Introduction

Chapter - 1
1.1 Uses of Computer Networks
• Business Applications
(e.g. resource sharing)
Client-Server Model
1.1 Uses of Computer Networks
• Business Applications
(e.g. resource sharing)
Client-Server Model

The client-server model involves requests and replies.

1.1 Uses of Computer Networks
• Home Applications
– Access to remote information
– Person-to-person communication
– Interactive entertainment
– Electronic commerce
1.1 Uses of Computer Networks
• Home Applications
(Peer-to peer communication)

In peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients and servers.

1.1 Uses of Computer Networks
• Home Applications
(Peer-to peer communication)

Some forms of e-commerce.

1.1 Uses of Computer Networks
• Mobile Users

Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing.

 1.1 Uses of Computer Networks
• Social Issues

widespread introduction of networking has

introduced new social, ethical and political
problems.
 1.2 Network Hardware

• Two types of transmission technology

(Broadly speaking)

– Broadcast links (or networks)

– Point-to-point links (or networks)
 Two types of transmission
technology (Broadly speaking)
• Broadcast links
– Have a single communication channel that is shared
– Packets, sent by any machine are received by all
others
– Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the
address field
– If the packet is intended for the receiving machine,
the packed is processed, otherwise ignored.
• Mode of operation:
– Broadcasting
– Multicasting
 Two types of transmission
technology (Broadly speaking)
• Point-to-point links
– Consist of many connections between
individual pairs of machines.
– To go from source to destination, a packet
may have to visit one or many intermediate
machines.
– Finding the good route is important.
• Point-to-point transmission with one
sender and one receiver is sometimes
called unicasting.
 Two types of transmission
technology (Broadly speaking)
• In general:
• smaller, geographically localized networks
tend to use broadcasting,
• larger networks usually are point-to-point.
 Classifying networks
(depending on scale)

Classification of interconnected processors by scale.

 Local Area Networks (LAN)
• Privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few
kilometers in size.
• LANs are distinguished from other kinds
of networks by three characteristics:
(1) their size,
(2) their transmission technology, and
(3) their topology.
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
Topology:

Two broadcast networks

(a) Bus (b) Ring
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
• Covers a city
• Example: cable television network
available in many cities.
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• spans a large geographical area, often a
country or continent.
• hosts are connected by a communication
subnet
• hosts are owned by the customers,
• whereas the communication subnet is
typically owned and operated by a
telephone company or Internet service
provider.
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• In most wide area networks, the subnet
consists of two distinct components:
transmission lines and switching elements.
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• Store-and-forward or packet-switched
 Wireless Networks

Categories of wireless networks:

• System interconnection
– Interconnecting the components of a
computer using short-range radio.
– Master-slave paradigm.
• Wireless LANs
• Wireless WANs
– Cellular telephones
 Wireless Networks

• Bluetooth configuration
• Wireless LAN
 Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
• To reduce their design complexity, most
networks are organized as a stack of
layers or levels.
• The number of layers,
The name of each layer,
The contents of each layer, and
The function of each layer differ from
network to network.
A five-layer network
 Protocol Hierarchies
• In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual
machine, offering certain services to the
layer above it.
• Layer n on one machine carries on a
conversation with layer n on another
machine.
• The rules and conventions used in this
conversation are collectively known as the
layer n protocol.
An analogy
Example information flow
 Connection-Oriented Services
• modeled after the telephone system
• it acts like a tube
• In most cases the order is preserved
• conduct a negotiation about parameters
• situation in which a reliable connection-
oriented service is appropriate is:
– file transfer
– digitized voice traffic
– transmitting a video conference
 Connectionless Services
• is modeled after the postal system
• each message carries the full destination
address
• each one is routed through the system
independent of all the others
• … first one sent can be delayed so that
the second one arrives first
• For example: electronic mail, database
query, etc …
 Reference Models
• OSI reference model
• TCP/IP reference model
 The OSI Reference Model
• Called the ISO OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Reference Model
• Because it deals with connecting open
systems—that is, systems that are open
for communication with other systems.
The OSI Reference Model
 The OSI Reference Model
• The principles that were applied to arrive
at the seven layers:
1. A layer should be created where a different
abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined
function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen
with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
 The OSI Reference Model
• The principles that were applied to arrive
at the seven layers:
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to
minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough
that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity
and small enough that the architecture does
not become unwieldy.
 The OSI Reference Model
• The Physical Layer
–…
–…
• The Data Link Layer
–…
• The Network Layer
–…
The TCP/IP reference model
 The TCP/IP reference model
• The Internet Layer:
• Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets
into any network and have them travel
independently to the destination
• The internet layer defines an official
packet format and protocol called IP
(Internet Protocol).
 The TCP/IP reference model
• The Transport Layer:
• It is designed to allow peer entities on the
source and destination hosts to carry on a
conversation,
• Two end-to-end transport protocols have
been defined
– TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
– UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 The TCP/IP reference model
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
– reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte
stream originating on one machine to be delivered
without error on any other machine in the internet.
– It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete
messages and passes each one on to the internet
layer.
– At the destination, the receiving TCP process
reassembles the received messages
– TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender
cannot swamp a slow receiver with more messages than
it can handle.
 The TCP/IP reference model
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• unreliable, connectionless protocol
• Widely used for one-shot, client-server-
type request-reply queries and
applications in which prompt delivery is
more important than accurate delivery,
such as transmitting speech or video.
 The TCP/IP reference model
• The Application Layer
• It contains all the higher-level protocols.
• …
 The TCP/IP reference model
• The Host-to-Network Layer
• The TCP/IP reference model does not
really say much about what happens
here, except to point out that the host has
to connect to the network using some
protocol so it can send IP packets to it.
• This protocol is not defined and varies
from host to host and network to network.
Protocols and networks in the
TCP/IP model
 A Comparison of the OSI and
TCP/IP Reference Models
• Self
Architecture of the Internet

