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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

Video Lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis

Prof. K. Ramesh
Department of Applied Mechanics
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Lecture No. # 04
Keywords – Spanner and Nut, Photoelasticity, Strain Gauge, Moiré

Physical Principle of Strain Gauges, Photoelasticity and Moiré

Let us continue our discussion on overview of experimental stress analysis, and

what we have primarily focused in the previous class was, for typical problems, for
which you know the solution, we have looked at a kind of patterns you could good, you
could get from some of the experimental techniques.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:40)

The problems considered were beam under four point bending, cantilever beam, disc
under diametral compression, and also clamped circular disc with a central load. In all
these cases, you have analytical solution possible for the stress field. So, you have got a
closed form expression for the stress field, you have got the strain field, and also the
displacement field. And what we did was, we did a sample of experimental methods,
some of them were directly from experimental result, some of them were simulated
result to give a feel of how the whole field information looks like. So, now your eyes get
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

tuned to how to interpret whole field information to an extent possible. And finally, what
we will do is we will go to the problem of spanner tightening a nut, and as I told you
earlier due to complex nature of the geometry, only a numerical solution is possible for
this problem.

Spanner tightening a nut - completeness of a numerical solution

(Refer Slide Time: 02:01)

And that is what we are going to see and what I am going to look at is, we have already
looked at, day to day application of the problem. And surprisingly you do not have
solution from strength of materials or even by theory of elasticity. This is primarily
because the shape of the spanner is complicated and you cannot define the outer
boundary in a convenient fashion for you to do a theory of elasticity solution. And in this
case, only a numerical solution is possible I do not have a close form expression, so I
have to solve this problem numerically.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 02:39)

And let us see how the numerical solution is, you have very rich set of results that you
get from a numerical solution. And in this case, the numerical method adopted is finite
element method and what you have done is, you have meshed the spanner and what you
find here is, this is the experimental fringe pattern and this is the simulated finite element
result of sigma 1 minus sigma 2 contours. And here I want to point out a few things,
when I do a numerical analysis I can get the stress field, I can get the strain field, I can
also get the displacements, and if you go to commercial packages you would be able to
plot specific contours.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:34)

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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

I have a sigma x contour and the software chooses its own colors, and then gives you an
indication the red means maximum and shade of blue what you have here, it goes to less
value of the stress information. You could see this without mesh; you could also see this
with mesh.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:14)

And for this you know you do not have to take the trouble of sketching it, because this is
too complicated for you to sketch, the idea is to visualize what way you have the
information available from a numerical solution. I have the mesh here and you have
nicely done mesh these are all quadrilateral elements, and I have the sigma x x stress
contour.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:30)

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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

Similarly, I can also get the sigma y y stress contour and I can also get Von Mises stress
contour.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:34)

And if you look at Von Misses in certain aspects it captures certain geometry features of
the photo elastic fringe, but the colors are totally different. Because the color is dictated
by the standard finite element software package and what was done was we have
developed in house software, what it will do is it will evaluate sigma 1 minus sigma 2.
And also mimic the colors you get an experiment and this is plotted and an approach like
this, helps you to quickly come to a understanding that you have very good comparison
between what you observe in the experiment and what you observed in the numerical
method.

And if you look at very closely I have these as a stress concentration region and what
you have got and what you see in the screen you know my students have taken little time
to apply the boundary condition appropriately, until the experimental fringe pattern
matches closely with the numerically simulated results. So, both the choice of elements,
discretization and also the boundary conditions are improved until you get a close match
between experiment and numerical solution.

