ISSN.

0972 - 8406 79
The NEHU Journal, Vol XVI, No. 1, January - June 2018, pp. 79-97

Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri*

Abstract

Earlier researches on early India have focused mostly on

the aspects of society, economy, polity and art including the
‘position of women’. The recent researches have turned their
attention to the study of causes, consequences and nature of
subjugation of women in the early society and emergence of
patriarchy. The notion of patriarchy cannot be ignored while
discussing women as it defines unequal gender relations where
males were dominating and females were always subjugated.
Besides, women’s identity was known only through their male
relatives, which in turn gave birth to a male dominated society.
Consequently women’s behaviour, reproduction and sexuality
were controlled and guarded by male. Further, women were
seen as a private property of men not having any existence of
their own. It is in this background that present paper seeks to
study the depiction of women as projected in Brahmanical texts
and the patriarchal attitude towards women. The paper uses the
Brahmanical literature such as: Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti,
Arthasastra, Ramayana and Mahabharata and focuses largely
upon the private women.

Keywords: private women, progeny, guarded, female nature,

pativrata, economic resources

Introduction

E
arlier researches on early India have focused mostly on the
aspects of society, economy, polity and art including the
‘position of women’. The recent researches have turned

*
Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri, Research Scholar, Dept of History, NEHU, Shillong.
Email: ibame461@gmail.com
80 Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

their attention to the study of causes, consequences and nature of

subjugation of women in the early society and some of them have
been able to throw light on how gender as a social category can be
used as an analytical tool to understand this subjugation. Feminist
historians such as Uma Chakravarti,1 Kumkum Roy,2 and Shalini
Shah3 have largely contributed in this field through re-interpreting
the existing sources from feminist perspectives and gender studies
(women) and using literary texts which were not focused in the
conventional histories. This new scholarship has raised serious
concerns about the identity of woman and argued that the roles of
women as portrayed in the Brahmanical texts were mostly written
from a male centric approach. The early scholars, largely under the
influence of the nationalist school, have explained the position of
women in early India as ‘high’. However, younger generation of
historians, using the feminist perspective has been able to locate a
different picture of the position of women in early Indian society.
Their writings clearly show that women’s identity was known only
through their male relatives, which in turn gave birth to a male
dominated society. Consequently women’s behaviour, reproduction
and sexuality were controlled and guarded by male. Further, women
were seen as a private property of men not having any existence
of their own. It is in this background that present paper seeks to
study the depiction of women as projected in Brahmanical texts
and the patriarchal attitude towards women. The paper uses the
Brahmanical literature such as: Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti,
Arthasastra, Ramayana and Mahabharata and focuses largely upon
the private women.

I
In early Indian society two categories of women emerged: 1.
dutiful and devoted wife also described as ‘private’ women, 2. the
nuns and prostitutes/ courtesans termed as ‘public’ women. The
private women included mother, daughter, sister which formed part
of the household and most of the Brahmanical texts of the period
centered their discussion on them. In the Brahmanical texts, the
 Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri 81

patriarchal household or the grha is dominant. The grhapati or

the male householder presided over the grha which consisted of
a wife and sons in particular. For women, they had to move from
one household to another and marriage served as a key means as it
marked a shift in their roles from daughters/sisters to wives. Thus, it
is through marriage that patriarchal domination was able to infiltrate.
It is through marriage males can control and harness the procreative
ability of women and direct it towards the birth of male progeny.4
Hence there is an obligation to control women’s bodies in order to
maintain the purity of the male line. Manu pointed out that women
were created to be mothers to bear children while men were created
to be the one who carry on the line.5 Further, Manu also mentions
that the woman represents the field and the man to be the seed.6
Fertility was regarded as the most essential prerequisite for a wife
in the patriarchal household and a barren wife was considered to be
insignificant. Manu states that the wife is the visible form since she
is the one who begets a child, cares for them when they are born.7
Similarly Yajnavalkya also echoes the same statement that the wife
should be served and well-maintained and protected since it is
the wife only who provides the man offspring.8 Procreating a son
was considered to of great importance. Yajnavalkya states women
should be attended and protected carefully because the continuity
of the family lies on the wife who provides the man with a son,
grandson and great grandson and for a man to attain heaven lies
on the great deeds performed by them.9 There is a passage in the
text which states: ‘a faithful wife, married in accordance with the
law and dedicated to revering the ancestors, may properly eat the
middle ball from that (ritual) if she wishes to become pregnant with
a son.’10 Thus it can be stated that birth of male offsprings was
more favoured as compared to daughters.
The early marriage ensured greater control of parents. Jaya
Tyagi has rightly argued that girls were married of at an early age to
ensure the chances of the groom of keeping his family’s lineage as
well as to have control over the girl’s reproduction.11 Further, it has
also been observed that men also see women as potentially a fertile
82 Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

