Soil Shear Strength Selection for

Stability Analysis –
Practical Guidance
John France
Jennifer Williams
Tiffany Adams
Christina Winckler
 Objective
• Provide practical guidance for shear strength
characterization and application for various
loading conditions.
• Discussion limited to static loading – seismic
loading is separate topic.
 Topics
• Stress-Strain Behavior
• Undrained and Drained Conditions
• Total and Effective Stress Methods
• Shear Strength Characterization
• Examples:
1) Processing lab data
2) End of Construction Example
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Stress-Strain Behavior
• BACK TO BASIC TRAINING!

• Fundamental principles that influence proper

shear strength selection
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Soil Shear Strength
• Soils do not (generally) exhibit significant tensile
strength

• Soils fail in shear under compression loading

 Stress-Strain Behavior
Soil Shear Strength Depends on:
• Types of soil particles and mineralogy
• Density
• Consolidation pressure
• Stress history, including overconsolidation
• Drainage allowed
• Stress paths
Stress-Strain Behavior
Ductile vs Brittle
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Steady State Deformation
• Continuous deformation, under constant
effective stress, at a constant deformation rate,
and a constant void ratio,

• Similar to critical void ratio or critical state

• Provides a unified understanding of soil stress –
strain behavior.
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Dilative vs Contractive
 Stress-Strain Behavior
m=max shear stress (shear strength),
strains may be <1% to >40%

m
s
Shear Stress, τ

s = Steady state deformation

Axial or shear strain, ε or γ

Zone B
Zone A Zone C
 Stress-Strain Behavior
m=max shear stress (shear strength),
strains may be <1% to >40%

m
Zone A:
Shear Stress, τ

Initial structure and

state have more
influence here than
any other zone

Axial or shear strain, ε or γ

Zone B
Zone A Zone C
 Stress-Strain Behavior
m=max shear stress (shear strength),
strains may be <1% to >40%

m
s Zone B:
Shear Stress, τ

Initial structure is
altered and SS of
deformation is reached

Axial or shear strain, ε or γ

Zone B
Zone A Zone C
 Stress-Strain Behavior
m=max shear stress (shear strength),
strains may be <1% to >40%

m Zone C:
Crushing has stopped
s
Shear Stress, τ

and grains have

reached SS structure.
Initial structure
completely altered

Axial or shear strain, ε or γ

Zone B
Zone A Zone C
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Cohesionless Soil (Sands & Gravel)
Drained Behavior
• Loose soils contract when sheared

Swell
∆V Shear Stress, τ
V

Strain, ε

Contract Strain, ε
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Cohesionless Soil (Sands & Gravel)
Drained Behavior
• Dense soils dilate when sheared

Shear Stress, τ
Swell
∆V
V

Strain, ε
Contract Strain, ε
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Fine-grained Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay)
Drained Behavior
• Normally Consolidated
– Experiencing its highest load
– Behaves similar to loose sand
• Drained Loading: Contracts (expels water)
throughout shearing
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Fine-grained Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay)
Drained Behavior
• Overconsolidated
– Has experienced a higher stress state due to
• Geologic process
• Previous loading
– Apparent overconsolidation due to cementation,
desiccation, or aging
– Behaves similar to dense sand
• Drained Loading: Initially contracts (expels water),
then dilates (inflow of water)
 Overconsolidated

Residual

Shear Characteristics of Normally Consolidated

Clays in Drained Remolded
Loading
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Fine-grained Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay)
Undrained Behavior
• Normally Consolidated
– Pore pressures increases throughout shearing

– Effective stress decreases pore

pressure
uf
– Shear strength decreases ∆u
uo
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Fine-grained Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay)
Undrained Behavior
• Overconsolidated
– Pore pressures first increases, then dissipates,
ultimately becoming negative
pore
– Effective stress increases pressure ∆u negative
uo

– Shear strength increases

pwp negative
 Negative Pore Pressures
• Reasonable and prudent to discount high
undrained strengths due to negative pore
pressures
Because:
– There is local drainage off of shear plane
– High back pressures in lab test do not exist in the field
 Negative Pore Pressures
(τ)
Effective Stress (CD)
Shear stress

Total Stress (CU)

Normal stress (σ)

 Undrained vs Drained
Drained Loading

• Loaded slowly enough, relative to the

permeability of the soil, that drainage of pore
water can occur.
• Pore water pressures do not change, because
water can move into or out of the soil freely in
response to changes in load.
• Volume change occurs
 Undrained vs Drained
Undrained Loading

• Loading is too rapid for soil drainage to occur.