So, you have this, what is the difference here? Here when I have to find out I can get
sigma x, but I can do this only by interpolation and based on final finite element
formulation, I cannot go to the location of the coordinates plug simply x coma y and get
these values directly. So that advantage you had in the case of analytical solution
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

analytical solution the main advantage is if you have a possibility to solve it analytically
there is nothing is equal to it, because the amount of computational effort required is
very small. I simply plug in x y, I get the value which I want. The moment I come to
numerical techniques, the greatest advantage is the shape of the geometry of the problem
on hand does not post any restriction, but you have to do a lot of computational effort.
But you get whole field information, so I can also get the strain field and till now you are
not seen a strain field as a plot. And this is with mesh and you can also see without mesh,
this is epsilon x x similarly, I can get epsilon y y I can also get shear strain epsilon x y
here. And I can also go and see the displacement field and this is what I get here I have
the u displacement; I also have the v displacement.

Comparison with photoelastic fringes

So, what I find here is when I have a numerical approach, I could get all the 15 quantities
comfortably, but the very important aspect is I must match what I have in the experiment
very closely by choosing the boundary conditions correctly. Once I have done this then I
have solved the problem satisfactorily and a parametric analysis is very convenient,
when I go for a numerical methodology. And what is seen here is here I have taken the
effort of plotting fringe contours, what you get in an experimental technique and that
requires special software to be developed, it is not readily available in standard packages
and we have this and this is best way to compare results of photoelasticity with the actual
experimentation.

When you do a numerical analysis, you can compare with photoelasticity comfortably
and what I also want emphasis at this stage is you know though we have taken simple
problems, we are gone and also studied in the process what are the approximations you
do, approximations you do in your analytical modeling. You know we have taken a beam
under four point bending and it bends like this, and it is a three dimensional object it as a
cross section. But what you have manage to do in strength of material is you just take it
as a line that is all do the analysis and when I go to theory of elasticity, you do not
consider that as a line, but you consider that as a two dimensional object. But in reality,
because you have fluxing, what you find here is you also have the Poisson’s ratio effect
becomes very prominent. And what you find here is this is the compression side and this
is the tension side. And this compression side bulges out because of Poisson’s ratio
effect, this may be very difficult model from analytical point of view, but experiment
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

looks at all this. So, when I get the fringe pattern, the fringe pattern is deflective of all the
three dimensional effect that happens in the model some you may have ignored it for the
point of view was simplicity.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:12)

So that is why I said that experiment is giving you truth, and we also notice the fringe
pattern observed in the beam. There was slight variation on the tension side and
compression side if you look at it in a subtle fashion, for a quick look it will appear as it
is a symmetric, but for a very closer look it will have small deviation which could be
neglected as a second order effects and carry on with it. So, the point emphasized here is
the moments you come to experiment do not discard the raw data.

Raw data is very important. You may have an explanation to understand what the raw
data means, if you do not have the explanation try to go and find out whether you have
made any approximation, whether you can refine any of this, whether because in
engineering what we do is we never want to solve a problem in three dimensional with
all the complexities. I also mentioned earlier the success of engineering is approximation
and if this possible I would like to work with a one dimensional solution, if one
dimensional solution is not feasible I will go for a two dimensional solution. Only we
have pushed to the wall that without three dimensional solution, you will not get
satisfactory result we go and attempt three dimensional solutions. The moment you go to
analysis of plates and shells it is actually three dimensional problem, you bring in plates
and shell theory approximation and try to live in two dimension, you do not want to go in
three dimensions so that is the knowledge that will you have to get.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

So, what we have done is till now, we have done three lectures on overview of
experimental analysis. In the first lecture we essentially looked at what is an analytical
method, what is a numerical method and what is an experimental method. The second
lecture the primary focus was, what is the information I get directly from an
experimental technique. The idea is you may be able to combine more than one
experimental technique and try to get out of 15 quantities some quantities of your
interest, but what you get directly is from the physics of the problem, physics of the
experimental technique on which it is based. And in the third lecture we try to look at
what a whole field information is because you have to graduate from stress as a tensor at
a point of interest, you have to go and find out how the stresses vary over the domain of
the model that was the primary focus. And now what we will do is we will go and find
out what is the physical principle each of the techniques is based on, now I am not going
to get in to the details of how to perform an experiment or how to interrupt data.