ground, a receiver and conserver of man’s seed thus making full

use of her fertility span.12 Gerda Lerner opines that, ‘By controlling
women’s sexuality through the requirement of prenuptial chastity
and by the establishment of the sexual double standard in marriage,
men assured themselves of the legitimacy of their offspring and
thus secured their property interest.’13 Thus, a woman’s body was
only seen to function as a bag to carry the seed. Apart from this, it
can be observed that a woman’s body is regarded as a space where
culturally coded and socially sanctioned norms are inscribed. This
has also to do by training the girl child to serve others from a very
young age. Hence the identification of women with their bodies
becomes the root cause of their oppression in a patriarchal society.14
The subjugation of women’s body finally led to their subordination
and exploitation.
Certain alternatives were provided in the Brahmanical texts in
which females were subordinated under male authority. Manu was
the most ardent supporter of the idea who laid down that a girl, a
young woman, or even an old woman should not do anything in
her own house and that even in her childhood she remains under
her father’s control, in her youth under her husband and when
her husband dies under her son.15 He also mentioned that even
the weak husbands must strive to guard their wives.16 One of the
reasons for controlling women’s sexuality can be noted down from
the clear statement of Manu where he says that ‘for by carefully
guarding his wife, a man guards his offspring, his character, his
family, himself, and the Law specific to him.’17 Similar is the
view of Yajnavalkya about the male control over female.18 In the
Anusasana Parva of the Mahabharata, it depicts that women cannot
be independent and should be guarded and protected. A passage
from the epic states that: ‘Women should always be protected by
thee (from temptations and opportunities of every kind).’19 Bhishma
in the Anusasana Parva has stated, ‘O king, Mann, on the eve of his
departure for Heaven, made over women to the care and protection
of men, saying that they are weak, that they fall an easy prey to
the seductive wiles of men,…’20 Bhishma while narrating a story
 Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri 83

has described that a lady approached Ashtavakra but he resisted her

and turned her away. When he dissuaded her, the lady answered
him that she is her own mistress and by accepting her, he incurs no
sin. Ashtavakra replied, ‘Women can never be their own mistresses.
This is the opinion of the Creator himself, viz.,that a woman never
deserves to be independent.’ 21 In the Mahabharata, there are some
other references which point out that women had to maintain their
chastity. Draupadi while informing Satyabhadra about the duties of
a wife tells her that one should not even talk in private to her own
sons.22 Similarly Sandili says to Sumana that she never used to stay
at the door of her house nor did she speak long with anybody.23
Therefore it can be said that women were expected to perform their
duties according to the ideals set by the society where women has
subordinate position to men. Looking at this setup, it is can be said
that women came to be dependent on the men. Manu admits that
no man can completely guard women by force.24 So to be able
to exercise a control over women, he suggests that the husband
should employ the wife in the collection and the disbursement of
his wealth, in cleaning, in cooking food, and in looking after the
household.25 Other means were also adopted for controlling women.
Yajnavalkya mentions that a woman whose husband is away from
home, a wife should abandon playing, beautifying the body, joining
societies and festivities, laughing and going to another’s house.26
From the above discussion it appears that women were controlled
and subjugated. However, from a scrutiny of one of the stories of
the Mahabharata it emerges that the position of women declined
during this period. It is noted that earlier women were free and
independent as noticed from the conversation between Pandu and
Kunti27 but later he mentions as to why women had to be confined
to the husband.28
Manu is not satisfied with the confinement approach and
is of the view that due to their weaknesses they even cannot be
confined. He writes ‘By running after men like whores, by their
[private women] fickle minds, and by their natural lack of affection
these women are unfaithful to their husbands even when they are
84 Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