• Water cannot flow into or out of the soil during
loading.
• Pore water pressures increase or decrease in
response to changes in load.
• Volume does not change
 Undrained vs Drained
Undrained Loading
• “Rapid” Loading => pore water cannot flow fast
enough, volume cannot change, and pore
pressures change
– Positive pore pressures will develop in loose sands
and NC clays due to tendency of soil to compress
 Undrained vs Drained
Undrained Loading
• “Rapid” Loading => pore water cannot flow fast
enough, volume cannot change, and pore
pressures change
– Negative pore pressures will develop in dense sand
and OC clay due to tendency to dilate
 Undrained vs Drained
Undrained vs Drained

• Depends on T = Cvt / D2
– Rate of Loading
Cv = coeff. of consolidation
– Soil Permeability
t = loading time
– Drainage distance D = length of drainage path
 Undrained vs Drained
Undrained vs Drained

• Sands & Gravels

– High permeability.
– Allows drainage and volume change (except for
seismic).
– No change in pore pressure.

– Caution – high fines content sands and gravels can

behave more like cohesionless soils.
 Undrained vs Drained
Undrained vs Drained

• Silts & Clays

– Low permeability.
– Slow volume change.
– Excess pore pressures can develop, even during
some static (slow) loadings.
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Effective vs Total Stress

• Total Stress = stresses from both inter-particle

forces and pore pressures

• Effective Stress = only from inter-particle forces

• Effective Stress = [Total Stress] – [Pore Pressure]

 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Strength Envelopes
Effective Stress
Envelope φ’
φ
Total Stress Envelope
τ

σ, σ’
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Stress Path Illustration

tan ψ′ = sin φ′ Stress Mohr’s

and Path Circles
tan ψ = sin φ

q=

′
p’= 32
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Stress Path Illustration

tan ψ′ = sin φ′
and
tan ψ = sin φ

′
33
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Drained vs Undrained Strengths
• Drained strengths mobilized when loading
occurs slowly enough that inflow / outflow can
occur – excess pore pressures do not develop.
• Undrained strengths mobilized when loading
occurs more rapidly than water inflow / outflow
can occur – excess pore pressures develop.
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Effective vs Total Stress Methods
• Effective Stress Method: uses drained strength
characterization and estimated pore pressures.

• Total Stress Method: uses undrained strength

characterization and no pore pressure
estimation.
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Strength Envelops
• Effective stress envelopes represent
fundamental behavior.
• Total stress envelopes implicitly reflect the pore
pressures during undrained shear as well as the
fundamental effective stress behavior.
• Conditions can be intermediate between
undrained and drained – but almost always
modeled undrained or drained.
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Effective vs. Total Stress Methods
• Soil strengths are always governed by effective
stresses – interparticle forces.
• Drained Loading
⇒Effective Stress Method.
• Undrained Loading:
⇒Effective Stress OR Total Stress Method.
⇒Total Stress Method when strength is easier to
predict than pore pressure (almost always true).
 Sourses of Shear Strength
Loading Cases
Test Shear Strength Characterization
Drained Strength Parameters (ɸ’, c’) for sands and clays
Steady State Seepage
Undrained strengths for saturated, low permeability
End of Construction soils, drained strength for all other soils

Undrained strengths for saturated, low permeability

Rapid Drawdown soils, drained strength for all other soils

Undrained strengths for saturated, low permeability

Flood Load soils, drained strength for all other soils
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Undrained Strength Characterization

• Total stress c and φ

• Constant Su (φ = 0)
• Proportional to confining stress – Su/p′ or Su/σv′
• Undrained strength on the failure plane –
tff = f (σ′fc)

39
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Su vs σvc′
Su/σ’vc Total Stress
Relationship Envelope

φ
(Su)B

(Su)A

(σvc′)A (σvc′)B
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Normally Consolidated Clays
• Compress (Volume )
• Pore pressure
• Effective Stress
• Undrained strengths < drained

τ Effective Stress Total Stress Envelope

Envelope

σ 41
 Effective Stress vs Total Stress
Overconsolidated Clays
• Dilate (Volume )
• Negative pore pressures develop
• Effective Stress
• Drained strengths < undrained

