FEM 4113

CAREER ADVISING AND GUIDANCE

Career development across a lifespan
Prof. Dr. Mansor Abu Talib

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Development Across the Life
Span

• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

• Focuses on the individual’s developing relationships with
others in social world
• Eight stages - development continues over life span
• Crisis at each stage of development

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 Trust vs. Mistrust

Autonomy vs. Shame/doubt

Initiative vs. Guilt

Industry vs. Inferiority

Identity vs. Role confusion Erikson’s

psychosocial
Intimacy vs. Isolation theory

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Integrity vs. Despair

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• Career development is an essential element in effective
school guidance and counseling programs.
• Career education programs are the primary method used
for providing career development assistance to students
(counseling is still salient!)

Overview of Career Development

Interventions in Schools
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• Stage 1: Develop a program rationale and philosophy.
• Stage 2: State program goals and behavioral objectives.
• Stage 3: Select program processes.
• Stage 4: Develop an evaluation design.
• Stage 5: Identify program milestones.

Five-Stage Planning
Model
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• Careers unfold and develop throughout the life span.

• For children and adolescents, school and leisure activities

are their work. Their world outside own home!

Career Development in the

Primary School
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• Children move through the first two of Erikson’s
eight stages prior to entering primary school.
• Those who coped successfully with these stages
have developed trust and autonomy.
• When students do not develop trust and
autonomy, they experience consequences of
mistrust, doubt, and shame.

Career Development Before

Elementary School - Erikson
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• During elementary school years, students need to
develop initiative (ages 4-6) and industry (ages 6-
12).
• When these tasks are accomplished, they use
curiosity to gather information about themselves
and the world.
• These behaviors result in personal effectiveness
that is rewarded by positive outcomes.

Career Development During

Primary School (Erikson)
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• Develop physical skills for participation in games
• Build positive attitudes toward oneself
• Develop interpersonal skills
• Become more tolerant
• Learn appropriate gender social roles
• Develop academic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics
• Achieve a greater sense of independence
• Develop attitudes toward groups and institutions

Middle Childhood Developmental

Tasks (Havighurst)
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• Encourage students to participate in activities related to
their interests
• Help children
• become concerned about the future
• increase personal control over their lives
• convince themselves to achieve in school and later at work
• develop competent work habits and attitudes (challenging
but achievable)

Goals of Career Interventions at

Primary School Level (Super & Savickas)
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• Self-Knowledge
• knowledge of the importance of self-concept
• skills to interact with others
• awareness of the importance of growth and change

Career Development Guidelines for

Primary School Students
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• Educational and Occupational Exploration
• awareness of the benefits of educational achievement
• awareness of the relationship between work and
learning
• skills to understand and use career information
• awareness of the importance of personal responsibility
and good work habits
• awareness of how work relates to the needs and
functions of society

Career Development Guidelines for

Primary School Students
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• Career Planning
• understanding how to make decisions
• awareness of the interrelationship of life roles
• awareness of different occupations and changing gender
roles
• awareness of the career planning process

Career Development Guidelines for

Primary School Students
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• Encourage children to analyze self-characteristics
(interests, capacities, values)
• Communicate work requirements to children.
• Discuss the importance of work values in work
behavior.
• Explain the relationship among work, pay, and
the economic condition of the family.

Ways in Which Parents Can

Assist Children (Herr & Kramer)
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• Connect children with informational resources
(workers, books, films).
• Be careful to avoid stereotyping occupational
alternatives and workers.
• Provide children with opportunities for work in
the home and community.
• Provide children with opportunities to learn and
practice decision-making skills.

