupils would rather use “discuss” which is easier to say and understand. The teachers
331
recall that the first time they used the Chabacano counterpart, they got a collective blank stare from
some of the pupils which the millennials would call in English “loading” or “nose bleeding” which
means “difficult to understand.”

At home, the gap is due to the difficulty of bridging two genres of the mother tongue- the
contemporary, conversational language spoken by parents at home and the policy-based mother tongue
used and taught to children by teachers. This divergence of the mother tongue at home from school
causes a drift in the scaffolding process because it hinders parents from catching up with what children
are studying.

The MTB MLE books are so complicated, and the respondents believe that when materials are
not contextualized they fail to address the real learning needs of the children; thus, reducing
opportunities for maximum development of potentials.

It implies that the teachers need to be a linguist or polyglot in order to address the needs of the
pupils. It makes their learning interactive and meaningful. It means that the task of educating children
becomes much more difficult when teachers have to face a heterogeneous group with the multilingual
and multicultural background (Pai, 2005).

Another concern in the implementation of is the lack of consistency in the usage of

terminologies and words. The study of Dio and Jamora (2014) found that the difficulty of translating
technical terms such as mathematics. The teachers' helplessness to translate technical terms to the
mother tongue could confuse and might provide tweak results in standard tests which use English as
the medium. There are instances where no equivalent words exist in the mother tongue for a particular
term or word. Such cases may create confusion in the translation of the word to the mother tongue,
which may eventually create difficulty for the learners during standardized examinations which use
English as the medium.

Since most pupils do not possess the vocabulary required for them to interact in the target
language, they will likely feel the increasing demand to perform communication functions beyond
their capacity (Greenwood, 2016). The mix-up of terms in mother tongue, national and foreign
language also results in confusion among the learners. For instance, “yellow” in English is a common
term even among the ordinary peasants, who, upon hearing it can instantly conceptualize the color
yellow. However, when that word is translated into “amarillo” in the school-based term which the
natives do not use, it becomes difficult to conceptualize the image because their attention tends to

332
focus more on form, not the meaning; on pronunciation instead of abstraction; thus, causing a delay in
understanding.

The translation of other subject areas into mother tongue poses a challenge because the number
of more terminologies to read, understand, memorize and use accumulates in the children’s brain
frequently causing mental traffic. It means that it can slow down the process of acquiring and applying
the concepts.

Conclusions
Several themes emerged as findings of this study and these are in terms of challenges encountered in
the teaching of MTB-MLE: (a) insufficient instructional materials in the local language, (b) use of
various mother tongues or local languages in an MTB-MLE classroom, and (c) insufficient training
and seminars. However, for the coping of teachers in teaching MTB-MLE among diverse pupils, the
following themes emerged: (a) code-switching and (c) translations.

The point is this: if teachers teach with and through the mother tongues with the belief that
their learners learn best through them, but underestimate or disregard the realities of inequalities of
multilingualism which is embedded in the teaching and learning, then MTB-MLE will not go too far.
While MTB-MLE is for the classroom, the real battleground is bigger than the classroom where
speakers of languages run across different social spaces and relations through which they espouse
ideologies which either helps them wield power over others, or keep them firmly entrenched in
conditions of slavery.

Implications
Communication is vital in the teaching and learning process where the learning strategies and
methodologies used by teachers influenced or hinders the learners’ difficulties inside the classrooms.

The Philippine Educational System established the Mother Tongue-based Multilingual

Education (MTB-MLE) through the empowerment of language in the social system of the learners’
environment thus preparing the foundation for their identity by incorporating their roles in the larger
national to international contexts. The MTB-MLE is a strategy proposed to be the solution of the
dilemma in a country with more than 170 languages and dialects. It is a means of achieving the

333
 Millennium Development Goal (MDG) which is Education for All (EFA) through making education
accessible and affordable to every child regardless of their ethnic, cultural, or religious affiliations.

MTB-MLE program opens doors for schools concerning literature development. School
implementers would be engaged in various ways of coming up with materials such as creating their
materials from original and oral literature in the community, adaptation, and translation.

One of the primary objectives of research in any education-related discipline is to provide

information to enhance teaching pedagogy and to improve learning conditions. The findings of this
study show various colleges and universities which are offering pre-service education courses to
include in their curriculum the dynamics of language use in classrooms and what implications it has
on classroom practices and pedagogy and transforming them into learning. These schools, colleges
and universities should consider that there are several critical logistical obstacles to increasing the
use of mother tongue-based instruction. One of the most noteworthy of these is the supply and
management of quality teachers who understand local culture and to be able to teach in the mother
tongue languages.

Education is the power while language is the key in accessing that power. A learner who thrives
at school and develops self-esteem and confidence will have better employment opportunities and is
more likely to realize his full potential. Hence, the planning, implementing, and monitoring of the
MTB-MLE program must be sustained though it is challenging since its goal is not only to empower
the child inside the classroom but all well as the preservation of his culture and identity.

Recommendations
This paper shows that MTB-MLE is up against immense challenges which are ideological and
structural. It is not automatic that teaching the mother tongues or using them as languages of instruction
reflects positive attitudes towards them; MTB-MLE in this sense is ultimately about transforming
social and educational infrastructures which tolerate and breed harmful language attitudes and
ideologies.

Furthermore, it would be of interest to explore the relationship between participants’

vocabulary knowledge and reading proficiency in the mother tongue and their general school results.

The findings of this study will provide solid empirical bases for the formulation of reform
policies, innovations, and programs that will create a path for all learners to experience a smooth flow

334
of thinking and processing of information in any language, be it mother tongue or foreign language or
both.

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