τ Total Stress Envelope

Effective Stress
Envelope

σ 42
Effective Stress vs Total Stress
43
When to Use Cohesion
 Sourses of Shear Strength
Source of Shear Strength Estimates
• Cohesionless Soil
– In-place => field test correlations (SPT, CPT, etc)
– New fill => lab tests of reconstituted samples
• Cohesive Soil
– Laboratory testing most reliable
– Field testing (CPT, torvane, etc) should only be used
in conjunction with quality lab test
 Sourses of Shear Strength
Testing Shear Strength
Direct Field Tests
Test Shear Strength Characterization
Field Testing
Direct Measurements
Undrained shear strength of soft to medium stiff clays
Vane Shear
Approximate measure of the unconfined compressive
strength. (Crude test that should only be used for
Pocket Penetrometer
screening)

Approximate measure of undrained shear strength.

Torvane
(Crude test that should only be used for screening)
 Sourses of Shear Strength
Testing Shear Strength
Indirect Methods (Correlations)
Test Shear Strength Characterization
Indirect Methods – Strengths Can Be Estimated with Empirical Correlations
Empirical correlations most reliably applied to drained
SPT
strengths of coarse-grained soils
Empirical correlations of drained and undrained
CPT
strengths
Empirical correlations most reliably applied to drained
BPT, iBPT
strengths of coarse-grained soils
Empirical correlations to drained and undrained shear
Shear wave velocity
strengths
 Sourses of Shear Strength
Testing Shear Strength
Laboratory Testing
Test Shear Strength Characterization
Drained effective strength parameters (ɸ’, c’) for fine-
Direct Shear (DS) grained sands, clays, and silts (best for sands; strain
rate not be slow enough for clay)
Unconfined Compression Undrained shear strength (Su) for saturated cohesive
(UC) soils (clays and silts)
Unconsolidated-Undrained Undrained total stress strength parameters (ɸ, c) for
Triaxial (UU or Q) cohesive soils (clays and silts)
Drained effective stress shear strength parameters (ɸ’,
Consolidated-Drained Triaxial
c’) for sands and clays (requires very low strain rate
(CD or S)
and long test time for clay soils)
 Sourses of Shear Strength
Testing Shear Strength
Laboratory Testing
Test Shear Strength Characterization
Consolidated-Undrained Undrained total stress strength parameters (ɸ, c) for
Triaxial (CU or R) sands and clays
Undrained total stress strength parameters (ɸ, c) or
Consolidated-Undrained
undrained shear strength ratio (Su/σv’) and drained
Triaxial with Pore Pressure
effective stress strength parameters (ɸ’, c’) for sands
Measurements (CU’)
and clays
Undrained shear strength (Su), or undrained shear
Direct Simple Shear (DSS) strength ratio (Su/σv’), effective stress (ɸ’) most
suitable for soft clays
Drained effective stress residual shear strength
Rotational Ring Shear
parameters (ɸ r’, cr’) most suitable for clays and silts
QUESTIONS?
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Example: Processing Lab Data
• Isotropically Consolidated Undrained Triaxial
Testing with Pore Pressure Measurements (CIU'
or R)
– Drained parameters
– Undrained parameters
Example: Processing Lab Data
CIU' Test Results
Example: Processing Lab Data
φ
CIU' Test Results

φ'

c'
c
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Drained Parameters (Mohr Circles)

φ'

c'
σ'3f σ'3f σ'3f σ'1f σ'1f σ'1f
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Drained Parameters (P-Q Method)

φ'
α
q

qq

c'
a
p' p' p'
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Drained Parameters (P-Q Method)
α
α = 26.9o, a = 240 psf
φ' = 30.5o, c' = 270 psf

a
Example: Processing Lab Data
φ
CIU' Test Results

φ'

c'
c
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Undrained Parameters (Mohr Circles)

σ3f σ3f σ3f σ1f σ1f σ1f

 Example: Processing Lab Data
Undrained Parameters (P-Q Method)

α
φ
q

qq

c
a

p p p
 Example: Processing Lab Data
CIU' Test Results
Test 1 B-1 S-1A 10.4
Test 2 B-1 S-1B 10.9
Test 3 B-1 S-1C 11.4
 Example: Processing Lab Data
CIU' Test Results
Test 1 B-1 S-1A 10.4
Test 2 B-1 S-1B 10.9
Test 3 B-1 S-1C 11.4
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Drained Parameters
Test 1 B-1 S-1A 10.4
Test 2 B-1 S-1B 10.9
Test 3 B-1 S-1C 11.4

q α

qq

a
p' p' p'
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Undrained Parameters
Test 1 B-1 S-1A 10.4
Test 2 B-1 S-1B 10.9
Test 3 B-1 S-1C 11.4

q α

qq

p p p
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Failure Criteria
Test 1 B-1 S-1A 10.4
Test 2 B-1 S-1B 10.9
Test 3 B-1 S-1C 11.4

