OIL AND GAS TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

B Tech; (MA8020);Sem.-VIII,
2019 - 20

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Pipelines in O & G industry are used for a
variety of purposes. These include:
• Gathering crude from individual leases and delivering it to a central
location for processing
• Transporting crude oil from fields to port terminals for tanker
transportation
• Moving crude oil from processing centers and supply
points to the refineries and other market destinations
• Moving gas from fields to gas processing plants and
from these plants to markets or LNG facilities
• Distributing petroleum products from the refineries to
the distribution centers
• Other pipelines;
- CO2 – ‘adequate pr. to maintain CO2 in liquid form i.e.no cavitations'
- Coal slurry transportation
- Cement slurry transportation

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Uses of pipelines in Petroleum Industry

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Crude Oil Pipeline & Delivery
Network

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Natural Gas pipeline
Network

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 OIL TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
FIELD
1 STORAGE TRUCK / RAIL 3

2STORAGE FACILITIES AT 4 LOADING 5 TANKER

UNLOADING TERMINAL TERMINAL SHIPMENT
UNLOADING TERMINAL UNLOADING TERMINAL
6 7
LIGHTERING SHIP STORAGE
1. RESERVOIR 3. FIELD FACILITIES 5. OIL TANKER
CHARACTERISTICS
• Type of Drive Field storage capacity SBM loading /unloading capacit
• Expected Prodn./life rate Field transfer capacity Draft , Route Weather y

• Consideration (Rail / Rd. Transport/P.L) Loading / Unloading capacity

Load line seasonal variation
2. CRUDE OIL 4. LOADING TERMINAL Seasonal oil demand
CHARACTERISTICS
• SG @ 60°F & 14.7 psi & STORAGE CAPACITY
• µ at Pumping Temp. Capacity for each type of
• S content /Other corrosives crude Oil transfer to
• Bulk Modulus – Adiabatic, loading berth
Isothermal Loading capacity of each type of
• RVP-psia & Pour Pt.° F crude No. of berths
 Transported to
RefineryRAIL
8 P/L
TRUCK

REFINERY REFINED PRODUCT

9 STORAGE
1 PRODUCTION
11
0
REFINED PRODUCT
RAIL
STORAGE
1 P/L
1
2 TRUCK 3
Tanker / Barge Transported to
DISTRIBUTION TO
Refined Products bulk terminus
CUSTOMERS
1
4 7. REFINED PRODUCT PRODUCTION
6. UNLOADING TERMINAL * Type of refined product at each refinery
STORAGE CAPACITY * Refined product inventory QC limitation
• No. of berths * Refined product storage capacity
• Unloading rate of each type of crude * Refined product transfer capacity to
• Storage capacity of each type of crude distribution ,
• To refinery/ Rail ,Truck , P/L, Barge / * Bulk Terminal via Rail, P/L, Truck,
Tanker Tanker/Barge.
* Seasonal demand of refined production
 Distribution
PL System Gathering Lines Feeder Lines Transmission Pipelines
Pipelines

Feeder linesmove
products from
batteries, Transmission lines are the
These lines travelshort processing facilities energy-highways, Local distribution
Types of distances gathering products and storage tanks transporting oil and companies (LDCs)
Pipelines from wells and move then to in the field to the natural gas within a operate natural gas
oil batteries or natural gas province and across distribution lines.
long-distance
processing facilities. provincial orinternational
haulers ofthe
pipeline industry, boundaries.
the transmission
pipelines.

Natural gas trunk lines

typically carry only natural
gas and NGLs.
Natural gas, crude oil and Crude oil trunk lines carry Natural gas is moved
combinations of these differenttypes of liquids along distribution
Products products sometimes mixed Crude oil, natural including crude oil and pipelines to homes,
with water; and natural gas gas and NGLs. businesses and
refined petroleum
liquids (NGLs) such as products in batches. some industries.
ethane, butane and propane. Petroleum product lines
also move liquids such as
refined petroleum

products and NGLs.

