STONE

DEFINITION- The process of taking out stones from natural rock beds is known as the
quarrying. The term quarry is used to indicate the exposed surface of natural rocks. The
stones, thus obtained, are used for various engineering purposes. The difference a mine and
quarry should be noted. In case of a mine, the operations are carried out under the ground at
great depth. In case of quarry, the operations are carried out at ground level in an exposed
condition.

SITE FOR QUARRY-The selection of site for a quarry of stones should be done after
studying carefully the following aspects:
1. Availability of tools, power, materials and labour for the efficient working of quarry.
2. Easy availability of clean water in sufficient quantity all the year round.
3. Economy in quarrying.
4. Drainage of quarrying pit.
5. Facility of carrying and conveying stones from quarry.
6. Quality of stone available from quarry.

METHODS OF QUARRYING-
Following are the three methods of quarrying:
I. Quarrying with hand tools
II. Quarrying with channeling machine
III. Quarrying with blasting.

QUARRYING WITH HAND TOOLS-

There three methods of doing this type of quarrying:
a) Digging or Excavating
b) Heating
c) Wedging
(a) Digging or Excavating- In this method, the stones are merely excavating with the help of
suitable instruments such as pick-axes, hammers, showels, chisels, etc. This method is useful
when a soft stone occurs in form of large and small blocks.
(b) Heating- In this method, the top surface of rock is heated. This method is useful when
small blocks of more or less regular shape are to be taken out from quarry. It is suitable when
the rock formation consists of horizontal layers of shallow depth. It is possible to obtain by
these method fairly rectangular blocks required for coursed rubble masonry.
(c) Wedging-In this method, if rock surface contains cracks or fissures, the steel wedges or
points, as shown in fig., are driven through such cracks by means of hammers. The blocks of
stones are then shifted and they are removed with the help of suitable instruments.
The wedging is adopted for costly stratified rocks which are comparatively soft such as
laterite, marble, limestone, sandstone, etc. The wedging is preferred to the blasting, wherever
possible.
QUARRYING WITH CHANNELLING MACHINE:
In this method, the channeling machine driven by steam, compressed air or electricity are used
to make vertical or oblique grooves or channels on the rock mass. These machines make
rapidly the grooves having length of about 24m, width of about 50mm to 75mm and depth of
about 2.40m to 3.70m. The process consists of the following steps:
(a) The channels are cut around the stone block which is to be removed from the rock mass.
(b) The horizontal holes are drilled beneath the rock.
(c) The wedges are driven into the holes and the block is then broken loose from its bed.

QUARRYING WITH BLASTING

In this method, the explosives are used to convert into small pieces of stones. The main
purpose of quarrying stones by is to loosen large masses of rocks and not to violently blow up
the whole mass so as to convert it into very small pieces of practically no use.
This method is adopted for quarrying hard stones, having no fissures or cracks. The stones
obtained by blasting are usually of small size and they are used as ballast in railways,
aggregate for concrete, road metal, etc. The process of blasting is important with respect to the
stone quarrying.

COMMONLY USED STONE IN INDIA-

Marble:
 Origin and composition: - it is a most common variety of metamorphic rock. It is
formed from crystallized limestone by metamorphism, chemically; it is calcareous and
is chiefly composed of calcium carbonate.
 properties :- following are the properties of marble:_
 Its crushing strength is from 500 to 600 kg/cm2
 The usual color of marble is white, but it is also available in different shades of colors
such as grey, black, red, brown, yellow and combination of these
 It is compact and crystalline in structure due to which it can take a fine polish
 It is less durable
 It can be carved easily and thus is most suited for sculpture work.
 Its specific gravity is 2.72 its weight 2720 kg/cum
 Its absorption is 1 to 3%
 Chief uses:- used as building stone and in decorative panels