Overview of the Internet.

 Asynchronous Transfer Mode
• A connection-oriented network is ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode).
• Telephone system is mostly synchronous
(closely tied to a clock), but ATM is not.
• much more successful than OSI,
• now widely used deep within the
telephone system, often for moving IP
packets.
• Because it is now mostly used by carriers.
 ATM Virtual Circuits
• connection-oriented - requires first sending
a packet to set up the connection.
• As the setup packet wends its way through
the subnet, all the routers on the path
make an entry in their internal tables
noting the existence of the connection and
reserving whatever resources are needed
for it.
 ATM Virtual Circuits
• Most ATM networks also support
permanent virtual circuits, which are
permanent connections between two
(distant) hosts.
• They are similar to leased lines in the
telephone world.
• Each connection, temporary or permanent,
has a unique connection identifier.
 ATM Virtual Circuits
• A virtual circuit:
 ATM Virtual Circuits
• transmit all information in small, fixed-size
packets called cells.

• Part of the header is the connection identifier,

• the main argument for having fixed-size cells is
that it is easy to build hardware routers to handle
short, fixed-length cells.
• Variable-length IP packets have to be routed by
software, which is a slower process.
 ATM Virtual Circuits
• Another plus of ATM is that the hardware
can be set up to copy one incoming cell to
multiple output lines,
• Finally, small cells do not block any line for
very long, which makes guaranteeing
quality of service easier.
 ATM Virtual Circuits
• All cells follow the same route to the
destination.
• Cell delivery is not guaranteed, but their
order is.
• It is up to higher protocol levels to recover
from lost cells.
• Although this guarantee is not perfect, it is
better than what the Internet provides.
 ATM Virtual Circuits
• The most common speeds - 155 Mbps
and 622 Mbps - higher speeds are also
supported.
• 155-Mbps speed was chosen because - to
transmit high definition television.
• 622 Mbps speed was chosen so that four
155-Mbps channels could be sent over it.
 The ATM Reference Model
• ATM has its own reference model,
• It consists of three layers, the physical,
ATM, and ATM adaptation layers, plus
whatever users want to put on top of that.
 The ATM Reference Model
• Physical layer:
• deals with the physical medium: voltages, bit
timing, and various other issues.
• ATM cells can be sent on a wire or fiber by
themselves,
• they can also be packaged inside the payload of
other carrier systems.
• In other words, ATM has been designed to be
independent of the transmission medium.
 The ATM Reference Model
• ATM Layer:
• deals with cells and cell transport.
• It defines the layout of a cell and tells what
the header fields mean.
• It also deals with establishment and
release of virtual circuits.
• Congestion control is also located here.
 The ATM Reference Model
• ATM Adaptation Layer:
• Because most applications do not want to
work directly with cells, this layer allow
users to send packets larger than a cell.
• The ATM interface segments these
packets, transmits the cells individually,
and reassembles them at the other end.
 The ATM Reference Model
• user plane: deals with data transport, flow
control, error correction, and other user
functions.
• control plane: concerned with connection
management.
• The layer and plane management
functions relate to resource management
and interlayer coordination.
Thanks !