Physical principle behind various experimental techniques

(Refer Slide Time: 13:17)

My focus is only to bring out what is the basic physical information each of the
techniques is based upon and we will go from the technique like strain gauges to start
with, because this is the most widely used technique.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

Strain gauges

And as I have mentioned earlier in this you get component of strain along the gauge
length of the strain gauge is measured and here you have the typical enlarged view of the
strain gauge and you call this as the gauge length.

So, a strain gauge measures only component of strain, it is not measuring strain tensor.
And what I have is, to measure strain tensor I need to have three strain gauges, for you to
do it on a free surface and they have to be pre-aligned and you also have a name attached
to it. If you have three strain gauges on a single base to measure the strain tensor you call
it as the rosette, you call that as a rosette. And what you have here is you also have
special grid configuration you do not stop at only measurement of strain there may be
require requirements where you may want to directly find out shear stress or you may
want to find out principal stress or you may want to find out the residual stress
component. So, for all these cases you have special grid configured configuration exist.

And in this I am focusing my attention only on electrical resistance strain gauges and
there are many other the measure methods to measure strain you have mechanical strain
gauges, you have capacitance-based strain gauges and we confine our attention to
electrical resistance strain gauges.

And you have variety of them available and what you have to understand is it is a
versatile technique and general-purpose stress analysis tool. Because if you are working
an adverse condition then also the methodology can be used, you can use strain gauges in
you know below the sea surface where you have under water pipe line or whether you
have offshore platforms you can do this, many techniques may not able to do it. On the
other hand, if you want to find out what happens on the top of the TV tower I can put a
strain gauge and I can have telemetry and then acquire data.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 16:10)

So, it is a very versatile technique, it is very widely used and as I also caution you earlier
it has been used with care. And what you see here is you have an array of strain gauges
for various applications and this you have a hole so this is meant for residual stress
component. And I mention strip gauges, this is what a strip gauges you have a series of
strain gauges available in a strip and likewise you have varied grid configuration
available.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:40)

This is from various manufacturers who have given this and what is the physical
principle this technique is based on. And it was reported way back in 1856, it was
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

reported by Lord Kelvin and he found out a relationship between strain and the
resistance of wire conductors.

So, what he found was, when the resistance changes, the resistance changes as a
function of the stress applied. It was the very exciting information, so the resistance does
not remain constant it is a function of stress. So, it gives a scope, to measure stress or
strain from the strain gauge, if it is only that then the whole instrumentation would have
been much simpler, but what you find the resistance of a conductor also changes as a
function of temperature. So, you have a problem .so you have a problem the resistance is
a function of the stress applied is comfortable for strain analysis or stress analysis, but
resistance is also a function of temperature gives you disturbance. And if you look at the
technological development, you have to look at how this temperature effect is taken care
of.

So, what you find is addressing the temperature effect is important in the accurate
measurement of strain. And if you look at from the physical principle as a technology it
took almost 80 years to translate the physical principle to an effective measurement tool.
Why this is so because you need to develop technologies where I delineate the effect of
temperature and measure only the strain information. Whatever the resistance change is
because of strain and it should be easily available for many people to use it and it took so
much time and recently it also celebrated the 50th year of metal foil strain gauges. And
what you have now is the technology is very well developed and you can measure 1
micro strain reliably known, very precise technique. And mind you 1 micro strain is 1
into 10 power minus 6 very small quantity, that that is another reason why the
technology took so much time not only the temperature effect you are measuring very
small quantity you should be sensitive to that, you are measuring 10 power minus 6. And
you have to have certain level of confidence in the measurement, that is why the
technology took a very long time to settle down and now we can measure 1 micro strain
comfortable.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 20:01)

So what is the physical principle here, resistance changes as the function of the stress
apply.