Ways in Which Parents Can

Assist Children (Herr & Kramer)
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 Conclusion - children

• Importance of early school years

• Shaping attitude toward self and environment
• Educational and career goals
• Analyzing personal skills, interests and strength
• Importance of peers influences - models
• Parental influences
• Programs are group based
• Sequencing according to stages
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• Achieve new and more sophisticated relations with peers
• Achieve emotional independence from parents and other
adults
• Set vocational goals
• Prepare for marriage and family life
• Develop skills for civic competence

Developmental Tasks of
Secondary School
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• Acquire a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to
behavior
• Set realistic goals and make plans for achieving these
goals

Developmental Tasks,
continued
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 Goal of Secondary School Career Guidance
(Super & Savickas, 1996)

• To help students cope successfully with the tasks

of crystallizing and specifying occupational
preferences

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• Self-Knowledge
• Knowledge of the influence of a positive self-concept
• Skills to interact with others
• Knowledge of the importance of growth and change

Career Development Guidelines for

Secondary School Students
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• Educational and Occupational Exploration
• Knowledge of the benefits of educational achievement
to career opportunities
• Understanding of the relationship between work and
learning
• Skills to locate, understand, and use career information
• Knowledge of skills necessary to seek and obtain jobs
• Understanding of how work relates to needs and
functions of the economy and society

Career Development Guidelines for

Secondary School Students
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• Career Planning
• Skills to make decisions
• Knowledge of the interrelationships of life roles
• Knowledge of different occupations and changing male-
female roles
• Understanding of the process of career planning

Career Development Guidelines for

Secondary School Students
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• Since junior high is a transition from the
structured elementary to the less structured high
school environment, students need an opportunity
to explore their personal characteristics and
educational options.
• Because students have a wide range of career
maturity, interests, values, and abilities, a great
variety of intervention methods is needed.

Career Planning Considerations

(Herr & Cramer, 1996)
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• Although junior high students are capable of
verbal and abstract behavior, exploration is
enhanced with concrete, hands-on direct
experiences.
• Search for identity is a fundamental part of the
junior high experience. Therefore, career
guidance must encourage students to explore
feelings, needs, and uncertainties.

Career Planning Considerations,

continued
(Herr & Cramer, 1996)
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• Assessment
• Learning an organizational system
• Exploring and learning about different clusters of
occupations
• Job shadowing
• Portfolio development

Career Planning Interventions

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• The identity-diffused person has not yet
experienced an identity crisis or exploration and
has not made a personal commitment to an
occupation -- or a set of goals, values, and
beliefs.
• The foreclosed person has not yet experienced an
identity crisis or exploration but has committed
to an occupation and a set of goals, values, and
beliefs.

Marcia’s Taxonomy of
Adolescent Identity
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• The moratorium person is engaged in an active struggle
to clarify personally meaningful values, goals, and
beliefs.
• The identity-achieved person has sorted through the
process of identity clarification and resolved these issues
in a personally meaningful way.

Marcia’s Taxonomy of
Adolescent Identity, continued
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 No exploration Exploration

No commitment Identity Diffusion Moratorium

Commitment Identity
Foreclosure
Achievement

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 Identity Diffusion
“I don’t worry about values ahead of time; I decide things when they
happen.”
“I don’t know what I believe.”

Identity diffuse people do not know how they will end up, nor do
they care. They are just living for the moment and give little
thought to the future.
If diffuse people do not mature by adulthood – bad news. They
have little self-esteem and little autonomy; they are usually
disorganized, complicated, and somewhat unethical. They are
withdrawn, wary of peers, and unfavorably received by others.

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“I’ve known since I was Foreclosure
young what I wanted to be.”
“It’s better to have a firm set of beliefs
than to be open to different ideas.”
Foreclosed people commit to an identity, but they
commit to an identity that has been handed to them,
usually by some authority. This is natural at a young
age, but often in young adulthood, children of wealthy
parents accept the predetermined identities that their
parents give them.
Foreclosed adults are characterized by a disapproval of
showing strong emotion, support for authoritarian
views, a need for social approval, poor results in
stressful situations, stereotypical relationships, great
behavior, and happy family life.
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MORATORIUM

People in the moratorium status are exploring

their identities, but they have not yet committed
to any certain ideology yet. They are
experimenting and searching for a set of
ideas and beliefs to call their own.
Moratoriums are characterized by anxiety, high self-esteem,
internally oriented behavior, cultural sophistication, a need for
both rebellion and acceptance, short deep relationships, and
favorable reception from others.

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 Identity Achieved
People who are identity achieved have explored their
options and have committed to a certain ideology that fits
them. They have taken on a set of values and beliefs that
are all their own. “They know not only who they are,
they know how they became that, and that they had a
hand in the becoming.” - James Marcia
These people are independent, smart, and confident. They
are generally well-received by others, and they have high
self-esteem, even in unfamiliar situations.