Diameter Outside diameter (4 in. to 12 Range in size from Most range in

in.). 4 in to 48 in. size: outside diam8eter
-half an inch to6 in.
Gathering System – individual well to
GGS/OCS/GCS
• Normally multi phase (single phase in rare cases)
• Increase in length increases Back Pr. on wells
• Design of well fluid transportation considers:
- WHP (low) to enhance self flow & recovery of fluid
- minimum pr. loss
- easy to monitor & control wells
- minimum loss of HC’s
- testing & metering of well fluid
- flexibility of expansion
- operational safety
- optimum production cost

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 PIPE MANUFACTURE (API)
Key API Specs. Applicable to line pipes include:
• API spec. 5L – longitudinally welded steel pipes in Gr. A&B
• API spec. 5LX - high test p/l (both seamless & longitudinally welded) in
Gr. X- 42 through X-70
• API spec. 5LU – ultra high test, heat treated seamless & welded pipe in
grades U-80 & U100
• API spec. 5LS – applicable to spiral weld line pipes in Gd. A & B
API Line-pipes are designated by min. yield strengths in psi
Gd. A – min 30,000 psi
Gd. B – min. 35,000 psi

X 42 – 42,000 psi; X 45 – 45,000 psi; X 52 – 52,000 psi;

X 60 – 60,000 psi; X 70 – 70,000 psi
Generally, the required hydrostatic test pr. increases with increasing
strength (Gd.) & with increasing wall thickness.
X – 80, RISERS
Seamless: ½ to24” NB; ERW – 1” to 24”; Submerged arc welding (SAW) – 16”
to 24” Helical Seam (SAW) – 16” to 112” NB
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Line Pipe Manufactured under API Specs:
* Open Hearth
• Electric Furnace
• Basic O2 Still
Manufacturing Process:

- Seamless pipes
- Welded pipes
* Electric welded Pipe
- one longitudinal seam formed by Elec. Flash / Elec. Resistance / Elec. Induction
Welding but without addition of extraneous metal.
* Submerged Arc Welded Line Pipe (LSAW):
- rolled in the form of ‘O’or ‘J’formed and tack welding inside & outside.
– pipe having one longitudinal seam formed by automatic submerged arc welding. At
least one pass shall be made on the inside and at least one pass on the outside.
- 16” to 64” NB
* Gas Metal Arc Welding - pipe having one longitudinal seam formed by continuous
gas metal arc welding & at least having one pass on the inside & outside the pipe.
Welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an arc between
continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode & the work. Shield gas is externally
supplied. This protects weld metal from oxidation or contaminated by surrounding
atmosphere.
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• Double Seam Welded Pipe – pipe has two seams – submerged arc welding or
gas metal arc welding. Seams are located 1800 apart (e.g. API Spec. 5L, gds. A
& B & >36”)
• Butt-welded Pipe - one longitudinal seam formed by mechanical pressure to
make a welded joint, edges are furnace heated to the welding temperature prior
to welding.
• API-5LX – describe process using gas metal arc & submerged arc welding.
Longitudinal seam formed by first using gas metal arc followed by submerged
arc welding.
• Spiral Weld Pipe - has a spiral seam along its’ length formed by either electric
welding process or automatic submerged arc welding process. At least one
pass is made on inside & at least one on the outside of pipe.
Flexible pipes:
• Bonded – alternating types of layers of steel, elastomers & fabrics bonded by
bonding agent / adhesive / vulcanized to ensure cross link and mechanical
properties.
• Unbonded – layers of elastomers alternate with steel armors around a central
steel carcass. No bonding / adhesive layers able to slip over each other.
Offshore – flexible pipes have advantage for development of deepwater risers used
as dynamic risers connecting seabed flow lines to ‘Floating Process Facilities’ &
static seabed flow lines. More cost effective than rigid pipes, are re-usable.
Helping to a great extent in development of Marginal Fields and multi-core for
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wet completions.
Different methods available to transport crude oil or petroleum
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products.
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Pipelines offer the following advantages over
other modes of transportation:
• Economic Means – Continuous & not a Batch
Process
• Unit costs decrease with increase in distance
• Unit costs decrease with increase in quantities
• Operate at optimum capacity
• Low unit cost (INR/Ton/Km)
• High reliability, such as immunity to adverse
weather conditions, break downs, non-availability
of tankers
• Safety (low number of incidents/km/year)
• Low environmental impact, including low spillage
• High land utilization
• Right-of-way may use multiple lines.
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Pipelines on the other hand, do have
certain disadvantages, including:

• Fixed location
• High capital cost
• Long lead-time for construction
• Limited throughput flexibility

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 MULTIPHASEFLOW
HORIZONTAL FLOW