Photoelasticity

Then we move on to photoelasticity and though in this course we will study in detail
photo elasticity, right now we will confine our attention only to the physical principle
and also bring out you have a transmission arrangement. And this you had seen in the
beginning of the lecture also that you have a 2D model of a human femur which is
analyze by transmission photoelasticity and you also have a reflection arrangement and
the reflection arrangement is useful for prototype analysis.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 20:37)

And what you have here is, I have a cantilever beam and I have a hole and I put a
coating, the coating has the property of stress strain induced birefringence. So, I can get
the fringe pattern like this, so the basic physics behind photoelasticity is temporary or
stress or strain induced birefringence is, the physical principle used is the phenomenon of
temporary, because it does not stay once the stresses are removed this birefringence
effect is also removed. So it see what you are having is you are understand birefringence
all that will come when you understand crystal optics, and what we have seen in the last
class was without getting into crystal optics, you have plotted for the problem of a beam
under four point bending, how the contours are sigma 1 minus sigma 2 will look like,
you saw the mesh horizontal lines and it matched with what you had seen in the
experiment. So, what you have here is the physical principle is stress or strain induced
birefringence which is temporary.

The moment I removed the loads these effects vanish and you have many developments
that have taken place in photoelasticity. The photoelasticity is a very versatile technique
like strain gauges and in fact in 1930s people when they were developing theory of
elasticity many of those solutions were actually verified by experiments using
photoelasticity.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 22:28)

And that is what we are going to see and what we have here is, so you need crystal
optics is desirable to appreciate, but we have already said that you can do it by this one.
And what you do here is you use a polarized beam of light for revealing the stress
information, and the optics required is fairly simple and fringes are seen in real time this
is very important, if you go to any one of the experimental technique for example, if you
go to holography you will have a double exposure, only after processing you will know
how the fringes are?

So, you do not have any guidance on while applying the load whether the load
symmetry is maintained all that you will not be able to know, but with developments
with computer-based processing you could make even those techniques in real time. So,
when you look at any of the whole field optical techniques, one of the aspects you look
forward is it providing fringe information in real time and photoelasticity does that. And
data interpretation to physical parameters is easily possible for thin specimens. And the
key point here is under normal incidence that will have to keep in mind if you are having
a curved object then what you need to do is, you must immerse it in a liquid which has
same refractive index as that and ensure that you have normal incidence.

See when you go to the final aspects of any of the techniques there will be restrictions.
So, it is a tool and how could you use the tool you get the information, so whatever the
experimental technique you look at, you have to look at if it is positive aspects as well as
it is limitation, within that constraint you should employ those experimental techniques.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

And I have mentioned the data interpretation is easy for thin specimen under normal
incidence; you will appreciate only when you go to other techniques how difficult the
data interpretation is?

(Refer Slide Time: 24:53)

In this case is so simple that we will establish it based on crystal optics at a later point in
the course. We have already seen from solid mechanics point of view that you get sigma
1 minus sigma 2 contours. And this technique has advanced mainly, because you have a
unique technique called stress freezing, very interesting, very interesting aspect. And that
has made the application of this technique to three dimensional industrial problems, you
know analyzing the problem as a whole is very difficult and what you do here is you take
the advantage of analyzing the problem as the whole at the same time from analysis point
of view you still ill live in two dimensions by slicing the model in to thin slices.

So what you have here is many industrial problems whatever the engines that you see
across, whatever the nuclear reactors you come across the all gone through mandatory
three dimensional photoelastic analysis. That is why the designs have become perfect,
and designers particularly once the design has stabilized they would be very hesitant to
change anything, because of any changes they would affected, there would be a history.

Once it is optimized and stabilized there no want to change it, and in those stages, you
need very good tools for you to give the pertinent information, if somebody copies your
design does not different matter he does not require any test. Once a person who
develops the design from fundamentals, he needs to go through experimental methods,
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

he needs to worry about analytical understanding, he needs to use numerical techniques

appropriately and arrive at a final design. And if you look at in early stages three
dimensional photoelasticity has placed very significant role and particularly because of a
very interesting phenomena called stress freezing.