Peak Deviator Stress

Peak
Obliquity
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Failure Criteria - Drained Parameters
Test 1 B-1 S-1A 10.4
Test 2 B-1 S-1B 10.9
Test 3 B-1 S-1C 11.4

uxsf
uxsf
uxsf

α
q
Peak Deviator Stress
qq

a
εafεaf εaf p' p' p'
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Failure Criteria - Drained Parameters
uxsf Test 1
Test 2
B-1
B-1
S-1A
S-1B
10.4
10.9
Test 3 B-1 S-1C 11.4

uxsf
uxsf

q Peak Obliquity

q
q

a p' p' p'

εafεafεaf
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Failure Criteria - Undrained Parameters
uxsf Test 1
Test 2
B-1
B-1
S-1A
S-1B
10.4
10.9
Test 3 B-1 S-1C 11.4

uxsf
uxsf
c (ksf) φ (degrees)
0.60 15.4
0.21 16.3

Peak Obliquity α
q
q
q

a p p
εafεafεaf p
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Undrained Parameters (‘total’ strength)

σ3f σ3f σ3f σ1f σ1f σ1f

 Example: Processing Lab Data
Undrained Parameters (Su/p')

'

Su

σ3f = σ'vc = p' σ1f

 Example: Processing Lab Data
Undrained Parameters (Su/p')

19.5ο

Su

SuSu
0.8

σ'vc = p' σ'vc = p' σ'vc = p'

 Example: Processing Lab Data
Undrained Parameters (τff/σ'fc)
φ'

Su
τff

σ'3f σ3f = σ'fc σ'1f σ1f

was developed for Rapid Drawdown
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Undrained Parameters (τff/σ'fc)

τff

τff
τff
d

σ'fc σ'fc σ'fc

was developed for Rapid Drawdown
 Example: Processing Lab Data
τff/σ'fc vs “Total” Strength Envelope
φ, c

Ψ, d

was developed for Rapid Drawdown

 Example: Processing Lab Data
Strength Parameters

Type Angle Intercept

Drained – Effective Stress φ' = 29.3o c' = 150 psf
Undrained – Total Stress φ = 15.4o c = 600 psf
Undrained – Su/p' 19.5o 840 psf
Undrained – τff/σ'fc ψ = 17.5o d = 690 psf
QUESTIONS?
End of Construction
Example
 Example: Processing Lab Data
Strength Parameters

Type Angle Intercept

Drained – Effective Stress φ' = 29.3o c' = 150 psf
Undrained – Total Stress φ = 15.4o c = 600 psf
Undrained – Su/p' 19.5o 840 psf
Undrained – τff/σ'fc ψ = 17.5o d = 690 psf
 End of Construction Stability Example
Dam Geometry
15 10
2.5
3 1 15
1
Embankment Buttress

Foundation Soil

Foundation Bedrock
End of Construction Stability Example
Total Stress Shear Strength
End of Construction Stability Example
Su Shear Strength
End of Construction Stability Example
Su/p’ Shear Strength
End of Construction Stability Example
Su/p’ Shear Strength - Staged
End of Construction Stability Example
τff/σ''fc Shear Strength - Staged
 End of Construction Stability Example
Stability Results Summary
Calculated Factor of
Safety
Total stress shear strength 2.00

Su shear strength 2.87

Su/p’ shear strength (not correct) 2.19

Su/p’ shear strength – staged analysis 1.37

τff/σ'fc shear strength – staged analysis 1.37

QUESTIONS?
 Wrap-up
Take-Aways – Part 1
• First decide if loading is drained or undrained for the
various strata
• If undrained, decide how to characterize the
undrained strength
– Some form of total strength characterization
– Staged analysis based on effective stress before loading is
best
– Other characterizations can be adequate and workable
with appropriate judgment
 Wrap-up
Take-Aways – Part 2
• Basis of strength characterization
– Cohesionless soils
• In-place  field testing, correlations, and judgment.
• To be constructed  lab testing or correlations and
judgment.
– Cohesive soils
• Laboratory testing best in most cases.
• Direct or indirect field measurements may also be applicable.
• Correlations and judgments may be sufficient in some cases.