CH 12: Lubrication and Journal Bearings

The purpose of lubrication is to reduce friction, wear and heating of machine parts
moving relative to each other.

In sleeve bearing, a shaft (or Journal) rotates within a sleeve (or bushing) and the
relative motion is sliding, where in ball bearing the relative motion is rolling.

Journal bearings are more applicable for extreme operational conditions (high loads
and rotational speeds). Also they are used for low demand applications (without
external lubrication) because they are more cost effective than antifriction bearings.

Types of Lubrication

Five forms of lubrication can be identified:

1. Hydrodynamic
2. Hydrostatic
3. Elastohydrodynamic
4. Boundary
5. Solid film
Ø Hydrodynamic (or full-film): in this type the surfaces of the bearing are separated
by a relatively thick film of lubricant (to prevent metal to metal contact). The film
pressure is created by the moving surface forcing the lubricant into a wedge-
shaped zone, therefore creating a pressure that separates the sliding surfaces.
Ø Hydrostatics: in this type the lubricant is forced into the bearing at a pressure high
enough to separate the surfaces (relative motion of the surfaces is not required in
this case).
Ø Elastohydrodynamic: in this type the lubricant is introduced between surfaces
that are in rolling contact (such as mating gears or rolling bearings).
Ø Boundary: this type is special case of hydrodynamic lubrication where the film
thickness is reduced to be “very thin”. This may happen because of increased load,
reduced lubricant supply, reduced rotational speed, reduced viscosity, etc.
Ø Solid-film: in this type self-lubricating solid materials such as graphite are used in
the bearing. This is used when bearings must operate at very high temperature.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 1 of 15
Viscosity

• When we have a film of lubricant of thickness “
” trapped between two plates
where one is moving with velocity “” and the other is stationary, the lubricant film
will be sheared such that the layer in contact with the moving plate will move at the
same velocity of the plate and the layer in contact with the stationary plate will stay

• The intermediate layers will have the velocities proportional to their distance “”
stationary.

from the stationary plate.

• Newton viscous effect states that the shear
stress in the fluid is proportional to the velocity
gradient. Thus we can write:


  



where  , the dynamic (or absolute) viscosity, is the constant of proportionality.


 
 
• For Newtonian fluids the velocity gradient is constant; (i.e., linear increase)

 
Thus,

  


§ The unit for viscosity “ ” in SI system is (Pa.s).
§ In US system the unit is lb.s/in2 (psi.s) and it is called “reyn”.
Ø The conversion factor is: 1 reyn (psi.s) = 6895 Pa.s

Petroff’s Equation

The Petroff equation gives the coefficient of friction in journal bearings. It is based on
the assumption that the shaft is concentric. Though the shaft is not concentric but the
coefficient of friction predicted by this equation turns out to be quite good.

• Consider a shaft of radius “” rotating inside a bearing with rotational speed “”,
and the clearance between the shaft and sleeve “” is filled with oil (leakage is
negligible).

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 2 of 15
 • From Newton’s viscosity equation we get:
 
  


• The force needed to shear the film is    (where
  ) and the torque    .
Thus the torque can be written as:

 
   
!
(1)

• The pressure on the projected area is "   % &  " and the torque
#
$
created by the frictional force “'&” is:

  '&  (')(")()   $ '" (2)

• Equating 1 & 2 and solving for “'” gives:

 '   $
The coefficient  
* !
Pitroff’s equation
of friction

Ø The quantities + , - +! , are non-dimensional, and they are very important

 
*
parameters in lubrication.
§ They are used to give the “bearing characteristic number” or the
“Sommerfeld number” (also non-dimensional) which is:

 $   is in (rev/s)
 .  + ,
 "

ü The Sommerfeld number is very important in lubrication analysis because it

contains many of the parameters specified by the designer.

Stable Lubrication

The difference between boundary (thin film) and hydrodynamic (thick film) lubrication
can be explained by the figure (which was obtained from testing).

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 3 of 15
§ Suppose we are operating to the right of point “C ”
and something happens and increases the

Ø Temperature/, viscosity “ ” 0, friction “'” 0,

temperature of lubricant:

heat generated by shearing the lubricant 0 ,

temperature 0
Self-correcting * stable lubrication *
§ If we operate to the left of point “C ” and the temperature increased
Ø Temperature/, viscosity “ ” 0, friction “'” /, (metal to metal contact) more
heat is generated which increases the temperature more.
Damage * unstable lubrication *
§ To ensure thick-film lubrication we should have:

 1 234(2567 )
"

Thick-Film Lubrication

• Suppose the journal starts to rotate in

clockwise direction while it is still dry, the
journal will roll up the right side of the bearing,
as seen in (a).
• Once the lubricant is introduced, the rotating
journal will pump the lubricant around the
bearing by forcing into a wedge-shaped space,
and this forces the journal to move to the other

Ø The “minimum film thickness”,
8 , occurs at the bottom half of the bearing but
side (left side) of the bearing, as seen in (b).

slightly to the left (for clockwise rotation), as seen in (b).