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• Self-Knowledge
• Understanding the influences of a positive self-concept
• Skills to interact positively with others
• Understanding the impact of growth and development

Career Development Guidelines for

Secondary School Students
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• Educational and Occupational Exploration
• Understanding the relationship between educational achievement
and career planning
• Understanding the need for positive attitudes toward work and
learning
• Skills to locate, evaluate, and interpret career information
• Skills to prepare to seek, obtain, maintain, and change jobs
• Understanding how societal needs and functions influence the
nature and structure of work

Career Development Guidelines for

Secondary School Students
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• Career Planning
• Skills to make decisions
• Understanding the interrelationship of life roles
• Understanding the continuous changes in male-female roles
• Skills in career planning

Career Development Guidelines for

Secondary School Students
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• Need to develop and implement a career plan
• Need to catch up on career development tasks
because past interventions have not been
systematic
• Need to combat internal and environmental
pressure that surrounds career decisions
• Need to examine advantages and disadvantages
of various post-secondary school options

Potential Issues Confronting High

School Students (Herr & Cramer, 1996)
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• Instruction on tasks related to career maturity
(career choice readiness)
• Assessment
• Learning how the world of work is organized
• Occupational research
• Consideration of the importance of work in life
• Values clarification
• Parent involvement

Career Interventions in
Secondary School
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Conclusion – High schools
• Characteristic of adolescents – diversity, self exploration,
meaningful participation, interaction with peers, physical
activity
• A more systematic approach to career development
• Gender differences – big gap
• Gender stereotypes
• Career information, Decision making
• Increased need for career services
• Transition to work or higher learning
• Work shadow, apprenticeship
• Community involvement
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Career Needs of Students
in Higher Education

Today’s students are diverse in

background, characteristics,
developmental levels, and career
development needs.

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• Information on the occupation that my chosen major will
prepare for me
• Knowledge of places and people on campus that can help in
my career planning
• More direct experiences such as part time jo work or job visits
in occupations that I am considering
• Better understanding of myself to choose an occupation that
fits my values, goals, and life-style preferences
• Knowledge of the job market
• Help to plan college courses that will give more flexibility in
choosing among different occupation

85% students indicates needs in this six areas

Freshmen needs (Walters &

Saddlemire, 1979)
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• Mengetahui kerjaya paling sesuai dengan saya (81.9%)
• Mengetahui jenis pekerjaan yang saya boleh lakukan dengan baik
(74.1%)
• Mengetahui bidang tugas dilakukan oleh kerjaya yang saya minati
(72.4%)
• Mengetahui kemahiran mencari kerja (69.1%)
• Mempelajari kemahiran membuat keputusan (68.9%)
• Meneroka kerjaya yang memnehui kehendak saya (68.6%)
• Membuat keputusan samada bekerja atau sarjana (65.3%)
• Meneroka peluang pekerjaan bagi graduan pengajian saya (65.0%)

(melibatkan 637 pelajar baru UPM, Mei 1998)

Kajian Pelajar Baru (Mansor, 1999)

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Mengetahui dan sedar harapan keluarga terhadap saya (93.1%)
Mengurus cara mengurus waktu dengan efektif (86.7%)
Memastikan saya berada dalam program pengajian yang tepat (83.7%)
Mengetahui kerjaya paliong sesuai dengan saya (81.9%)
Mengenalpasti kekuatan dan kelemahan saya (81.0%)
Mengenalpasti kurikulum pemgajian bagi memenuhi persediaan kerjaya
saya (79.9%)
Merasa selamat dan diperlukan dikampus ini (79.8%)
Meyakinkan diri saya dalam pelbagai aspek kehidupan (78.0%)
Mengenali pensyarah dengan lebih dekat agar saya selesa meminta
bantuan (76.6%)
Mengetahui sumber untuk mendapatkan bantuan tentang isu-isu
akademik atau pembelajaran (75.2%)

Senarai Kepentingan
Keperluan
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• Professor/advocate
• Job placement
• Employment agencies
• Placement offices
• Diverse services (no single type of counseling center or
placement center)