We will see that detail later, now you are being sensitize on what are the possibilities. So,
this is what in the case of transmission photoelasticity, on the reflection photoelasticity
side people have also developed a spraying technique to put the birefringence coating on
large industrial components. One of the components that people do is aircraft landing
gear which is very huge and they still do structural optimization based on photoelastic
analysis. And this model will typically cover a two to three story building height, it is not
a small model you are actually working on in a, suppose they want to develop A380,
they would have only rig for the previous version A320 or A330 or A370. And they
would use that loading jig to make a three dimensional photoelastic model, put up a
coating and do some structural optimization then finally, then develop the landing gear
and put it in loading rig and finally verify. So, it is done for huge problems on one
spectrum, on the other spectrum in dental mechanics if you find they put a flaw, they put
a wire which goes around your tooth to hold it in place, those clamps are also analyzed
by photoelasticity.

So, it is a very small model, on the other hand you have a very huge aircraft landing
gear. So, the range is very vast and it depends on the user, how he uses the technique and
like strain gauges its versatile general-purpose stress analysis tool. And when you go to
each of the technique what you find there are many branches, this is only a first level
course on experimental stress analysis, I would essentially focus on strain gauges and
photoelasticity, because they are most versatile but we will have occasions to look at the
physical principle behind other techniques.

Because each technique by itself is very vast, if we take photoelasticity, we are looked at
only two variations one is transmission photoelasticity, another is reflection
photoelasticity. If you go to photoelastic literature you have dynamic photoelasticity, you
have photoplasticity, you have scatter light photoelasticity, you have integrated
photoelasticity and there are many branches. And now you have digital photoelasticity
you have many branches to cover all are them in a single course is beyond in a human
effort.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 29:45)

So, need to do multiple courses and what you have here is photoelasticity is always an
ideal tool for teaching the field nature of stresses to beginners. And here I must tell you,
you know stress concentration you all know right now, I have a plate with a circular
hole, I have a plate with an elliptical hole and I have a plate with a crack. Now anybody
in engineering will know what is stress concentration is, but if you look at the history
people had, mathematician and stress analysis had acrimonious debate, mathematician
use to say an infinite plate with the small hole is equivalent to a plate without a hole and
only with experimental judgment and other aspects they were able to convince whole lot
of things happen the moment I introduces stress concentration.

So, people understood there is something stress concentration which you cannot
neglected and really when you look at what you find here is I have a uniform stress field
if I do not have a hole. The moment I have a hole the stress field becomes biaxial, it is
the stress field is also, the stress magnitude is very high in this zone and also in this zone
this is one thing the stress concentration means stress magnitude increase that is one
thing, it just not that, even the stress field essentially changes.

And it was Inglis in 1913 who said that when we can analyze an elliptical hole he could
do that by theory of elasticity. His result showed crack is not innocent and crack is
potentially dangerous; that is the time the fracture mechanics was not developed and a
new branch of engineering, fracture mechanics came into existence, at once people
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

understood that the cracks are more dangerous. And what you see here is you know I
have a crack and crack where you have the least amount of material is removed.

And suppose I take the load as 6 in all the cases I have a plate with circular hole, I have
a plate with elliptical hole, I have a crack and you do not need to explain you see, you
see very few fringes here, you see slightly more number of fringes here, and you see a I
have not put that the 6, I put that the seven I this is when I put that the 6 you have a large
number of fringes here. So, if you have an appreciation of looking at fringe information
the density indirectly indicates the stress levels are high. So, for a beginner you get the
field nature, you understand what is stress concentration and you may wonder you know
I have an elliptical plate, all these cases are finite geometry, I have a finite width and I
have a circular hole.