Ø Radial clearance “” = 9 : ;

• The nomenclature of a journal bearing is:

Ø Eccentricity “<”: the distance between the centers of the bushing and journal.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 4 of 15
<   :
8

Ø We also define an “eccentricity ratio”, = , as:

= 
>
!

Ø Full bearing: the bushing encloses the journal.

Ø Partial bearing: the angle ? describes the angular
length of the partial bushing.

Hydrodynamic Theory

The present hydrodynamic theory is based on the experiments conducted by Tower,

which later Reynolds developed a mathematical model to explain it.

• Reynolds’ work was based on some assumptions which are:

Ø The film thickness is very small compared with the bearing radius; therefore the
curvature could be neglected.
Ø The lubricant is Newtonian, incompressible and its viscosity is constant.
Ø Forces due to inertia of the lubricant are neglected.
Ø The film pressure is constant in the axial and vertical directions.
Ø The bearing has infinite length in the axial direction (no side leakage).
Ø The velocity of any particle in the lubricant depends only on the @ and 
coordinates.

• Reynolds equation for one-dimensional flow (with negligible side leakage) is: “See
derivation in the text”

B
C


 A D  E

@
@
@

• When side leakage is not neglected, the equation becomes:

F
B FC F
B FC F

 A DG A D  E
F@ F@ FH FH F@

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 5 of 15
• There is no general analytical solution for this equation; one of the important
solutions (numerical) was introduced by Sommerfeld which is:
 $
 '  I J+ , K
 I
! ! *

Sommerfeld number

Design Considerations

The variables involved in the design of sliding bearings may be divided in two groups:

Ø Independent (or design) variables; might be controlled directly by the designer

and bearing dimensions L L -? (though speed “” and sometimes viscosity
which include: viscosity “ ”, load per unit projected area “C”, angular speed “”

“ ” may be forced on the designer)

Ø Dependent variables; may be controlled indirectly by changing one or more of
the first group, which are: coefficient of friction “'”, temperature rise “M”, oil
flow rate “N”, and the minimum film thickness “
8 ”. These variables tell about
the performance of the bearing, and may be called the “performance factors”
(the designer may impose limitations on those variables to ensure satisfactory
performance).

• Significant angular speed:

The rotational speed “” that is used in the Sommerfeld number depends on the
rotation of the journal, the bearing and the load. It can be found as:

   O; G 9 : P O

; : journal angular speed (rev/s)

where :

9 : bearing angular speed (rev/s)

P Q load vector angular speed (rev/s)
Ø Fig. 12-11 shows some examples.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 6 of 15
Trumpler’s Design Criterion

Based on his experience, Trumpler introduced some limitation for the design of journal
bearings, which are:

Ø Minimum film thickness “
R ”

When bearing starts rotation some debris are generated because of metal to
metal contact and it moves with the lubricant. It is important that the minimum
film thickness is kept thick enough such that the debris can pass and will not
block the lubricant flow.
Therefore Trumpler suggest that:

R 1 5355S5T G 535555U
VV
where
is the journal diameter in “mm”.
Ø Maximum lubricant temperature
When temperature increases beyond a certain limit, lighter components of the
lubricant starts to evaporate which increases viscosity and thus friction. For light
oils, Trumpler suggests:
 WXY Z 22 [\
Ø Starting load
Journal bearing usually consist of a steel journal and a bushing of softer material.
If the starting load is high, the bushing will be damaged because of the metal to
metal contact. Thus, it is suggested that the starting load divided by the
projected area is:
&]^
 Z 5ET _"`
Note that starting

load is usually smaller

than running load

Ø Running load design factor

To account for external vibrations, a design factor is to be used;

 a 1  For running load

not starting load

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 7 of 15
The Relation of the Variables
Raimondi and Boyd used numerical solution to solve the Reynolds’ equation. They

Ø The charts presented in the text are for full bearing (?  bE5[)
presented their numerical results relating the different variables in the form of charts.

v Viscosity charts (figs. 12-2 to 12-14).

v Table 12-1 gives the viscosity vs. temperature in table from using curve fits.
• In their solution, Raimondi-Boyd, assumed the temperature of the lubricant to stay
constant as it passes through the bearing. In reality, temperature increases because
of the work done on the lubricant. Thus, when finding viscosity from the chart we
should use an average temperature value which is:

M d : Inlet temperature
 Xc  d G MQ Temperature rise


• When we know the oil inlet temperature and need to find the outlet temperature
we have to use trial-and-error where we assume the temperature rise and find

the assumed M then another value is tried and so on.

viscosity from chart then use it to compute a temperature rise. If it does not match

number “.” for differente

 ratios.
• The charts give the variables against the Sommerfeld

Ø The figure explains the notation used in the charts.

v Minimum film thickness and its angular position

(figs. 12-16 and 12-17)
• note that
R   : < 
 2:=
f
!