The Evolution of Career

Development Interventions
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 Counseling General-level
Macrocenter
orientation service

Career
Minimal
planning and
service
placement

Five Major Approaches for

Delivering Career Services
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• Learn more about themselves
• Identify career goals
• Become more certain of their career plans
• Explore career options
• Do educational planning
• Learn job search skills

Why College/University Students

Seek Career Assistance
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• Help students learn to identify and transfer career
interests to a plan of action
• Help students relate interests and goals to
opportunities
• Help students relate their career plans to life
goals and opportunities
• Help students learn how to evaluate their
progress toward career goals through academic
preparation

Goals of Career Interventions in

Higher Education
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• Explore a variety of options.
• Crystallize a narrow range of specific options.
• Make a commitment to a choice and specify college
major.
• Implement the choice of major.

Career Interventions in Higher

Education (Crites’ Model)
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• Proposes a systems approach to career services in higher
education
• Starts by providing an overview of services to new
students
• Continues by providing self-assessment
• Then focuses on exposure as students engage actively in
career exploration
• Finally provides training in job search skills

Powell and Kirts Model

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• Courses, workshops, and seminars -- structured
group experiences on topics such as career
decision making, career planning, and job search
skills
• Group counseling activities for students dealing
with career indecision, career indecisiveness, and
job search anxiety
• Individual career counseling
• Placement programs

Career Services
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• Structured, university-wide program of career
education
• One-stop center that offers career counseling, career
planning, and placement
• Specially trained and selected academic advisers
representing many academic areas
• Central full-time administrator
• Commission on academic advising and career
services

Components of Comprehensive
Career Services (Hale)
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• Provide assistance in the selection of a major
• Provide self-assessment and self-analysis
• Assist students to understand the world of work
• Assist students to learn decision-making skills
• Provide assistance with unique needs of sub-
populations
• Provide assistance with access to jobs

Goals of Career Interventions in Higher

Education (Herr & Kramer)
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• Increase career and self-awareness
• Develop decision-making skills
• Acquire knowledge of current and emerging occupational
options
• Develop job search skills
• Crystallize career goals
• Participate in academic planning

Career Development Goals

in Higher Education (Griff)
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Formulation the plan
• Specifying objectives
• Generating strategies
• Implementing action plan
• Evaluation

Systematic planning
(Herr & Cramer, 1992. Ch.6)
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• Establishing a conceptual framework
• Possessing information
• Assessing needs
• Formulating the management plan
• Implementing the program
• Evaluating the system

A system approach to career

education (Ryan, 1974)
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 Conclusion – higher education
• Characteristic of students population – very
diverse
• Transition from school to ‘freedom’
• Major field of study
• Career services – individual and group,
informational resources
• Placement services – matching to employer
• Experiential learning, internship, job listings
• Program based – preparation for world of work
• Career readiness

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• 1: Acknowledge lifelong nature of career
development and challenge students to take
responsibility for their own career destiny
• 2: Accept and embrace technology as an ally in
service delivery
• 3: Continue to refine and strengthen professional
identity
• 4: Acknowledge and accept that individual career
counseling is at the core of our work

Ten Imperatives for Career

Services (Rayman, 1999)
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• 5: Forge relationships with other professionals and
parents to achieve a “multiplier effect”
• 6: Redouble efforts to meet needs of an increasingly
diverse student body
• 7: Maintain focus on quality career services while also
filling relationship role with corporate America

Ten Imperatives for Career

Services (Rayman, 1999)
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• 8: Acknowledge that on-campus recruiting is a
thing of the past and develop new approaches
• 9: Resolve the nature of the university’s role with
alumni, eliciting support rather than providing
services to them
• 10: Advocate effectively for resources to
maintain and increase services and use existing
resources efficiently

Ten Imperatives for Career

Services (Rayman, 1999)
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• Self-Knowledge
• Skills to maintain a positive self-concept
• Skills to maintain effective behaviors
• Ability to understand developmental changes and transitions

Career Development
Competencies in Adulthood
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• Educational and Occupational Exploration
• Skills to enter and participate in education and training
• Skills to participate in work and lifelong learning
• Skills to locate, evaluate, and interpret career
information
• Skills to seek, obtain, maintain, and change jobs
• Ability to understand how the needs and functions of
society influence the nature and structure of work

