MTS 226

MATERIALS AND
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Chapter-11: Failure of Metals
Topics of this lecture: Impact test and Failure
Instructor: Dr. Hamid Jabbar
Hamid.jabbar@ceme.nust.edu.pk
Lecture Slides Courtesy of Dr.
Danish Hussain

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Impact Tests
• The results show fracture behavior
and can also be used to determine
the ductility of a material with
variation in temperature
• Common Impact Tests are:
1. Charpy V-Notch (CVN) Technique
2. Izod Techniques

Impact test determines the amount of

energy absorbed by a material during
fracture. This absorbed energy is a
measure of a given material's
a) Specimen
toughness and acts as a tool to study used for Charpy and Izod
temperature-dependent brittle-ductile impact tests. (b) A schematic
drawing of an impact testing
transition apparatus.

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Department of Mechatronics Engineering, EME, NUST
Photograph of fracture at different temperatures of
the surfaces of A36 steel Charpy V-notch
specimens tested at indicated temperatures (in C).

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Temperature dependence of the Charpy V-notch impact energy (curve A)
and percent shear fracture (curve B) for an A283 steel.

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Schematic curves for the three general types of impact energy–versus–
temperature behavior.

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Temperature dependence of the Charpy V-notch impact Influence of carbon content on the Charpy V-notch
energy (curve A) and percent shear fracture (curve B) for an energy–versus–temperature behavior for steel.
A283 steel.

Schematic curves for

the three general types
of impact energy–
versus– temperature
behavior.

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 Failure of the Materials
A component is said to have failed when it can no longer
perform the task that it was designed for.

A failed Pavement Structure

Failure theory is the science of

predicting the conditions under which Tacoma Narrows Bridge

solid materials fail under the action of

external loads. The failure of a material
is usually classified into brittle failure
(fracture) or ductile failure (yield).
Damage of fuselage of Aloha Airlines Flight 243

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 9

Mechanical Failure
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
• How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves. thermal loading. loading from walking.
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e. (Fig. Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Chapter 8, Callister 7e. (by Neil Boenzi, The 22.30(b) is courtesy of National Callister 7e.
New York Times.) Semiconductor Corporation.)

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Department of Mechatronics Engineering, EME, NUST
Mechanisms of Failure
• Manufacturing defects
• Flaw introduced during manufacturing process
• Material overload
• Inappropriate consumer use of the material
• Loading material beyond specifications
• Normal wear through use
• Fatigue, corrosion, creep, etc.

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 FRACTURE
Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two
or more pieces in response to an imposed stress
that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with
time) and at temperatures that are low relative to
the melting temperature of the material.
• Ductile fracture
Ductile fracture is characterized by extensive (a) Highly ductile fracture in which the
plastic deformation in the vicinity of an specimen necks down to a point. (b)
advancing crack. Moderately ductile fracture after some
necking. (c) Brittle fracture without any
• Brittle fracture plastic deformation.
The cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with
very little accompanying plastic deformation.

Crack formation and propagation

Stages in the cup-and-cone fracture. (a) Initial necking.
(b) Small cavity formation. (c) Coalescence of cavities
to form a crack. (d) Crack propagation. (e) Final shear
fracture at a 45 angle relative to the tensile direction.

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 FRACTURE
Ductile vs. brittle fracture

http://www.virginia.edu/bohr/mse209/chapter8.htm

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 14

Example: Failure of a Pipe

• Ductile failure:
-one piece
-large deformation

• Brittle failure:
-many pieces
-small deformation

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.),
Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1987. Used with permission.

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 Principles of Fracture Mechanics
Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Results from crack
propagation by
• Griffith Crack Model:
1/ 2
a 
 m  2o    K t o
 t 
where
t = radius of
curvature of
t crack tip
so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack
tip
Concentration of
stress concentration factor is: Stress at Crack Tip
Kt = m/0  2 (a/)1/2

Adapted from Callister 7e.

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 16

When Does a Crack Propagate?