See Example 12-1 from text

v The coefficient of friction variable (fig. 12-18)

See Example 12-2 from text

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 8 of 15
 § Why there is no ( e
 g) curve in fig. 12-20?
v Lubricant flow and side flow ratio (figs. 12-19 and 12-20)

See Example 12-3 from text

v Maximum film pressure and its angular position (figs. 12-21 and 12-22)

See Example 12-4 from text

• Lubricant Temperature Rise

The lubricant temperature will increase until a heat balance is reached (heat
generated by shearing the lubricant = heat lost to the surroundings).
It can be shown that heat balance calculations (assuming side flow) will give the
following equation: (see derivation in text)

532Mh j '

 
"(i*X)
2 N N
A2 :  k ]eNlD m n o
;

Why there is no (e

 g)
v The RHS of this equation can be evaluated using charts in
figs. 12-18, 19 & 20 or easier using fig. 12-24 where it
curve in fig. 12-24 ?
iterative approach to find M easier.
combines the three charts together which makes the

See the interpolation equation in the text (page 624)

Steady-State Conditions in Self Contained Bearings

In self-contained bearings the lubricant stays within the bearing housing and it is
cooled within the housing by dissipating the heat to the surroundings. This type of
bearings is also called pillow-block bearings. In this type, the sump is expanded
peripherally in the top half of the bearing and the bushing covers the lower half

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 9 of 15
(?  2T5[ ). As the oil film exits the lower half of the bearing it mixes with sump
contents, then heat is transferred to the surroundings.

• The heat lost from the housing to the surroundings can be estimated as:

p8]]  qhr (9 : s )

where:
p8]] : Dissipated heat, J/s or W
qhr : Combined coefficient of radiation & convection, W/(m2.˚C)
 : Bearing surface area, m2
9 -s : Housing surface temperature & ambient temp, ˚C
• Some representative values of qhr are given as:
223U&u(V$ 3 [\)'vwxy`y
qhr  t2S3b&u(V$ 3 [\)'vw
`'x : wxy<
`y|
bb3S&u(V$ 3 [\)'v`yVvzya{`xS3UVuw

lubricant film and housing surface (P :  9 ). If we define }P as the average film
§ Similar expression can be written for the temperature difference between the

temperature between the inlet ] and the outlet (] G  M), then the following
proportionality can be observed:

}P : 9  ~(9 : s )

where ~ depends on lubrication system and housing geometry

v Table 12-2 gives representative values of ~.

§ Solving for 9 we get: 9  }P G ~s u(2 G ~)

§ Substituting in the heat loss equation, we get:

qhr 
p8]]  (} : s )
2G~ P
• Because of the shearing of lubricant film heat is generated. In steady-state
condition, the heat generated in the lubricant film is equal to the heat dissipated
from the housing to the surrounding.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 10 of 15
 § The heat generated can be found as:
p>€  ()

But,   U $  B  u

UT  $  B
Thus,

p>€ 

• In steady-state analysis, the average film temperature }P is unknown and therefore
the viscosity is unknown. Thus, a trial value of }P is used (the corresponding is
found) and both p8]] & p>€ are evaluated. Then, iterations continue until we get
p8]] = p>€ .

• Equating p8]] & p>€ and solving for }P we get,

 $  B
 }P  s G UT(2 G ~) }P  ] G Mu
Note that:
qhr 

See Example 12-5 from text

Clearance

When designing journal bearings for thick film lubrication, the designer selects the
lubricant and suitable values for the bearing parameters to give satisfactory
performance. However, the clearance “” is difficult to hold accurate during
manufacturing. Also, clearance increases with time because of wear.

• The figure shows the effect of wide

range of clearances on the performance
of a bearing (for bearing parameters
given in examples 12-1 to 12-4). It can
be seen from the figure that lubricant
flow increases with increased clearance
and this decreases the generated heat
and outlet temperature. The minimum

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 11 of 15
 film thickness “
R ” increases with clearance then it starts to decrease.
§ If the clearance is too small, dirt (debris) may block the oil flow and therefore

§ If the clearance is too high, the bearing becomes noisy and
R decreases.
cause overheating and failure.

• Thus, the optimum range of clearances is shown by shaded area in the figure. If
clearance value is within this range the performance of the bearing will improve
with wear.

Pressure-Fed Bearings

The load carrying capacity of self-contained bearings is limited because of the limited
heat-dissipating capability. To increase the heat-dissipation, an external pump is used
to increase the lubricant flow through the bearing. The pump supplies the bearing with
lubricant of high pressure therefore increasing the lubricant flow and heat disputation.
The lubricant sump may also be cooled with water to reduce temperature further.