(LOW GAS & LIQUID RATES - PHASES SEPARATED

BY GRAVITY)

(SAME AS ABOVE WITH RELATIVELY HIGH GAS

FLOW RATE)

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 MULTIPHASEFLOW

(INTERMITTENT FLOW OF LIQUID AND GAS - GAS POCKETS

DEVELOPES)

(SAME AS ABOVE ; EARLIER THAN SLUG FLOW, WHEN GAS RATES ARE
LOWER)

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 MULTIPHASE FLOW
HORIZONTALFLOW

GASOCCUPIES CENTRAL PORTION LIKE A

CYLINDER AND LIQUID REMAINS NEAR THE
PIPEWALL; CENTRAL PORTION ENTRAINS
LIQUID DROPLETS & OCCURS AT VERY HIGH
GAS FLOW RATE.
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 MULTIPHASEFLOW

AT VERY HIGH LIQUID FLOW RATE, LIQUID

PHASE IS CONTINUOUS & GAS PHASE IS
DISPERSED ALL AROUND LIQUID IN THE
FORM OF DISCRETE BUBBLES.

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MULTIPHASE FLOW

OCCURS AT
RELATIVELY LOW
LIQUID RATES.

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MULTIPHASE FLOW

Symmetric about the pipe axis.

 Gas phase -like a large bullet shaped

gas pocket with a diameter almost
equal to pipe diameter.

 Gas pocket is termed as

“Taylor Bubble”.

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MULTIPHASE FLOW

 Similar to slug flow, though it

is chaotic with no clear
boundaries between the two
phases.

 Flow pattern is characterised

by oscillatory motion.

 Occurs at high flow rates; liquid

slugs become frothy.

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MULTIPHASE FLOW

 Liquid film thickness is

almost uniform
around pipe wall.

 Characterised by a fast
moving gas core.
Liquid film is highly wavy due
to high interfacial shress.

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 Riser Design:
Riser design accounts for
variations in temperature,
internal pressure and external
environmental loads
anticipated throughout the
lifetime of the system. A
typical riser model Doshi
Himalay R. is as shown.

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Pipeline Project consists of the following
stages:

• Feasibility studies including market

assessment
• Conceptual design
• Detailed design
• Construction
• Commissioning

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While designing pipeline, designers have to take
into account a number of factors when
considering the route of pipeline: (HSE issues)

* Are there environmentally sensitive areas

nearby?
*Which communities are located nearby and what
are their concerns?
*What are the seasonal variations in
temperature
and climate?
*Are there existing facilities nearby
that could pose a public safety risk?
*To what extent does the terrain facilitate ease
of construction? 32
 Feasibility Study
Following options are fully evaluated with
respect to:
• Physical, technological and statutory
constraints,
• Project options
– Advantage and disadvantages,
– New/novel techniques required,
– Possible problem areas,
– Resource requirement,
• Areas requiring additional data,
• Technical risk evaluation, and
• Capital and operating cost estimates (accuracy
± 25 %) 33
 Conceptual Design
During conceptual design, the following
factors are usually considered.
• Projection of supply: reserves and
production rates
• Route selection
• Line sizing based on
– Hydraulics requirements
– Mechanical requirements
• Corrosion and material selection
• Corrosion protection
• Coating requirements/selection
• Safety and environmental considerations,
including environmental impact and risk
assessment
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 Detailed Design
Pipeline design usually includes the
following:
• Route selection and survey
• Environmental impact and risk
assessment study
• Corrosion and material selection
• Coating selection
• Mechanical Pipeline Design
• Hydraulics Analysis
• Line Sizing.
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 Route Selection and Surveying
• Safety of public,
• Safety of construction and operations personnel
• Protection of the environment
• Protection of other property and facilities
• Geothermal and hydro-graphical conditions
• Requirements for construction, operation and
maintenance
• National and local requirement
• Terrain feature, topography and population centers
• Economics considerations
After finalizing the pipeline route, a detailed site survey
is made,
and the route is staked with firmly fixed markers.
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Offshore pipeline route selection
includes considerations of the
following:
• Shore approach,
• Nature of the seabed,
• Avoidance of obstructed or rocky
zones,
• Sea traffic,
• Undesirable bottom feature, and
• National sovereignty
consideration. 37
 Environmental Impact and Risk
Assessment Study
Environmental impact and risk assessment
studies are a major consideration in selecting
the pipeline route. Both short term and long
term environmental impacts need to be
considered.
Short-term impact involves damages during the
construction phase
long-term impact considers the presence of the
pipeline during its operational life and potential
loss of fluid due to accident or pipe rupture.