Crack propagates if above critical stress

1/ 2
i.e., sm > sc  2E s 
c   
or Kt > Kc  a 
where
• E = modulus of elasticity stress concentration factor
• s = specific surface energy
• a = one half length of internal crack
• Kc = sc/s0 fracture toughness

For ductile => replace gs by gs + gp

where gp is plastic deformation energy

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The three modes of crack surface displacement. (a) Mode I,
opening or tensile mode; (b) mode II, sliding mode; and (c)
mode III, tearing mode.

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 FRACTURE

(a) Cup-and-cone fracture in

aluminum. (b) Brittle fracture
in a mild steel.

(a) Scanning electron

fractograph showing spherical
dimples characteristic of ductile
fracture resulting from uniaxial
tensile loads. 3300. (b) Scanning
electron fractograph showing
parabolic-shaped dimples
characteristic
of ductile fracture resulting from
shear loading. 5000.

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Fractography
• Fractography is the study of the fracture surfaces of
materials. Fractographic methods are routinely used to
determine the cause of failure in engineering structures,
especially in product failure and the practice of forensic
engineering or failure analysis.

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 FRACTURE
(a) Photograph showing V-shaped
“chevron” markings characteristic of brittle
fracture. Arrows
indicate origin of crack. Approximate
actual size. (b) Photograph of a brittle
fracture surface showing radial
fan-shaped ridges. Arrow indicates origin
of crack. Approximately 2.

Transgranular fracture
(a) Schematic cross-section profile
showing crack propagation
through the interior of grains for
transgranular fracture.
(b) Scanning electron fractograph
of ductile cast iron showing a
transgranular fracture surface.
Magnification unknown.

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 FRACTURE

intergranular
fracture

(a) Schematic cross-section profile showing crack propagation along grain

boundaries for intergranular fracture. (b) Scanning electron fractograph
showing an intergranular fracture surface. 50.

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Brittle Fracture Surfaces: Useful to examine to
determine causes of failure
• Intergranular • Intragranular
(between grains) 304 S. Steel (within grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
160 mm
4 mm National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol. 3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
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 23

Engineering Fracture Design

• Avoid sharp corners!
so s
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t= s
o
sw
max 2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 8.2W(c), 1.5
Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius

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 Fatigue
• Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in
structures subjected to dynamic and
fluctuating stresses. Under these
circumstances, it is possible for failure
to occur at a stress level considerably
lower than the tensile or yield
strength for a static load.
• The term fatigue is used because this
type of failure normally occurs after a
lengthy period of repeated stress or
strain cycling.

Fatigue is the single largest cause of

failure in metals, estimated to be involved
in approximately 90% of all metallic
failures Variation of stress with time that
accounts for fatigue failures. (a) Reversed
stress cycle, (b) Repeated stress cycle, (c)
Random stress cycle.
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 Cyclic Loading and the ‘S-N Curve’
• The fatigue properties of materials can be determined from
laboratory simulation tests.
• A test apparatus is used to apply a cyclic load to the test
specimen.

For rotating–bending fatigue tests, schematic diagrams of (a) a testing

apparatus, and (b) a test specimen.
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S-N Curves
Results of S-N Curves
• Fatigue Limit (the
highest stress that a
material can withstand
for an infinite number of
cycles without
breaking) (a)

• Fatigue strength at
specified cycles
• Fatigue Life at a
specified stress level

Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number

of cycles to fatigue failure (N) for (a) a material that
displays a fatigue limit and (b) a material that
does not display a fatigue limit.
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, EME, NUST (b)
Maximum stress (S) versus
logarithm of the number of
cycles to fatigue failure (N)
for seven metal alloys.
Curves were generated
using rotating – bending
and reversed-cycle tests.

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Fatigue S–N probability of failure curves for a 7075-T6 aluminum alloy; P
denotes the probability of failure.

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Fatigue Failure
The process of fatigue failure is
characterized by three distinct
steps:
1. Crack initiation: in which a
small crack forms at some
point of high stress
concentration
2. Crack propagation: during
which this crack advances
incrementally with each stress
cycle
3. Final failure, which occurs very Fatigue failure surface. A crack formed at the top
rapidly once the advancing edge. The smooth region also near the top
corresponds to the area over which the crack
crack has reached a critical propagated slowly. Rapid failure occurred over the
area having a dull and fibrous texture (the largest
size area). Approximately 0.5.