• A circumferential groove at the center of the bearing, with an oil-supply hole

located opposite to the load zone, is usually used to feed the lubricant (fig. 12-27).
The oil flows from the groove in the middle towards the ends of the bearing.
Ø Note that in this type of bearings, the lubricant is supplied at high pressure
(pressure is not created by the sliding of the journal surface).

• When determining the lubricant flow, eccentricity is first

neglected, then a correction factor for eccentricity is applied.
Also, rotation of the shaft is neglected.
§ For lubricant supplied at pressure “"] ”, the average velocity
of lubricant flowing towards the ends of the bearing can be

"]
found as (see derivation in text):

Xc  ( : < ‚ƒ„ …) $

2  
Average velocity for
any angular position

where   is length of each half of the bearing (see fig. 12-28)
Ø Note that minimum film thinness “
R ” is assumed to be at the bottom of the
bearing (fig. 12-30) because rotation is neglected.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 12 of 15
 § Thus, lubricant flow out of both ends of the bearing is:
"]  B
N]  (2 G 23S= $ )
b  

• In this type of bearings, the pressure per projected area for each half of the bearing

†u †
is:

"  
  U 
 $  $  ‡ 
w+ ,  +,
! * ! #
Ø Therefore, the Sommerfeld number is;
• The heat generated and heat loss can be found as:

p8]]  ˆ\‰ N] M ˆQdensity

\‰ : heat capacity
Where

'
p>€  &

• Equating p8]] & p>€ , the temperature rise can be found as:
Where: &(_)
Š4T(25 ) ('u).& forMya[\
"] (_"`)
7 $
 M! 
2 G 23S= $ "]   (VV)

M‹  (dd3Ž)* ‘
R3Rd$B(Pu!)Œ# 
forMya[
Or


See Example 12-6 from text

Thrust Bearings
Journal bearings are designed to take radial loads only, if there is a thrust component,
a sliding thrust bearing can be used.

• The working principle of thrust bearings is similar to

that of journal bearings. The figure shows a fixed-pad
thrust bearing consisting of a runner sliding over a
fixed pad. The lubricant is brought into the radial
grooves and pumped into the wedge shaped spaces
(see fig. 12-36).

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 13 of 15
• Hydrodynamic lubrication is obtained if the speed of the runner is continuous and
sufficiently high and lubricant is available in sufficient quantity.

Boundary-Lubricated Bearings
When two surfaces slide relative to each other with only partial lubricant film between
them, boundary (or thin-film) lubrication is said to exist.

• Boundary lubrication occurs in hydrodynamically lubricated bearings on starting or

stopping condition, or when load increases or if lubricant supply or rotational speed
decreases.
Ø To reduce friction in boundary lubricated bearings, animal or vegetable oils can be
mixed with mineral oils because they form a soap film that sticks to metallic
surfaces.
• “Mixed-film lubrication” is said to exist if the bearing operates partly under
hydrodynamic conditions and partly under boundary lubrication conditions. Mixed-
film lubrication condition occurs if lubricant is supplied manually using drop or
mechanical feed, viscosity is too low, bearing speed is too low, the bearing is
overloaded, the clearance is too tight, or the journal is not properly aligned.

Linear sliding wear:

Considering a block with surface area “” sliding
over a fixed surface with contact pressure “"”
where the coefficient of sliding friction “'] ” and
define a linear wear measure “†”.
• The work done by the frictional force “'] "” during displacement “S” is “'] ". ” or
“'] "’x ” (where “’” velocity and “x” time).

(† “ '] "’x), or we can write:

• The volume of material removed because of wear “†” is proportional to the work

†  ”"’x

“'] ”. The unit of “”” in SI units is: VB 3 wu(3 V3 w)

where “”” is the proportionality factor which includes the coefficient of friction

v Table 12-8 gives the values of “”” (which are determined from testing).

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 14 of 15
 § Cancelling “” from both sides, “†” can be expressed as:
†  ”"’x
§ Additional correction factors 'd -'$ can be included such that:

†  'd '$ ”"’x

where, 'd correctio factor for motion type; Table 12-10

'$ correctio factor for enviroment; Table 12-11

Bushing wear:
For the case of journal bearing of diameter “•” and Length “–” rotating at speed “” ,
the wear of the bushing “†” can be found from the prvious equation knowing that:

"WXY  "  -  & radial load

  ‹
  —˜

Thus, the wear is found to be:

U  U'd '$ ”x

 †  'd '$ ” ’x  ’(Vuw)
Where

 •– – (<zuw)
x(w)

See Example 12-7 from text

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi

Ch.12 Page 15 of 15