Normally, in India this work is contracted

out to a consulting company, specializing
in environmental impact studies e.g.
NEERI (Nagpur) 38
 Corrosion and Material Selection
Selection of the pipeline material type is
fundamental issue, which is usually decided
during the conceptual design stage, but again
revisited during the detailed mechanical design.
The most frequently used pipeline materials:
• Metallic
• Non-metallic materials, such as GRP$/GPE# /
RCC may be cost effective for specific low-
pressure operation, or when transporting
corrosive fluids.
$ Glass-fiber Reinforced Plastic / Polymer Pipes
# Galvanized Plain End Pipes
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 Coating Selection
All metallic buried pipelines need to be coated
externally by a suitable anti-corrosion coating,
supplemented by cathodic protection.
Type of coating depends on operating
temperature. Common coating types are
Polyethylene (PE) and Fusion Bonded Epoxy
(FBE), which may be used up to 60ºC and
70ºC respectively. Some higher temperature
coatings are available but at significantly
increased cost.
For offshore applications (& river crossings
etc.), asphalt enamel corrosion coating is
often used, especially in combination with
concrete weight coating. 40
During detailed design, the same parameters
considered in the conceptual study are re-examined,
but in greater detail. The end product of detailed design
is the Tender Documents. These Documents usually
•contains
All basic project
the data
following:
• Design data
• All specifications
• Material list
• All fabrication and construction phase
drawings
• Company requirements:
- Operational philosophies
- Know-how
- Standards
- Practices
- Procedures
- Contractual information

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 Key Design Factors
• Line Dia.
• Length
• Density or sp. gr; viscosity, temperature, vapor pr.
of fluid
• Compressibility
• Pipe thickness
• Friction factor ground profile & hydraulic gradient
• ∆ p and Q
• Inhibitors (if any)
Characteristics of a pipe which influence
investment:
- Dia. of pipe - Pr. loss - throughput
- Thickness - max. OP - pump/compressor
spacing
- pipe specifications (API, ASA, ANSI,
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schedule nos.)
Key Factors for Pl. Design (Contd ….)
Volume of O&G to be transported
Delivery pr. at destination Pressure
losses
- throughput volume
- pressure required to overcome changes in elevation
-trial & error procedure may be required to choose
a tentative pipe size for calculation of pr. losses. If
losses are high, resulting inlet pr. may exceed pr.
rating
of pipe or more amount of pumping or compression HP
may be required. Better to select a larger dia. Pipe & repeat calculations.
Select a pipe size for efficientoperation as permitted by applicable codes &
regulations.
• Having determined Size & OP, calculate pumping or compression HP
at specified delivery pr.
• In case, more than one pumping or compression station is required,
location & size are set by calculating pr. loss along the line & calculatin
the HP required to maintain OP of line.
• Perform eco. calculations to compare design with other combinations
of line size, OP & HP to choose best system. 4
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Construction Factors (F) used in USA are designated in Standard B31.8, Code for pr. piping,
gas
transmission
& distribution Piping Systems for four areas:
* Type A const. is that done in Class 1 locations, which include wastelands, deserts, rugged
mountains, farm lands & similar areas. Factor F , for designing pipelines for these areas is 0.72.
• Type B const. is that done in Class 1 locations, include fringe areas around cities or towns, farm or
industrial areas with a specified population density. This class is between Class 1 & 3 locations and
const. type factor is 0.60.
•Type C const. , Class 3 locations, include areas sub-divided for residential or commercial purposes
with a specified building density of a specified type. Const. type factor is 0.50.
•Type D const, Class 4 locations, include areas where multi story buildings are prevalent, where traffic is
heavy or dense or where there are numerous other u/g utilities. Type D const. factor is 0.40
Effect of construction type factor is to lower the allowable OP for a given size,
weight & grade of pipe as the construction area becomes more populated & the
failure of pipe line would be serious. 49
Clearing the Right-of-way:
The first activity in pipeline construction is the right-of-way clearing. Legal
rights to the right-of-way must be obtained before construction crews can
enter the right-of-way to begin construction. Usually a long-term lease or
permanent easement is acquired. The selected route centerline is staked
and the right-of-way extremities are marked.
Figure illustrates a typical route survey map.