Career Development
Competencies in Adulthood
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• Career Planning
• Skills to make decisions
• Ability to understand the impact of work on individual and
family life
• Ability to understand the continuing changes in male-
female roles
• Skills required to make career transitions

Career Development
Competencies in Adulthood
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• Concept of career planning, career management
and life planning
• Work adjustment and personal adjustment
• Occupational stress
• Self assessment tools, labor market
information/placement exchanges/organizational
potential assessment, developmental programs,
consultation, wellness
• Retirement or outplacement counselling
• Employee Assistance Programs

Conclusion - adult
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• Community counseling is the application of counseling
principles and practices in agency, organization, or
individual practice settings that are located in and interact
with the surrounding community.

Definition
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 • Differences
• Similarities
• Community counselors deal
• Practice draws on the with adults.
same base of • Options are limited to those
counseling theory. in community.
• Counselor may spend equal
time with client and
• Counselors deal with resources.
similar client • Work setting is the
problems. community.

Community Counseling
and Other Specialties
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• Private practice
• The World Wide Web (cybercounseling)
• Mental health centers
• Substance abuse centers
• Rehabilitation settings
• Corrections and probations
• Job Service offices and one-stop centers
• Corporations and other organizations

Typical Work Settings

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Smith (1985) suggested:
• Identify sources of stress related to minority
status
• Identify stress related to work and family roles
• Help client develop sense of internal control
• Help client develop support network

Multicultural Career Counseling

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• Hofstede (1984) study of cultural differences of work
related values
• Power distance – hierarchical relationships
• Uncertainty avoidance – anxiety, stress, risk
• Individualism/collectivism
• Masculinity – gender differences

Multicultural Career Counseling

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• Individualism should not dominate the mental
health field
• Learning occurs within a cultural context
• Cultural identity is changing
• Culture should be defined inclusively and
broadly
• Understanding of cultural & sociopolitical
context of behavior (interventions, assessment)

Multicultural Counseling and Therapy

Theory (Sue,Ivey & Pedersen 1996)
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A career guidance program has the following characteristics:
• Is identifiable but integrated with other programs within the
institution.
• Enhances the career development knowledge, skills, and abilities of
all students by establishing program standards.
• Uses coordinated activities designed to support student achievement
of the standards.
• Supports the delivery of the program through qualified leadership;
diversified staffing; adequate facilities, materials and financial
resources; and effective management.
• Is accountable, with evaluation that is based on program
effectiveness in supporting student achievement of the career
guidance and counseling standards

According to the National Career

Development Guidelines (NOICC, 1989),
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• Dealing with attending to the needs of others
• Learning to negotiate in the workplace
• Accessing quality child care
• Handling sexual harassment in the workplace
• Accessing mentors

Special Needs of Women

(Cook, Heppner, & O’Brien)
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 General Issues Affecting Most People
With Delayed Entry into the Work Force
Women
• Women often interrupt their careers to raise children.
• Many are displaced homemakers.
• Women often delay entry into the workforce until their children are grown.
• Women generally earn only 2/3 of what men earn.
• Women find work easily in the lower paying professions and these jobs also
have skills that can be updated easily after absence from the workplace.
• Discrimination and the glass ceiling.

Client Groups With Special Needs ”

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 General Issues Affecting Most People
With Delayed Entry into the Work Force
• Counselors can help women by:
• Helping women to look at the consequences of career choices and how it
may limit them.
• Helping prepare women for discrimination in the workplace.
• Making them aware of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
• Making women aware of their rights about sexual harassment.
• Helping women to modify their self-concept, build self-confidence.
• Helping women to build support systems.

Client Groups With Special Needs

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The Race/Gender Ecological Model of Career Development by
Cook, Heppner and O’Brien (2001).
• Human behavior results from:

• interactions between a person and his or her

environment.

• a conglomeration of individual, interpersonal and

sociocultural factors.

• Vocational behavior can best be understood as:

• an act that occurs in a context and that context is

imperative in understanding the behavior.