Sandstone:
 Origin and composition:-This stone is a common variety of sedimentary rocks
mechanical origin. it is physically, stratified and chemically, siliceous in siliceous in
nature, it is chiefly composed of quartz (grains of sand) bound together by a cementing
material, but other minerals such as felspar, mica, magnetite etc. are also present.
 Properties:- following are the properties of sand stone:-
 It's crushing strength is 400 to 650 kg/cm2
 It is white, grey, yellow, light brown, and red in color.
 Its specific gravity is 2.3 to 2.4. Its weight is nearly 2350 kg/cu m.
  Chief uses: - general walls building flagstone.
Slate:
 Properties:- following are the properties of Slate stone:-
 Its crushing strength varies from 700 to 2100 kg/cm2
 It is hard tough and is least absorptive
 It also offers good abrasive resistance.
 It is a good heat and electrical insulator.
 Its water absorption varies from 0.5 to 1%.
 Following are the uses of slate.
 It is a valuable material for roofing and black boards.
 Thick slabs of harder variety of slates are used for flooring steps shelves mental pieces
sills of doors and window etc.
 Slate a available at the available at the following localities in India:_ o simla, kangra,
gurgaon, Gurdaspur, Alwar, Rajasthan, (MP) (Haryana) (Gujarat

Basalt:-
 Origin and Composition: these stones are the common varieties of igneous rocks they
are formed by solidification of lava on the earth’s surface due to volcanic eruption.
Some basalts develop step like appearance and are known as traps. They are chiefly
composed of silica, alumina and felspar.
 Properties:- Following are the properties of basalt and trap
 Their crushing strength is 700 to 850 kg/sq.cm.
 They are hard and tough.
 They are greenish grey to dark grey in color.
 Their specific gravity (2-9 to 2.96) is more than that of granite their weight is nearly
2900kg/cm3.
 They are available as a vast deposit of basaltic rock, near the western Ghats of India,
known as Deccan trap. They are also available at Rajmahal Hills (Bihar) known as
Rajmahal Trap. Varieties of basalts jike, Bombay Basalt, Blue basalt, red basalt and
yellow basalt are found and used in Maharasatra, Gujarat etc.

Limestone:-
 Properties:- following are the properties of Slate stone:-
 Color: - White light grey to light buff.
 Texture :- fine to crystalline, may have fossils
 Parting:-parallel to beds: also may have irregular fractures.
 Hardness:- fairly soft steel easily catches
 May show fossils.
 All lime stone are of sedimentary origin and have for their principal ingredient
carbonate of lime.
  When clay is present, the stone is called argillaceous limestone; when silica
predominates, siliceous limestone; when iron is prevalent, ferruginous limestone; when
magnesia is present to the extent of 15 per cent.
Granite:-
 Granite is one of the most valuable stones for construction purposes. Although the
quality of granite varies according to the proportions of the constituents and to their
method of aggregation, this kind of stone is generally durable, strong, and hard.
 The hardest and most durable granites contain a greater proportion of quartz and a
smaller proportion of feldspar and mica. Feldspar makes granite more susceptible to
decomposition by the solution potash contained in it, potash feldspar being less durable
than lime or soda feldspar.
 Because of its uniform structure, granite can be quarried in large blocks. The rift, the
grain, and the joint planes are advantageous in quarrying, as it is very difficult to cut
granite in other places. The uses for which granite is suitable depend on the texture of
the stone. Medium-grained stone is best fitted for building construction. Fine-grained
stone can be carved and polished.

Schist:-
 Schist has a more crystalline structure than slate, and the crystals are easily seen. It is
composed chiefly of minerals that cleave readily, such as hornblende, mica, etc., mixed
with a variable amount of granular quartz and feldspar. The presence of the cleavage
minerals produces a fine cleavage or foliation, called schistosity.
 Schist is sometimes used in building construction but it disintegrates very rapidly and is
not durable. It should always be set with the planes of schistosity horizontal.

Gneiss -
 Gneiss is a coarse-grained laminated rock.
 It is formed by metamorphism of either sedimentary or igneous rock.
 It is often used as structural material and as concrete aggregate.

Shale -
 Shale is a typical clay rock that splits readily in lines parallel to the bedding.
 Sand and lime carbonate are always present in this stone and, with increase of either,
the rock grades into shaly sandstone or shaly limestone.
 Shale is used for light traffic roads and in the manufacture of brick, tile, and other
burned clay products, but it is not suitable for concrete aggregate.

Conglomerate -
 Stratified rock composed of rounded pebbles of any material, such as limestone, quartz,
shale, granite grains, feldspar, etc., cemented together is known as conglomerate.
 When the pebbles are quartz with siliceous binding the rock is strong and hard to
quarry or dress.
  When the interstices between the pebbles are not filled by the binder, the rock is very
porous, and may hold great amounts of ground water.
 This stone is seldom used in building construction.