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1
Typical right of way cross-section 5
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The right-of-way is transformed into a suitable work area by
clearing all above-ground vegetation such as trees, brush,
stumps, crops, boulders and fences with the help of bulldozers.
The amount of clearing required depends on the terrain and the
method of construction, but should provide safe movement as
well as easy access. Good environmental practices must be
followed throughout construction and site remediation phases.
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Stripping of Top Soil
In most cases, especially for agricultural land, topsoil is removed from the right-of-way
working strip and stored separately prior to grading or trenching. Topsoil salvage is
normally carried out with a motor grader on the first lift and is windrowed or piled
separately, often on one side of the right of way with grade soil on the other to avoid
mixing.
The strip is then graded and leveled to provide a smooth, even work area. This
facilitates movement of construction vehicles and equipment and permits placement of
the pipeline along the right-of-way.

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Pipelines are normally buried in a ditch or trench. In soft soil ditching is performed with a
"wheel ditcher," a machine having a large wheel with cutting teeth. The excavated soil is
neatly piled to the side of the ditch to facilitate rapid backfilling after the pipe is laid. In
areas, where, soil conditions make the trench unstable, trenching may be delayed until
the pipe section is ready to be lowered so that the time the trench is open is kept to a
minimum.
In hard soil or loose rock, ditching is normally done by a backhoe. In rocky terrain,
ground blasting using explosives may be necessary. Where blasting is required, this
must be carried out before stringing the pipe to avoid damage to pipe coating.

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Trench dimensions vary with pipe size, the nature of the terrain,
applicable regulations and other factors. However, the ditch should be
wide enough to permit the pipeline to be lowered without the use of
external force and for backfill to settle easily around the lower part of the
pipe. The ditch should be deep enough to avoid later contact of the
pipeline, typically below plow, frost and other utility depths. 5
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Stringing and Bending
Line-pipe is ordered from the mill, transported to the coating yard for coating and then
delivered to a storage location near the construction site. Delivering and aligning the pipe
joints along the pipeline route is called pipe stringing. As the schedule requires, pipe is
delivered to the right-of-way on trucks, lifted carefully, and placed along the side of the
trench ready to be welded and tested before being lowered into the ditch .
The Pipeline route is not straight, nor is the terrain flat. For these reasons the pipeline must
be bent in the field to fit the three dimensional profile of the ditch. Pipe joints are bent prior
to welding.
Most required bends are made by cold bending, using a bending machine, at the job site.

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Bending machine at the job site can only make gradual bends usually down to
40D radius. When a sharp or small radius bend is required, it is usually pre-
fabricated. All bends should comply with the minimum requirements of ANSI
B31.4/B31.8 Codes and should generally conform to figure.
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Welding and Inspecting
After the pipes are strung along the right-of-way and bent as required, welding can begin.
This is a very critical part of pipeline construction process.
Before the pipe is welded, the pipe ends must be cleaned thoroughly of any dirt, rust, mill
scale, or solvent. Pipeline welding is done with either manual or automatic electric welding
equipment. Onshore pipelines are usually manually welded, although automatic welding is
increasingly being used.
Welding is done in several passes. The thickness of the pipe dictates the number of passes.
Usually a minimum of three welding passes is required. In usual welding, lead welders carry
out a first pass after the pipe ends are properly aligned and held with line-up clamps. Other
welders then follow up with additional weld passes until the required number of passes has
been deposited as per specifications.
Welders are certified in advance for the pipe sizes to be welded.