zealously guarded here.’29 Thus Manu writes that knowing their

nature, as it was born at the creation a man should make an effort
to guard her.30 Similarly in the Ramayana Agastya observed since
time immemorial women cling to men in prosperity and abandon
him in adversity. He further goes on about the way she speaks has
been regarded to be as sharp as a sword and her moods can be
compared to that of an eagle’s flight.31 In another episode in the
Ramayana, Queen Kausalya’s lament to Sita before her departure
with Rama into the forest stated about the nature of women as
untruthful, heartless, unchaste, devious and vain, full of evil
passions and the destroyer of long-honoured ties.32 There are also
other statements in the Ramayana which project the female nature.33
When Yudhisthira asked Bhishma that he wanted to hear about the
disposition of women, Bhishma answered that ‘women are said to
be the root of all evil. They are all regarded as exceedingly frail.’34
Similar statements which described the nature of women can be
seen in the Anusasana Parva.35
Attempts to regulate the female nature are discussed in terms of
the duties of women as depicted at length in the Brahmanical texts
and they focus significantly upon the concept of pativrata. Shalini
Shah has explained the concept of pativrata which symbolizes the
‘service role’ of women.36 Their duty was to serve their husbands
and worship him as a god which has been termed as the pativrata.
The duty of the wife towards her husband is clearly depicted in the
Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti, Ramayana and Mahabharata. Manu
states that for women, ‘the marriage ceremony equals the rite of
Vedic consecration; serving the husband equals to the living with
the teacher; and care of the house equals the tending of the sacred
fires.’37 This statement given by Manu clearly defines the duties of
the wife. Manu writes that the wife after her father or her brother
with the permission of her father, gives her to someone, she should
then obey her husband while he is alive, and she should not violate
her vow to her husband when he is dead.38 Yajnavalkya states that
wives should act according to/by the direction of their husband
which according to him is the highest duty of a wife.39 Further in
 Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri 85

the next few verses he states that a wife should be devoted to the
pleasure and to the welfare of her husband and hence such a wife
then obtains renown in this world, and after his death attains the
best.40 The wife’s duty to serve their husbands is also observed in the
Anusasana Parva of the Mahabharata.41 Similar statements of a wife
serving her husband as a god are noticed in the Ramayana.42 Other
instances which provide the idea of pativrata in the Mahabharata
include the dialogue between Draupadi and Satyabhadra, Uma
and Mahesvari and Sandili and Sumana. Manu further says that
a virtuous wife should constantly serve her husband like a god,
even though he behaves badly, or freely indulges his lust, and is
devoid of any good qualities.43 Furthermore, the role that a woman
as a wife should undertake in the household can be noticed in the
Mahabharata when Kunti blesses Draupadi and tells her that she
should wait on her husband anointed for the performance of grand
sacrifices and she should be devoted to her husband. She further
blesses her that she may be the mother of the long lived and heroic
children.44 Apart from performing the services to her husband, the
wife is also required to provide her service even to other members
of the household like Sandili who always waited upon and served
her mother-in-law and father-in-law.45 When a wife looks after the
welfare of her husband then she shall be exalted and go to heaven46
and even a virtuous wife who remains chaste when her husband
has died goes to heaven just like chaste men, even if she does not
have any sons.47 Manu further says that even a woman who is not
unfaithful to her husband but restrains her mind, her heart, speech,
and body reaches her husband’s worlds after death, and in doing
so good people call her a virtuous woman.48 But he further writes
that if the wife is unfaithful towards her husband she is an object
of reproach in this world and she is reborn again in the womb of
a jackal and is tormented by the diseases born of her evil.49 Thus
if a wife was unfaithful to her husband she was looked down upon
in the society while men were never perceived in this manner. This
was not the end of the agony of the women. Sometimes, they were
even compared with slave and hence deprived of the access to the
economic resources and this aspect is discussed below.
86 Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