Career Counseling in the Context

of Gender and Sexual Orientation
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The Race/Gender Ecological Model of Career Development by
Cook, Heppner and O’Brien (2001) (continued).

• People live in an interacting social world.

• Every person has a gender and a race (and a sexual orientation).

• These factors help shape decisions about a career.

• Because of these factors, people will face either opportunity,

discrimination or at times, both.

• Career behavior is believed to be shaped by the interrelationships

among the subsystems in a person’s world.

Career Counseling in the Context

of Gender and Sexual Orientation
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The Race/Gender Ecological Model of Career Development by Cook,
Heppner and O’Brien (2001) (continued).
• The ecological part of the model comes from Urie Bronfenbenner’s
work who identified four major subsystems that influence human
behavior:
•
Macrosystem
Values, laws, customs etc. that affect
Exosystem the individual
Social settings that affect the person (e.g.
Mesosystem the board of directions of a workplace).
Connections between the microsystems
Microsystem that foster development.
An individuals immediate surroundings
The Individual

Career Counseling in the Context

of Gender and Sexual Orientation
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• Understanding how socialization has influenced their
career behaviors
• Learning to express feelings
• Learning how to manage and reduce stress
• Identifying strategies to participate more fully in life roles
other than work

Special Needs of Men

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• One who is usually considered to be different from a
normal person -- physically, physiologically,
neurologically, or psychologically -- because of accident,
disease, birth defect, or developmental problem (Herr &
Cramer, 1996)

Definition of Persons with

Disabilities
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• Adjusting to disability
• Confronting attitudinal barriers
• Lack of role models
• Developing social/interpersonal skills
• Developing a positive self-concept
• Developing skills for independent living

Career Development Issues of Persons with

Disabilities (Zunker, 1998)
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• Possession of knowledge and skills appropriate in any
helping relationship
• Recognition of personal attitudes and values
• Knowledge of cultural context from which clients come
• Ability to identify special needs

Components of Culturally Sensitive

Career Interventions (Herr & Kramer)
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• Ability to assist culturally different clients
understand that they do have choices, some of
which include consequences.
• Skill to assist culturally different individuals to
deal effectively with discrimination when it does
occur
• Skill to discern between client deficits that result
from socioeconomic class and those from
membership in a racial or ethnic group

Components of Culturally Sensitive Career

Interventions, continued
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 Guidelines For Using CACGS in Career Counseling

Using Technology: The Internet and

Computer Assisted Career Guidance
Systems
People who will benefit
most from CACGS

Computer Don’t have Don’t have

Literate complex questions barriers

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Trends in Career Information

• Career information delivery will change:

• Use of the Internet will continue to proliferate.

• Development of online sources

• Classification systems are improving which will make information more

accessible.

• Adults will be targeted as consumers of career information.

Career Employment Trends and Issues

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 • Career information delivery will change:
• Accessible internet resources will continue to grow.
• Career information will decline to be emphasized at the graduate level.
• Researchers will ignore research regarding our understanding of how to
select and use occupational information.
• Career counselors and the public will increase use of online resources.

Career Employment Trends and

Issues
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Trends in Finding Employment

• Job openings will be accessible online.

• Job development experts will increasingly be needed to help clients wade

through the growing complexities of the world of work.

Career Employment Trends and Issues

FEM 4113 SEM 2 2018/19
Trends in Career Counseling
• Career counseling will be recognized as a specialty utilizing skill and
expertise.
• Career counselors will most likely need to be certified in the future.
• Career counseling will recognize there are different needs for both women
and men.
• Multicultural career counseling will be a hot issue.
• John Holland’s theory will continue to be prominent in assessment of
interests but other theories such as the developmental theory of
circumscription and compromise will also rise to the fore.
• More and more career counseling will be done on computers.

Career Employment Trends and Issues

FEM 4113 SEM 2 2018/19
Trends in Career Development Programming

• Research on career counseling and career development will continue to be

important.

• Career counseling and career development will continue to be guided by

such research.

• Career counseling and career guidance will still be important but will be
overshadowed by the school reform movement sweeping the country.

Career Employment Trends and Issues

FEM 4113 SEM 2 2018/19
THANK YOU

FEM 4113 SEM 2 2018/19