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Inspection of welded joints is an integral
part of welding process. After a weld is made, it
is examined to ensure integrity of the weld. For
inspection a number of non-destructive
techniques are used, such as, x-ray, gamma ray
and ultrasonic etc. X-ray inspection method is
most widely used. In x-ray inspection, a
photographic film is wrapped around the
circumference of the pipe over the weld and
exposed to radiation. Any cracks, porosity or
other welding defects are visible after the film
is developed. X-ray films are inspected
carefully, and if any defective weld is found, it is
repaired or removed and a new weld is made
and inspected before the weldedjoint is
wrapped.
Inspection of all welded joints is normally
recommended for critical pipelines such as
those used for gas, sour service or offshore
operations.
For other services less than 100 percent
inspection is possible. The construction plan
must specify what percentage of the welds is to
be examined.
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 Pipeline Coating
Pipelines are coated to protect them against corrosion. The primary function of
applying a coating is to prevent water from contacting the steel in the pipe.
Pipelines are typically coated at a coating mill prior to delivery to the
construction site. Alternatively, the coating may be applied at its construction
storage site. In either case, only the un-coated external portion of the welded
pipeline joints needs to be coated. Coating of the weld joints is done very
carefully, applying sufficient overlap to ensure that the whole length of the
pipeline is correctly protected.
There are several coating materials used for external protection of oil and gas
pipelines.
The selectionof coating material for a pipeline depends upon the terrain, soil
condition, backfill material and expected operating temperature.
The most common coating materials for the external protection of Oil and Gas
transmission pipelines are.
With yard applied coatings, a variety of suitable field joint coating systems are
available for the protection of the welded joints, such as;.
•Polyethylene shrink sleeves,
• Epoxy field joint coating (for FBE coated pipe),
• Fused polyethylene powder (for PE coated pipe),
• Cold applied Tape
• Asphalt mastic coating, and
•Cold applied epoxy coal tar coatings. 6
1
 Coatings Based on “Coalor
Typical Coating for Buried
Petroleum PitchEnamel” Pipelines
Usually constituted as:
* Wirebrush / sand-blast / shot-blast pipe
• a base paint (primer) applied cold
•one or more coats applied hot; thickness
may vary under normal conditions (3 to
6mm)
•fiber glass fabric, impregnated in enamel
& wrapped around pipe to improve
mechanical resistance of coating
•pipe may be wrapped in kraft paper /
asbestos mat / rocky soil, in a thick mat
of fiber-glass (rock shield) to ensure
mechanical protection particularly during
laying & backfilling operations.
Properties:
•Ease of application
• Good adhesion to tape / pipe
• Good impact resistance
• Flexibility
• Resistance to soil stress
• Resistance to flow (coatings)
• Water / electric resistance
• Chemical & physical stability
•Resistance to soil bacteria, marine organism & cathodic dis-bondment
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 Offshore Pipe Coatings
Offshore / river crossing pipes are in addition to
“Coal or Petroleum Pitch Enamel” coatings are
weight concrete coated. Weights vary from 40
to 190 lbs/cu ft and thickness from 25 to 125mm
with 28 days compressive strength as 6,000 psi.
Methods used are:
• Forming
• Guniting
• Extrusion
• impingement

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Pipe-line Coatings
64
Lowering-in the Pipeline
Upon completion of welding, inspection of the welds, and a final holiday check of the coating, the pipe is
ready to be buried. The pipeline is lifted by side boom tractors and is carefully lowered to the bottom of
the trench.
Special attention is paid to the condition of the trench to allow the pipeline to be lowered without
damaging the coating and to ensure that the pipeline is laid in the ditch with even support. The pipe is
inspected prior to placement to ensure
that there are no tears or bruises on the external coating.
Sometimes it may be necessary, especially in rocky areas, to put a pad of fine soil on the trench bottom to
protect the pipe coating from damage. Often, wide non-abrasive belts or rubber tyred roller cradles are
used to avoid damaging the
protective coating and overstressing the pipe.
In areas where ground water is present, anchors or concrete weightsare placed on the pipe to keep it from
floating.
After the pipe is lowered into the ditch, tie-in welds are made between the lowered sections. Pipe ends are
properly aligned without the use of external force, prior to welding. This is required to prevent the tie-in
joints being left under stress.

Lowering of PL & Tie-in (position) welding

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Backfilling/Clean-up
The final operations in pipeline construction are backfilling and clean up of the right-of-
way. Immediately after lowering the pipeline, the trench is backfilled with the soil that was
excavated from the ditch and carefully compacted all around the pipe. Special care should
be exercised to ensure that the pipe is not crushed by the weight of the backfill or by rocks
falling on the pipe.
Backfilling can be done either with blade type equipment or a machine auger. When the
excavated material is unsuitable for backfilling, especially in rocky areas, sand or
equivalent material must be used. The original topsoil is then replaced on the surface.
As soon as possible after backfilling, the site is cleaned-up, surplus material is removed,
and the right-of-way is seeded with grass or a crop to control erosion. The right-of-way is
restored as nearly as possible to its original condition.