Analytically what I could do is, I could do infinite plate with very small circular hole
and here I will have polar coordinates to determine the boundary condition on the inner
surface. And when I go to elliptical hole you have elliptic coordinates to specify the
boundary condition on the inner surface, at infinity you could consider as a large ellipse,
you could consider as a large circle that is a way you can approach a solution. So, for
infinite plate with small circular hole, infinite plate with small elliptical hole, you have
analytical solution possible and this goes by the person who as first solve the problem
you have this as Cauchy’s problem in theory of elasticity, this as Inglis problem. And
once you come here many have contributed Wester guard’s solution is very prominent,
William’s solution is very prominent. So, in theory of elasticity when they analyze
infinite geometry with any one of these defects or cutouts you have a name attached to
those problem.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 34:16)

So photoelasticity is very good to understand stress concentration, to understand the field

nature, without much effort you are able to get it. And you get a closer picture when I
have a look at it like this, make a, some of you in this sketch and I would like you to
make a sketch of it. And the essential features you know you have this kind of fringe
field and you have a fringe field like this, you have fringes forward tilted and so on and
so forth.

Grids for determining plastic strains

(Refer Slide Time: 35:01)

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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

So now what we will do is, we will move on to the next experimental technique, we have
already seen that moiré is what we have used for finding out the displacement
information. And we will see what moiré is all about and what I am interested to show
here is, moiré has an effect of magnifying the displacement that is a way I am going to
look at it.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:20)

And what you have here is in the case of metal forming processes what they have is they
have a billet and they will put a grid. You can see the grid here these are known as grid
lines and what I have is when I do the metal forming operation I do a large plastic
deformation.

So, I am really taking of a very high value of strain and in this you do not require fine
measurement even these grids deform like this. So, you get very valuable information on
the nature of strain field from this. So, you have very large plastic deformation and for
all this metal processing application people use the grid method, because that itself to
sufficient to give you some information. And you could see here I have the grid initially
and I have the final grid so much deformed.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 36:25)

So, I can really make some kind of quantitative information from this and in fact the
credit for this goes to Professor Venugopal, of the manufacturing where the material and
metallurgical engineering department IIT madras. And what you have seen is the
gudgeon pin that is what this information shows and so people have always look at they
put a grid, they always wanted how to go and find out very small deformation, this is for
large deformation is.

Geometric Moiré

(Refer Slide Time: 36:57)

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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

Now what people did is, people also to simplify strain measurement, what you can do is
you can have a not only the grid, in the grid you also put a circle.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:14)

I will show a magnified view and then you see the animation for two three times, you
will have an appreciation I have a circle, I have circles mark and they become ellipses,
circle marked become ellipses. Can you see that so what you find is you also find the
stretch direction you also find the stretch direction and by looking at the change in the
geometry of the circle, you will also be able to find out some information about the
major strain axis, minor strain axis and so on and so forth. So you are able to, from the
grid if you also put a circle it is advantageous, so I have a circle that gets deform to an
ellipse.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 38:07)

And now what I am want to do is people fell that, of just using a one grid, if I have more
than one grid it makes it little more comfortable that is how moiré started developing.
And what you find here is I have a specimen, on the specimen I have a grid and I view it
through another grid like this. And what you find here is I have stretched it slightly, but I
see a play of fringes on the specimen I am able to see the fringes they are horizontal
fringes.

Demonstration of fringes due to translation and rotation of gratings of

various types

So, what we have found is people have used initially grids then they improvised it and
put within the grid a circle you get little more information from the deformed picture of
the grid. Then they realize that if I put not one grid, but I put one grid on the specimen
and view it by another grid I get little more information and somebody ask me what is
the grating in one of the classes where we said what moiré gives you directly. And what
you have here is, this is the grating this is the grating here and this is nothing but
horizontal bars here and when I put another grating which is very similar, you see
beautiful fringes where I rotate them relatively. So, what you have here is it is by
mechanical interference you see these fringes. Moiré is not a optical interferometric
techniques it is the mechanical interference of the grid and that what you get it. So, I get
this when I rotate it relative to the other I also get it when I translate it with respect to.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 40:21)

So, the idea here is, I get these nice patterns and I can interpret appropriately if I conduct
the experiment very carefully. Here I have shown very course grid, suppose I have fine
grids, suppose I have fine grids I have, you are, you are not able to see the grid lines at
all and the fringes are lot smoother, the fringes are lot smoother if I have these the grids
finer and finer. And here I am not making any stress analysis, I am only showing you
mechanical interference of true grid patterns and the grid pattern can be anything and I
have this and I have I have radial lines.