II
The Brahmanical texts depict that women cannot have any
access to economic resources. In the Mahabharata, it mentions that,
‘…a wife, a slave, and a son can never earn wealth for themselves.
What they earn always belongeth to him who owneth them.’50
Similarly is the approach echoed in the Sabha Parva, Udyoga Parva
and Manu.51 However, Manu differentiates between the women of
higher and lower stratum of women. The Laws of Manu does not
recognize the role of women belonging to the higher stratum of
the society as generating resources or participating in productive
activities.52 But it provides insight whereby wives of lower orders
are earning a livelihood, thus contributing to the generation of
resources in the family.53 From the text it is clear that ‘the above
rule does not apply to wives of travelling performers or to wives
who earn a living of their own, for such men get their women to
attach themselves to men and, concealing themselves, get them to
sexual liaisons.’54 In this context, Kavita Kaur has argued that sexual
liason is seen as a form of livelihood in the lower sections of the
society. Therefore from the statement above it can be observed that
wives of the lower orders were expected to earn a living for their
families even from sexual services. Furthermore Gaur has argued
that it should be remembered here that the authority was vested
with their husband, and hierarchical relations within the household
did not change although their wives were earning.55
In the Arthasastra one can notice the wives assisting their
husbands on the manufacture of white liquor on festive season for
medicinal purpose.56 Kautilya tells us that women belonging to the
lower orders such as dancers (talavacaras), wandering minstrels
(caranas), fishermen (matsya), fowlers, cowherds (gopalakas),
vintners and others can accompany their male family members. He
further goes on to say that the males of these groups give enough
freedom to their women counterparts.57 For going along with their
male folk were not considered as an offence but if it is prohibited
then they shall have to pay a fine.58 Though Kautilya has pointed out
 Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri 87

that women were having an access to earn their living but he also
mentions that women of these groups such as women of actors(n
atas),dancers(nartakas), singers, musicians(gayana- vadaka), story-
tellers, bards(kuslavas), rope dancers (plavaka) and women who
follow a secret profession shall be charged a few per show of five
panas.59 Thus, the frequent mention of women of the lower strata in
the text suggests that the women belonging to this community had
better opportunity of accessing the material resources. Furthermore,
one can observe the involvement of wives in their earning capacity
where Kautilya states that ‘And the wife (shall not be held liable)
for the debt incurred by their husband, if she has not assented to it
except in the case of cow herds and cultivators tilling for half the
produce.’ 60 This indicates that their wives will be held responsible
for the debt incurred by their husband whether it was taken with
their assent or not. Kavita Gaur also asserts that the relationship
of the husband and the wife belonging to the lower strata of the
society can be compared to the conventional household. Thus
one can notice that the responsibility of sharing the debt in lower
sections of the society indicates the rights and responsibilities of
both man and woman to earn a livelihood and wives would have
generated enough resources for the family.61
Usually women of upper strata do not have much access to
property or material resources other than their stridhana.62 Manu
orders that the king should punish the relatives with the punishment
of theft if they take away the stridhana of a woman when she is
still alive. Here Manu makes reference to women who are barren
or have no sons, those who have no families, who are faithful
wives, widows or those who are ill.63 Manu in chapter 9 makes
mention of the stridhana or women’s property.64 Apart from this,
what she receives subsequent to her marriage and what her husband
gives her out of affection- upon her death then the property goes
to her children even if her husband is alive.65 It asserts that when
a mother dies, all uterine sisters and brothers should divide the
maternal estate equally among themselves. If those sisters have
any daughters, they should gladly give them also something from
88 Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