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Special Construction Considerations

Often, pipeline right-of-way needs to

traverse rivers, roads or railways.
These crossings require special
construction equipment and
procedures, often performed by
specialist sub-contractors.
Depending on the width of the road or
the size of the river to be traversed, a
variety of construction techniques are
available.
Road crossings are normally done by
either ditching or boring. Ditching is
less expensive, but it is often not
permitted. A boring machine, on the
other hand can make a crossing under
the road, without disturbing road
surfaces.

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For river crossing, pipelines are laid below the river or stream bed with
concrete coating for stability. Pipeline bridges are sometimes used for
river crossings.
Directional drilling is an alternative technique where there are
environmental concerns and when crossing larger bodies of water. This
method is becoming
increasingly attractive because of its minimal environmental impact, and
because it does not disrupt waterway traffic. However, this technique is
considerably more expensive and currently limited to 1-2 km of length. An
illustration of directional drilling is shown.

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The pipeline must be pressure tested, after its burial, and before it is
commissioned into operation. This applies to both onshore and offshorepipeline.
The purpose of the test is to demonstrate the integrity of the completed pipeline. It
is essentially a stress test. Its purpose is to confirm that the pipeline can
withstand the maximum operating pressure plus a safety margin.
The standard procedure for pressure testing a pipeline is the hydrostatic method.
Prior to testing, the pipeline is cleaned of any construction debris by pigging
the line. After cleaning and prior to testing, a gauging plug is run through the
pipeline to check for ovality and dents. Hydrostatic test involves filling a closed
pipeline section with water and then pressurizing the line to a specified pressure
and holding for a period of time, as required under the regulations,
usually for a minimum of 24 hours . Normally, long onshore pipelines are tested in
several sections, whereas short lines are tested as a unit. Offshorepipelines are
tested as one unit.
Unaccounted for pressure decline during a test indicates a leak. The leak is
located and repaired.
After testing and prior to commissioning, the pipeline is cleaned to reduce the risk
of corrosion caused by the presence of debris, to protect the downstream plants
and to maintain the quality of the transported product.
Cleaning is usually carried out by water flushing,
scrapping, brush pigging, gel plugging etc. Once
the pipeline has been cleaned, it is dried, if
required, e.g. for dry gas service, using air, gas, or
vacuum. 6
9
 PIPELINE OPERATIONS
Safe and economic operation of a pipeline system requires
that various routine activities be performed on a regular
basis. Often, certain special operations or tests are
performed to monitor the integrity of the pipeline system
and to properly maintain it.
Pipeline Safety-related activities encompass three
broad areas:
• Commissioning

• Pipeline Integrity, Monitoring and Assessment — making

sure that pipelines are operating properly
•Damage Prevention — preventing damage to
pipelines by construction or excavation
• Emergency Response — minimizing impacts in case of an
incident
• Pipeline Emergencies and Repairs 70
Pipeline Integrity Assessments for defects tobe
reported by different inspection methods:
• Corrosion defects
• Dents
• Weld defects
• Manufacturing defects
• Crack like defects
• Thermal buckling
• Spans
• Exposures
•Lateral displacement (due to anchors, ground
movement, etc.)