Dressing of Stone-
A quarried stone has rough surfaces, which are dressed to obtain a definite and regular shape.
Dressing of stones is done immediately after quarrying and before seasoning to achieve less
Weight for transportation. Dressing of stone provides pleasing appearance, proper bedding
with good mortar joints, special shapes for arches, copings, pillars, etc.

USES OF STONE-
 Foundation and wall items: Quarry, split and sawn stones from rocks are used to erect
the substructure of buildings. Piece stones sawn and split from limestone, sandstone,
dolomite and volcanic tuff are used for walls, piers, abutments, etc.
 Facing and architecture Items: Facing slabs and stones, stairs and landings, parapets,
etc. are made of slabs sawn or split from semi-finished product blocks with glossy,
dull, ground, sawn, pointed, fluted or rock finish. Facing slabs of granite, gabbro,
basalt, marble, breccia, limestone, sandstone and volcanic tuff are generally used.
 Building items- Elements of stairs, landings, parapets and guard rails are manufactured
from granite, marble, limestone, tuff, etc. Pedestal slabs and stones for farming
doorways, cornices and window-sill slabs are made from the same material as the
facing slabs.
 Road construction items: Curb stones—intended to separate roadways from
sidewalks; Paving blocks—used for pavements; Cobble stone—used to reinforce slopes
of earth works and banks of water basins; Crushed stone—a mixture of jagged stone
fragments (< 70 mm); Gravel—loose agglomeration of rock fragments ( 70 mm) and
Sand—loose mass of mineral and rock particles (0.14–5 mm) obtained from natural
stone are used in road construction.
 Underground structure or bridges are built of slabs and stones from igneous and
sedimentary rocks. Tunnels and above-water elements of bridges are built of granite,
diorite, gabbro and basalt. Face stones and facing slabs for tunnels and bridges are
given rock face, grooved or fluted finishes.
 Heat and chemically resistant items are manufactured from non-weathered rocks. For
high temperature working conditions, they are made from chromite, basalt, andesite
and tuffs. Building elements are protected against acid (except hydrofluoric acid and
fluosilicic acids) by using slabs made of granite, syenite, and silicious stones.
Limestones, dolomites, marble and magnesite show excellent resistance against alkalis.
When high temperature and chemical attack is expected, crushed stone and sand for
concrete and mortar are used.

CHARACHTERSTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONE -

A good building stone should have the following qualities-
  Appearance: For face work it should have fine, compact texture; light-colored stone is
preferred as dark colors are likely to fade out in due course of time.
 Structure: A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have uniform
texture free from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft material. Stratifications
should not be visible to naked eye.
 Strength: A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegrating action
of weather. Compressive strength of building stones in practice range between 60 to
200 N/mm2.
 Weight: It is an indication of the porosity and density. For stability of structures such
as dams, retaining walls, etc. heavier stones are required, whereas for arches, vaults,
domes, etc. light stones may be the choice.
 Hardness: This property is important for floors, pavements, aprons of bridges, etc.
 Toughness: The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as toughness.
The stone used should be tough when vibratory or moving loads are anticipated.
 Porosity and Absorption: Porosity depends on the mineral constituents, cooling time
and structural formation. A porous stone disintegrates as the absorbed rain water
freezes, expands, and causes cracking.
 Seasoning: The stone should be well seasoned.
 Weathering: The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to natural agencies
should be high.
 Workability: Stone should be workable so that cutting, dressing and bringing it out in
the required shape and size may not be uneconomical.
 Fire Resistance: Stones should be free from calcium corbonate, oxides of iron, and
minerals having different coefficients of thermal expansion. Igneous rock show marked
disintegration principally because of quartz which disintegrates into small particles at a
temperature of about 575°C. Limestone, however, can withstand a little higher
temperature; i.e. up to 800°C after which they disintegrate.
 Specific Gravity- The specific gravity of most of the stones lies between 2.3 to 2.5.
 Thermal Movement-Thermal movements alone are usually not trouble-some.
However, joints in coping and parapets open-out in letting the rain water causing
trouble. Marble slabs show a distinct distortion when subjected to heat. An exposure of
one side of marble slab to heat may cause that side to expand and the slab warps. On
cooling, the slab does not go back to its original shape.