their maternal grandmother’s property.66 By limiting and restricting

women to stridhana it suggests that they were not expected to earn
a living by themselves nor participate in any economic activity.
Shalini Shah has opined that even if women were entitled to their
stridhana, it mostly depends on the degree of control over the
disposal and enjoyment which would determine the quality of their
property rights. Furthermore, she goes on to say that the stridhana
was not only women’s wealth, but one that is given to women at the
time of their marriage.67 Manu also points out that women who are
married under the brahma, gandharva and prajapatya marriage,68
the property of woman is awarded to her husband alone if she dies
without any offspring.69 Manu also mentions that whatever property
is given to a woman by her father goes to the unmarried Brahmin
daughter, or to that daughter’s offspring. Further, he makes it very
clear that women should never alienate the common property of
the family or even her own private property without the prior
permission of her husband.70
Yajnavalkya has also described the issue relating to inheritance
rights. With reference to the wife’s right to husband’s property, he
writes that in the case any person dies without leaving any of the
twelve kinds of sons, then his wife, daughters, parents, brothers,
nephews, siblings, his relatives, disciples and brahmacaris are
entitled to his property. This rule according to him is applicable to
all the varnas.71 Yajnavalkya also lays down that a wife should get a
share in her husband’s property if she is abandoned by her husband.
He states, ‘He who abandons an obedient and skilful, son-bearing
and pleasant speaking wife should be made to give one-third of his
property to her. If he has no property, he should maintain her.’72 In
the Anusasana Parva, it is mentioned that the husband can give his
wife some wealth. 73 Yajnavalkya also opines that after the death of
the father and mother, all the sons should distribute the property
and liability of their father equally.74 But if the sisters are unmarried
at the time of the partition, each brother should give one fourth part
of his share or money equal to the value of one fourth part of his
share for their marriage. This has been mentioned in the text that
 Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri 89

states, ‘And the sisters also, but by giving them, as an allotment,

the fourth part of his own share.’75 The position of daughter was
further protected in case of the death of her mother by providing an
exclusive right over her stridhana. She was considered the only heir
of her mother’s property. Yajnavalkya states that, ‘Of the mother’s
(property) the daughters (shall take) the residue (after the payment)
of debts.’76
For Kautilya, marriage was considered as an important
transaction. For him all transactions begin with marriage. He
stated this in the form of the different marriages to be undertaken.
Kautilya gives instructions regarding women’s property as well as
on widow remarriage and her property rights. For him, maintenance
and ornaments constituted women’s property. For him, ‘maintenance
is an endowment of a maximum of two thousand (panas) as to
ornaments there is no limit.’ 77 The chapter further discusses as to
how the wife will use this endowment. The wife can make use of
this property in maintaining her son, her daughter-in-law, or herself
or whenever her husband is absent and has made no provision for
her maintenance. But in certain cases such as calamities, disease and
famine, in warding off dangers and in charitable acts, the husband,
may make use of this property. Kautilya further says that if used in
the gandharva and asura marriages, the husband shall return both
with interest, if used in the rakshasa and paichasa marriages, he
shall pay the penalty for the theft.78 Regarding the property rights
of women, Kautilya allowed that daughters can inherit the estate of
their father, if they are born of pious marriages and there was no
male off spring.79 But widows were not accorded this right. Apart
from the above, the text also describes living widows, their property
rights, and their rights upon remarriage.80 It is mentioned that the
women shall settle on sons born to her from many husbands, hence
she shall conserve her property in the same condition as she had
received from her husband.81 Apart from this, the text further states
that when a husband is dead, the widow if she is willing to lead a
life of piety she shall at once receive the endowment and ornaments
and the remainder of dowry. If after receiving these she remarries
90 Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

again, she shall be made to return both with interest. However

when she is eager to start again a family, then she shall receive
at the time of remarriage what was given by her father-in-law and
her late husband.82 But if she remarries against the wishes of her
father-in-law, then she has to give up what was given to her by her
father-in-law and her late husband.83 The text indicates that widow
remarriages was possible and was allowed in the society. On the
other hand, the text also states that if the husband is alive and the
wife is dead, then her sons and daughters shall divide the property
among themselves. If there are no sons, the daughters shall be able
to have the property.84 Thus, this depicts a different picture where
women were confined within the patriarchal domains of the society.