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 30

Fatigue Mechanism
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da
 K 
m

dN
~  a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as
• Ds increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister 7e.
• crack gets longer (Fig. 8.21 is from D.J.
• loading freq. increases. Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)

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 31

Improving Fatigue Life

1. Impose a compressive S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
surface stress Fig. 8.24, Callister 7e.
(to suppress surface Increasing
near zero or compressive sm
cracks from growing) m moderate tensile s m
Larger tensile s m

N = Cycles to failure

shot peening carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface Nitriding
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

Ion (Plasma) Nitriding
concentrators. Adapted from
, Callister 7e.
bad better

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 Creep
• Creep is the time-varying plastic
deformation of a material stressed at high
temperatures.
• If a tensile-type specimen is subjected to
a constant load at elevated temperature,
it will elongate continuously until rupture
occurs, even though the applied stress is
below the yield strength of the material at
the temperature of testing
• While the rate of elongation is often quite
small, creep can be an important Creep Experiment
consideration when designing equipment https://www.mtu.edu/materials/k12/experime
such as steam or gas turbines, power nts/creep/
plant boilers, and other devices that
operate under loads or pressures for long
periods of time at high temperature

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 Creep Stages
• Primary Creep: starts at a
rapid rate and slows with time
• Secondary Creep: has a
relatively uniform rate
• Tertiary Creep: has an
accelerated creep rate and
terminates when the material
breaks or ruptures. It is
associated with both necking
and fracture. Fracture always
occurs at the tertiary stage

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 34

Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
 Qc 
 s  K 2  exp 
n
 activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress

• Strain rate 2 00 Stress (MPa) Adapted from

Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
427°C (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
increases 10 0 Handbook: Properties and
538 °C Selection: Stainless Steels,
for higher T, s 40 Tool Materials, and
Special Purpose Metals,
Vol. 3, 9th ed., D.
20 Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
649 °C American Society for
10 Metals, 1980, p. 131.)

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es
(%/1000hr)
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Material Overload
• Types of materials exhibit different behaviors depending on
the way their atoms and molecules are bonded and how they
stack together to form crystal structures

copper diamond

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 Material Overload

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Material Overload

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Types of Analysis
Two types of analysis:
1. Failure analysis
• how the material failed
2. Root cause analysis
• how it could have been prevented
Determining:
1. How did the material fail?
2. Why did it fail?
3. Who or which party is responsible?

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Steps in Failure Analysis
• Material characterization
• Mechanical testing
• Hardness testing
• Crack testing
• Bend testing
• Strain testing
• Determine how failure occurred from initial to final state

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Sample of ASTM Standards

Example: Hardness testing

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 Summary
• Engineers determine to source of material failure
• Deductive reasoning as well extensive laboratory techniques
are utilized
• Manufacturers often introduce source of failure into product
• Materials will ultimately fail over period of use of the product
from manufacturing flaws, material overload, or wear

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 Grand Summary
If failure is considered as change in desired performance*- which could involve changes in
properties and/or shape; then failure can occur by many mechanisms as below.

Mechanisms / Methods by which a Material can FAIL

Elastic deformation

Creep Chemical / Physical

Fatigue Electro-chemical degradation
Plastic Fracture degradation
deformation
Microstructural
Twinning changes
Wear
Slip Twinning
Corrosion Erosion
Phase transformations
Oxidation
Grain growth

Particle coarsening

* Beyond a certain limit

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 College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering,
National University of Science and Technology,
Islamabad, Paksitan

Suggested readings:
• Website very useful:

• http://www.virginia.edu/bohr/mse209/chapter8.htm

• Videos:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C0GINDPG8Ns
• http://arnabocean.com/frontposts/2015-06-07-compositefailure/

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References and Compulsory readings
• Chapter 9,11: Materials Science and Engineering, An
Introduction [PaperBack]
William D. Callister, Jr. David G. Rethwisch

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