TESTING OF STONES-
Building stones are available in large quantity in various parts of the country and to choose
and utilize them for their satisfactory performance, it is necessary to test the stone for its
strength properties, durability and quality.

Durability Test-
The durability (soundness) test is performed to find out the capacity of stone to resist
disintegration and decomposition.
  Smith Test: Break off the freshly quarried stone chippings to about the size of a rupee
coin and put them in a glass of clean water, one-third full. If the water becomes slightly
cloudy, the stone is good and durable. If water becomes dirty, it indicates that the stone
contains too much of earthy and mineral matter.

 Brard’s Test: for frost resistance — Few small pieces of freshly quarried stone are
immersed in boiling solution of sulphate of soda (Glauber’s salt) and are weighed.
These are then remove and kept suspended for few days and weighed again. The loss in
weight indicates the probable effect of frost.

 Acid Test: To check weather resistance — confirms the power of stones to withstand
the atmospheric conditions. 100 g of stone chips are kept in a 5 per cent solution of
H2SO4 or HCI for 3 days. Then the chips are taken out and dried. The sharp and firm
corners and edges are indication of sound stone. This test is used to test the cementing
material of sand stone.

 Crystallisation- IS 1126
 Three test pieces of 50 mm diameter and 50 mm height are dried for 24 hours
and are weighed (W1).
 The specimens are suspended in 14 percent sodium sulphate solution (density
1.055 kg/m3) for 16 to 18 hours at room temperature (20° to 30°C).
 The specimens are then taken out of the solution and kept in air for 4 hours.
They are then oven dried at a temperature of 105° ± 5°C for 24 hours and then
cooled at room temperature. This process is repeated for 30 cycles.
 The specimens are weighed (W2) and the difference in weight is found. This
test is repeated thirty times and the loss in weight after every five cycles is
obtained. The change in weight indicates the degree of decay of stone.
Durability should be expressed in percentage as change in the weight.
 The average of three test results should be reported as durability value.
Change in weight =W1-W2/W1
Where W1 is the original weight of the specimen and W2 is the weight of the specimen after
30 cycles of the test.

Compressive Strength Test – IS 1121 (Part-1)

 Samples of stone weighing at least 25 kg each of the un-weathered specimens should
be obtained from quarry.
 To test stone for compressive strength, specimen pieces in the form of cubes or
cylinders are made from samples of rock. The lateral dimension or diameter of test
piece should not be less than 50 mm and the ratio of height to diameter or lateral
dimension should be 1:1.
 A minimum of three specimen pieces are tested in each saturated and dry conditions.
Separate tests should be made for the specimen when the load to parallel to the rift and
perpendicular to the rift. In all twelve test pieces should be used.
  The specimen pieces of diameter or lateral dimension 50 mm are immersed in water at
20 to 30°C for 72 hours and are tested in saturated condition. The specimen pieces are
also tested in dry condition by drying them in an oven at 105 ± 5°C for 24 hours and
then cooled in a desiccator to 20–30°C. These are tested in universal testing machine.

 The load is applied gently at a rate of 14 N/mm2 per minute until the resistance of the
specimen piece to the increasing load breaks down and no greater load is sustained.
 The compressive strength of the specimen piece is the maximum load in Newtons
supported by it before failure occurs divided by the area of the bearing face of the
specimen in mm2. The average of the three results in each condition separately should
be taken for the purpose of reporting the compressive strength of the sample.
 When the ratio of height to diameter or lateral dimension differs from unity by 25 %
more, the compressive strength is calculated by the following expression.

Cc = Cp /{0.7780+0.222(b/h)}
Where,
Cc = compressive strength of standard specimen piece
Cp = compressive strength of the specimen having a height greater than the diameter
Or lateral dimension
b = diameter or lateral dimension
h = height
The crushing strength of stones varies in the range of 15–100 N/mm2.