Conclusion
From the above discussion, one can observe that women were
usually restricted to the private space. Her duty was to look after the
welfare of her husband and his family members. If she looks after
her husband and worship him as a god then she shall be exalted
in heaven. Brahmanical lawgivers had put forward that women
should always be under the control of a male head which justifies
that they were different from men. While men were regarded to be
socially independent and can move out of the household this was
not the case for women. Her sexuality was protected and guarded
in the patriarchal household in order to maintain the family lineage.
Furthermore a woman’s body came to be valued only in terms of
their reproductive function so as to maintain the lineage. Another
reason for women to be controlled by males was their female
nature. If one does not control her thereby bringing about instability
in the social order. With the dominance of patriarchy one can find
that gender relations were not fully restricted. Further in terms of
economic access, women were limited only to their stridhana and
inheritance rights. But there were few women those who belonged
to the lower orders who took part in certain economic activities and
were earning a livelihood. By studying the Brahmanical texts, it has
been observed that the males were having more rights to property
 Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri 91

but certain relief was given to wives, daughters and widows who
were not denied of property.

Notes (Endnotes)
1
Chakravarti, Uma. 2007. Every Day Lives, Every Day Histories: Beyond the
Kings and Brahmanas of ‘Ancient India’, Tulika Books, New Delhi.
2
Roy, Kumkum. 2010. The Power of Gender and the Gender of Power, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
3
Shah, Shalini. 2012. The Making of Womanhood Gender Relations in the
Mahabharata, Manohar, New Delhi.
4
Tyagi, Jaya. 2008. Engendering the Early Household Brahmanical Precepts in
the Early Grhyasutras Middle of the First Millenium B.C.E., Orient Longman,
New Delhi, pp. 120-121.
5
Manu IX.96. (Hereafter Manu) Reference is from Doniger, Wendy and Smith,
Brian K. 2000. The Laws of Manu, Penguin Books, New Delhi; Olivelle,
Patrick. 2004. The Law Code of Manu, Oxford University Press, New York.
6
Manu IX.33.
7
Manu IX.27.
8
Yaj. I.3.78. (Hereafter Yaj) Reference is from Vidyarnava, Late Rai Bahadur
Srisa Chandra (trans), 1918.Yajnavalkya Smriti with the Commentary of
Vijnanesvara Book 1 The Acharya Adhyaya, The Panini Office Bhuvanesvari
Ashrama, Allahabad; Gharpure J.R.,(trans) 1939(Second Edition). Yajnavalkya
Smriti Volume II Part IV With the Commentaries of The Mitakshara by
Vijnanesvara Bhikshu, the Viramitrodaya byMitramisra and the Dipakalika by
Sulapani Vyawaharadhyaya, Bombay.
9
Yaj.I.3.78.
10
Manu III.262
11
Tyagi, Jaya.2008, p. 128.
12
Sheth, Surabhi D. 1992. ‘Women’s Sexuality: A Portrayal from Ancient Indian
Literature,’ Manushi, No. 71, Jul – Aug, p.19.
13
Lerner, Gerda.1986. The Creation of Patriarchy, Oxford University Press, New
York, p.22.
14
Mathur, Kanchan. 2008. ‘Body as Space, Body as Site: Bodily Integrity and
Women’s Empowerment in India’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.43,
No.17 (Apr.26-May 2), p.55.
92 Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