71
Pipe Rupture due to high internal pressure which ultimately develops high
stresses
72
Large external pressure tends to make a pipeline oval & Eventually causes it
to collapse 73
 PIPELINE COMMISSIONING
• Commissioning of a pipeline system begins when the pipeline is connected to
the upstream source of supply and the delivery point, after completing the
hydrostatic pressure testing and all required pre-commissioning and restoring
the surface right-of-way.
• Commissioning refers to the initial start-up period, when the pipeline system is
tested and put into operation. During this period, performance of the entire
system is checked, against specified operating conditions, as per, pipeline
specifications and design.
• Depending on the product to be transported, the following parameters are
monitored during the commissioning period to ensure that no hydrate
formation or corrosion will take place in the future:
Liquid Product Pipelines:
• Operating pressure, flow rate, temperature, and moisture content,
• Product contaminants, sediments or deposits,
• Presence of corrosive components,
• Corrosion rate,
• Effectiveness of corrosion control system, and
•General condition of the pipeline
system. Gas Pipelines:
• Operating pressure,flow rate and temperature,
• Dryness of the gas,
• Corrosion rate,
• Liquid or sediment build-up,
• Effectiveness of corrosion control system, and
74
• General condition of the pipeline system
A pipeline is considered ready for
operational duty when:
• Construction is completed in accordance
with design,
• All design and code specifications
are checked against operating conditions,
Pipeline has been cleaned and dried, if
required
•Pipeline is filled with the fluid to be
transported including any pack, and
•Control system is tested for operability
75
 PRODUCT PIPELINES
• Product pipelines operate at higher pressure than crude oil
pipelines because these are lighter than crude
• Products must remain in liquid phase rather than to become
the mix of gas & liquids
- increase in gas volumes
- decrease in pump efficiency
- may result in pump damage
Critical value of Re at which the intermingling shows a sharp
decrease
Pipe dia. In, Critical Value
4 22,000
6 29,000
8 34,000
10 40,000
12 46,000
20 72,000
76
 Typical sequence of products in
Crude HSD pipelineHSD SKO ATF Ord.
Heating Prem. Gd. ATF
oil Gasoline Gasoline
Contamination / interface: Mixing effect produced when two different
products transported in same PL come into contact with each other.
Factors influencing contamination:
* Velocity
- laminar flow causes more diffusion
- increase in Re reduces contamination
• Density difference: 2 liquids in contact generate difference in inertia forces which tend to
increase volume of contaminate
• Viscosity: difficult to determine, nomograms like velocity, viscosity is a function of
• Pumping shut down & pumping malfunctions: increase in shutdowns or pumping at irregular
rates generate diffusion
* Passage through installations: parallel circuits and dead spaces which can’t be flushed
Dispatching table:
• Processing data at dispatching centre
-operation control; location of every batch to know exact time implementation scaled up
as per volumes of operations
- accounting
- locate shipping & delivery points
Scheduling: volume of each product transported through pipeline to ensure delivery to
customer at Desired time
Computer programming: i) create & modify batch codes & volumes ii) verify batch codes &
volumes iii) Calculate starting conditions iv) generate rate profiles v) calculate shipment times
vi) calculat7e7 delivery times
 Inter-phase Detection Product Pipelines
- Record passage of interface between 2 points / batches
necessary to measure volume of the each product
supplied / pumped
- Properties difference may be small& interface detection
is sensitive:
• Densitometers' used widely for interface detection. T & P
corrections are required when using these meters under
similar conditions
• Die-electric constant, viscosity & sp. gr. Etc.
• Sonic interface detector – it precisely measures the velocity
at which ultrasonic pulses travel over a liquid path of
known dimensions.
Sound velocity is a function of T &P at which fluid flows in addition to
composition of fluid. When, sonic detector is used to distinguish between
two products with similar
SG require T & P compensation to prevent detector from mistaking a T & P
change for a product interface. T & P compensation are also required while
using densitometers under similar conditions.
Detecting interface between gasoline & naphtha or naphtha & fuel oil, requires
the detector to set on a broader operating range because of larger
difference between the SG of the products.
Velocity of sound is unique to each material as is density &
7
viscosity and can be easily detected 8
 Sonic Interface Detection
System

Transducer Arrangement for

Interface Detector

7
Source: Oil & Gas Journal 9
8
0
Pipeline Control (Supervisory) System Typical Pipeline Control System
Protects pipeline & equipment:
•by monitoring & adjusting
pr. & other variables
providing alarms when pr. &
limits on operating
conditions are exceeds
•scheduling the shipment &
delivery of products
•Monitoring machinery
performance & wear, controlling
pr. Surges in PL.
• providing leak detection etc.
PSC systems regulate pr. & flow,
start & stop pumps /
compressors / valves.
Control arrangement depends on
the no & type of control
functions required, age of
control system, economics & the
preference of PL operator.
Modern Computer-based System consists of:
A) Computer peripherals & interfacing equipment for men/machine system & remote stations.
B) Man/machine system includes devices necessary for operate to communicate with computer e.g.
video display, unit, keyboards & loggers
C) Remote stations are connected via communication channels-microwave, telephone, radio or other
means.
D) Field devices e.g. pumps, compressors, motor-operated valves are controlled & monitored by remote
station. Field instrumentation includesP& Ttransmitters(through RTU’s), tank gauges, totalizes & similar
components etc8.1