Tensile Strength Test- IS 1121 (Part-3)

 Three cylindrical test pieces of diameter not less than 50 mm and the ratio of diameter
to height 1:2 are used to determine the tensile strength of the stone in each saturated
(kept in water for 3 days at 20 to 30°C) and dry condition (dried in an oven at 105 ±
5°C for 24 hours and cooled at room temperature).
 The general arrangement for testing tensile strength of stone is shown in Fig. below
Each test piece to be tested is sandwiched in between two steel plates of width 25 mm,
thickness 10 mm and length equal to the length of test piece.
 The load is applied without shock and increased continuously at a uniform rate until the
specimen splits and no greater load is sustained.
 The maximum load applied to the specimen is recorded.
 Split tensile strength = S = 2W/πdL
Where,
S = Split tensile strength (N/mm2)
W = Applied load (N)
d = Diameter of specimen (mm), and
L = Length of specimen (mm)
The average of three results separately for each condition should be reported as split tensile
strength of the sample. In case any test piece gives a value of as much as 15 per cent below the
average, it should be examined for defects and if found defective the test piece should be
rejected.

Absorption Test- IS 1124

 The selected test pieces of stone are crushed or broken and the material passing 20 mm
IS Sieve and retained on 10 mm IS Sieve is used for the test.
 The test piece weighing about 1 kg is washed to remove particles of dust and
immersed in distilled water in a glass vessel at room temperature 20 to 30° C for 24
hours.
 Soon after immersion and again at the end of soaking period, entrapped air is removed
by gentle agitation achieved by rapid clock-wise and anticlock- wise rotation of the
vessel. The vessel is then emptied and the test piece allowed draining.
 The test piece is then placed on a dry cloth and gently surface dried with the cloth. It is
transferred to a second dry cloth when the first one removes no further moisture.
 The test piece is spread out not more than one stone deep on the second cloth and left
exposed to atmosphere away from direct sunlight or any other source of heat for not
less than 10 minutes until it appears to be completely surface dry. The sample is then
weighed (B).
 The sample is then carefully introduced in a 1000 ml capacity measuring cylinder and
distilled water is poured by means of 100 ml capacity measuring cylinder while taking
care to remove entrapped air, until the level of water in the larger cylinder reaches
 1000 ml mark.The quantity of water thus added is recorded in ml or expressed in gram
weight (C).
 The water in the larger cylinder is drained and the sample is carefully taken out and
dried in an oven at 100 to 110°C for not less than 24 hours. It is then cooled in a
desiccators to room temperature and weighed (A). The room temperature during the
test is recorded.

Apparent specific gravity = A/1000-C

Water absorption = (B-A/A) X100

Apparent Porosity = {(B-A)/ (1000-C)} X100

The true porosity shall be calculated from the following formula-

True Porosity = (True specific gravity – Apparent specific gravity)/True Specific gravity
Where,
A = Weight of oven-dry test piece (g)
B = Weight of saturated surface-dry test piece (g)
C = Quantity of water added in 1000 ml jar containing the test piece (g)

DETERIORATION OF STONE-
 Rain-
Rain water acts both physically and chemically on stones. The physical action is due to
the erosive and transportation powers and the latter due to the decomposition, oxidation
and hydration of the minerals present in the stones.
 Physical Action-
Alternate wetting by rain and drying by sun causes internal stresses in the stones and
consequent disintegration.
 Chemical action-
In industrial areas the acidic rain water reacts with the constituents of stones leading to
its deterioration.
 Frost-
In cold places frost pierces the pores of the stones where it freezes, expands and creates
cracks.
 Wind -
Since wind carries dust particles, the abrasion caused by these deteriorates the stones.
 Temperature Change-
Expansion and contraction due to frequent temperature changes cause stone to
deteriorate especially if a rock is composed of several minerals with different
coefficients of linear expansion.
 Vegetable Growth-
 Roots of trees and weeds that grow in the masonry joints keep the stones damp and also
secrete organic and acidic matters which cause the stones to deteriorate. Dust particles
of organic or nonorganic origin may also settle on the surface and penetrate into the
pores of stones. When these come in contact with moisture or rain water,
bacteriological process starts and the resultant micro-organism producing acids attack
stones which cause decay.
 Mutual Decay-
When different types of stones are used together mutual decay takes place. For example
when sandstone is used under limestone, the chemicals brought down from limestone
by rain water to the sandstone will deteriorate it.
 Chemical Agents-
Smokes, fumes, acids and acid fumes present in the atmosphere deteriorate the stones.
Stones containing CaCO3, MgCO3 are affected badly.