15
Manu V.147-148; Manu.IX.3. A similar statement is given in the
Mahabharata. See, Mbh, Anusasana Parva, Section XLVI, p.25.
16
Manu IX.6.
17
Manu IX.7.
18
Yaj. I.3.85.
19
Mbh Anusasana Parva Section XLIII, p.16. (Hereafter Mbh) Reference is from
Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (trans), The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana
Vyasa available at www.krishnapath.org/.../Mahabharata/Mahabharata-By_
Kisari_Mohan_Ganguli.pdf accessed on 18.12.2017 at 3.30 p.m.
20
Mbh, Anusasana Parva, Section XLVI, p.25.
21
Mbh Anusasana Parva , Section XX, p. 113.
22
This can be cited from the epic which states, ‘Foregoing all excitement and
carelessness in the presence of men, conceal thy inclinations by observing
silence, and thou shouldst not stay or converse in private even with thy
sons, Pradyumna and Samva.’ See, Mbh Vana Parva Draupadi- Satyabhama
Samvada Section CCXXXII, p.476.
23
Mbh Anusasana Parva Section CXXIII, p.254.
24
Manu IX.10.
25
Manu IX.11.
26
Yaj.I.3.84.
27
Mbh Adi Parva, Sambhava Parva, Section CXXII, p.254.
28
For details see, Mbh Adi parva Sambhava Parva Section CXXII, p.254.
29
Manu IX.15.
30
Manu IX.16; Manu IX.17; Manu II.213-215.
31
Ram Book 3, Chapter 13, p.30. (Hereafter Ram ) Reference is from Shastri,
Hari Prasad (trans.), 1952. The Ramayana of Valmiki A Complete Modern
English Translation Volume 1 Bala Kanda and Ayodhya Kanda, London;
Shastri, Hari Prasad (trans.), 1957. The Ramayana of Valmiki A Complete
Modern English Translation Volume 2 Aranyka Kanda, Kishkindha Kanda and
Sundara Kanda, London; Shastri, Hari Prasad (trans.), 1959. The Ramayana of
Valmiki A Complete Modern English Translation Volume 3 Yuddha Kanda and
Uttara Kanda, London.
32
Ram Book 2, Chapter 39, p.247.
 Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri 93

33
Some examples can be cited here, the female ascetic Anasuya the wife of Sage
Atri mentions to Sita about denigrating women. See, Ram Book 2 Chapter
117, p.407; Queen Kaikeyi has been described as the destroyer and wicked
woman by king Dasaratha. When Rama left for his exile she has been
compared to a venomous serpent. See, Ram Book 2 Chapter 12, p.177; When
Sita sent Lakshman for Rama’s assistance, it can be noted that Lakshman
was not willing to leave Sita alone. When Sita got angry at Lakshman, she
said some cruel words to him in which he responded; ‘. . . An ill-considered
utterance from a woman causes no surprise. Negligent in her duty, fickle and
peevish, a woman is the cause of dissension between father and son; truly
I am unable to endure these words of thine that pierce my ears like flaming
darts,…’ For details see, Ram Book 3 Chapter 45, p.94.
34
Mbh Anusasana Parna, Section XXXVIII, p.4.
35
Bhisma narrates about the conversation between the Rishi Narada and the
celestial courtesan Panchachuda where she goes on to tell about the true and
eternal faults of women. For details see, Mahabharata Anusasana Parva Section
XXXVIII, pp. 5-6; Further, Bhishma states: ‘Woman is a blazing fire. She is
the illusion . . . she is the sharp edge of the razor. She is poison. She is a
snake. She is fire. She is verily, all these united together.’ See, Mbh Anusasana
Parva Section XL, p. 7; In the same Parva another description is made with
regards to the female nature. For details see, Mbh Anusasana Parva Section
XLIII, p.16.
36
Shalini Shah further argues, ‘In fact, pativrata dharma was meant to provide
the ideology to school women in this role. This dharma was conceived not
as a self –denying passive faith based solely on unquestioned devotion to the
husband…’For details see, Shah, Shalini. 2012, pp.103-104.
37
Manu II.67.
38
Manu V.151.
39
Yaj. I. 3.77.
40
Yaj. I.3.87.
41
Mbh Anusasana Parva Section CXLVI, p.317.
42
When the aged female Anasuya spoke to Sita when Rama and Sita came
to the ashrama of Sage Atri she spoke that, ‘…She who is devoted to her
spouse, whether in the city or forest, regardless whether he be a sinner or
virtuous, that woman attains the highest region. Whether a husband be cruel,
or the slave of desires, or poor, a virtuous wife will continue to worship him a
god…’ See, Ram Book 2 Chapter 117.
94 Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