(Refer Slide Time: 40:52)

And when I put the radial lines so beautiful may be in Tata salt I thing they have this as
the pattern for, on that cover. So, in you know if you do saree design or anything, if you
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

want have interesting pattern, you could get from some of this information and do it. I
am just translating and rotating the grids with respect to each other, I get nice play of
patterns. And what you have to look at is you have to develop these experimental
techniques for you to extract information, and like friction moiré is nuisance. Friction is
a nuisance of our application, friction is needed in braking unit friction without friction
you cannot have brakes.

(Refer Slide Time: 41:46)

So, you do not want friction in certain application where the IC engine you have this
piston ring moves you want this way as smooth as possible. And now you have another
set of get pattern where I have concentric circle and I and when I move the both the grids
I get different set of patterns.

So, what you have here is this is called a grating and one is pasted on to this specimen
and view it with the another one. So, I have a master grating and specimen grating, so
what we come here is if you look at this diagram very carefully, compare that this is the
simulation where I have some control on what way I move the specimen grating. And
here the specimen grating is the checked pattern, I have reason for it because I also
mention in some application I get only one information and some application I will do
one experiment I will try to get two information we will see that. And what you find here
is this most slightly, but I see a number of fringes, so indirectly you can understand that
its some sort of a magnification effect that moiré helps you to measure.

Grating details – u and v displacements

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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 43:08)

So, I want to measure very small deformation and moiré helps better than the grid, and if
I want to go for finer and finer information I need to have finer and finer grids. So, moiré
fringe spacing are, fringes are spaced broadly indicating a magnifying effect to measures
small deformations that cause the formation of the fringes. And if I want improve the
accuracy I need to have finer and finer gratings that is what I want to do.

(Refer Slide Time: 43:42)

So, if I have a finer grating, I have a better chance of measuring small deformation. And
what you have here is I have two grids, I have this I called as master grating. This
attached to the specimen which is pulled, because of Poisson’s ratio effect the thickness
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

comes down, and you see horizontal, you see horizontal fringes as well as vertical
fringes.

So that means what you have to interpret horizontal fringes separately, because you
always seen I have a grating. Whatever the fringes perpendicular to the grating direction
you will find out whether the grating is aligned in x direction and you get the v
displacement, if the grating is align in the y direction you get the u displacement. Here I
have the cross grating so I get simultaneously u and v displacement.

And you know strain is a tensor once I get displacement information I can also find out
the slope that is nothing but the strain. And if I want to strain tensor I need three
information, people also have developed a grid at 45 degrees super impose over that.
And I also caution you know the experimental is develop the technique they develop it
and see what maximum information get out of it. But from a user point of view and data
interpretation point of view it always better that you have one information at a time.
Because you get much better information when you want to do that, so the finest of the
grid spacing determines the accuracy obtainable in moiré and that what we shown in here
and let us look at some numbers.

(Refer Slide Time: 45:18)

So, what you find is if you look at the moiré literature, the grid line spacing how fine it
is was the very big challenge for scientist to develop and when you think of moiré you
cannot forget the contribution by Daniel Post and its co workers they are developed the
technique very well. And as a grating density is increased I will also have do bring in
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

diffraction effect for interpretation, what we find is grid you can easily analyze and I can
have some grating, I can use just the geometric information and then interpret the fringes
that is what you call the geometric moiré. Suppose geometric moiré we will find the
limitation for me to make finer measurement I need to go finite number of lines then you
find from optics point of view diffraction effect have to be brought in a do for
interpretation.