43
Manu V. 154.
44
Mbh Adi Parva Vaivahika Parva Section CCI, p.395.
45
Mbh Anusasana Parva Section CXXIII, p.254.
46
Manu states ‘Thus when a wife who obeys her husband she is exalted in
heaven and should never do anything that might displease her husband, when
he is alive or dead.’ Manu V. 155-156.
47
Manu V. 160.
48
Manu IX.29
49
Manu IX.30
50
Mbh Adi Parva Sambhava Parva, Section LXXXII, p. 180.
51
Mbh, Sabha Parva, Section LXX, pp.137-138; Mbh, Udyoga parva, Section
XXXIII,p.62; Manu VIII.416.
52
Gaur, Kavita. 2016. ‘Dynamics of Women’s Work in the Sastric Sources:
Household and Beyond’ in Vijaya Ramaswamy (ed.), Women and Work in
Pre-Colonial India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p.41.
53
Gaur, Kavita. 2016, p.41.
54
Manu 8.362.
55
Gaur, Kavita.2016, p.41.
56
AS.II.25.38. (Hereafter AS) Reference to the Arthasastra is from Kangle,
R.P. 1992(Reprint). The Kautilya Arthasastra Part II, Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers, Delhi.
57
AS. III.4.22.
58
AS. III.4.23.
59
AS. II. 27.25.
60
AS. III.11.23.
61
Gaur, Kavita. 2016. p. 40.
62
Stridhana means the wealth of a woman to designate the resources that
married woman could claim. For details, see Roy, Kumkum. 2009. Historical
Dictionary of Ancient India, Scarecrow Press, Maryland, pp.304-05.
63
Manu VIII.28-29.
64
According to him, the stridhana consists of six types; what a woman receives
at the nuptial fire, what she receives when she is taken away, what she is
 Ibameai Hepsa Nongbri 95

given as a token of love, and what she receives from her brothers, mother and
father. See, Manu IX.194.
Manu IX.195.
65

Manu IX.192-193.
66

Shah, Shalini. 2012, pp.50-51.

67

68
Marriage was recognized as the most important rite of passage for
women and one of the important one for men within the Brahmanical
tradition. In the Brahmanical literature especially the Dharmasutra and
Dharmashastra contains a list of about six to eight different forms of
marriages. These are Brahma, Prajapatya, Arsa, Daiva, Gandharava,
Asura, Raksasa and Paisaca. For details see, Roy, Kumkum. 2009, p.200;
Manu III.20-21; Yaj. I.3.58-61; Mbh Adi Parva, Sambhava parva Section,
LXXIII, p.155; Mbh. Adi Parva, Section CII, p. 219; Mbh Anusasana
Parva Section LXIV, p.17.
Manu IX.196.
69

Manu IX.198-199.
70

Yaj.II.8.135,136.
71

Yaj. I.3.76.
72

Mbh Anusasana Parva, Section XLVII, p.27.

73

Yaj.II.8.117.
74

Yaj. II.8.124.
75

Yaj.II.8.117.
76

AS.III.14-15.
77

AS. III.2.16-18.
78

AS. III.5.9-10.
79

Kautilya has dealt on this in detail in Book III chapter 2.

80

AS. III.2.31.
81

AS. III.2.19-21.
82

AS. III.2.23.
83

AS. III.2.36.
84
96 Women in Brahmanical Literature: Some Aspects

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