So, the interpretation becomes little involved, as you go by fortunately whatever the
equation that you develop in geometric moiré also equally applicable for moiré
interferometry. And what will do is, we decide this based on the line per millimeter if
you have 40 lines per millimeter up to that, you can interpret is based on geometric moiré
principle and displacement resolution is of the order of 25 micrometer. And 40 line per
millimeter is very fine that result is very fine that is not a, you, you imagine you have
millimeter is so small and within that you have a 40 lines black and white lines. So, it is
not something very high, some you it is very fine and you have not worry about that and
what you can do is from moiré data strain has to be obtain by numerical differentiation.

So, it is better that you go for moiré interferometry where you have finer displacement
measurement. On let me ask suppose I want to measure 1 percent of strain, thus 1
percent look small or big you go to a bank and ask for a loan, if he says 1 percent you
will definitely go and take the loan, because you find 1 percent is small. But it all the
some of the smart mans what they do is they 1 percent it, but 1 percent per month that
means 12 percent per year. Okay, On the other hand if somebody gives you 1 percent as
your interest for your investment, you will never put the money. 1 percent in strain
analysis is small or big, some says small, if not so it is a very huge value and what I want
to caution here is I said that long time back I said the example of somebody going to a
doctor.
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

(Refer Slide Time: 48:36)

And then finding out whether 1.1,105-degree temperature is small or big he should not
refer encyclopedia and when you have difficulties in finding out the yield point which is
not mark sharply, then what you do is you have the offset method and then you locate the
yield point on the curve stress strain curve. I have an alloy steel which is pulled here and
I have the stress strain data and this is what I have I do not see very clearly the
demarcation of the going from elastic to plastic, it is very smooth.

(Refer Slide Time: 49:24)

What is usually done is you draw a offset at 0.2 percent and 0.2 percent corresponds to
2000 micro strain. And what you have here is I have this as the proportional limit and
this as the elastic limit and you have the yield strength. So, what you find is at 2000
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

micro strain the material has yielded, but you permit that for you to find out what is the
yield strength of the material, when you are not able to accurately locate it in your stress
strain curve. And many actual components they work under you know I have the
component interacting with one another and I have can’t launch strain, I have to live
much below 2000 micro strain.

So, typically you will live within thousand micro strain also you will not cross that strain
in many of your mechanical and aerospace components where you have matting
members and you cannot have large deformation there. So, 1 percent of strain looks
small, but it is not small in strain analysis point of view, because at 0.2 percent of strain
the material has yielded. So many of these techniques you know, you work only regions
beyond yield, so I have to come and measure lower strain then I have to improve my
experimental refinement, data acquisition and how do I do the experiment so on and so
forth. And that is what is done that is what is done in the case of moiré.

(Refer Slide Time: 51:06)

So, what you find here is, strain sensitivity can be improved with high density gratings,
and what you find is 2400 lines per millimeter is now possible. It is the theoretical limit;
people have achieved the theoretical limit by real hard work. And with such high-density
grating, I can measure 0.417 micrometer, but look at other thing. if I have 1 fringe is 1
millimeter, moiré fringe spacing is 1 millimeter, the strain accuracy is only 417 micro
strain. And I said we want to work much below 1000 micro strain. So, moiré
interferometry has a limitation, it cannot go below a certain level. So, it is good for large
deformation problem, it may not be good for small strain measurement, but certain
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

specific applications the method of moiré is very, very good. So that is where you know
domain of application you have to find out.

So, what you find here is the grating pitch of this high order has been used, and like I
said you have various photoelastic methods, I have geometric moiré that is what you had
seen in some of those simple examples. Then you have several variations, you have
shadow moiré, you have a reflection moiré, you have projection moiré, which cater to
different field problems. And if you recall, we had seen a reflection moiré has been used
for finding out the curvature in the last class. And geometry moiré is useful to find in-
plane as well as out-of-plane displacement and also slope in bending of plates.

So, you have to use particular kind of moiré for a particular application, like you use
reflection photoelasticity for prototype analysis, you will also use if I want to find out,
out-of-plane displacement, I will go for a geometric moiré, I will go for shadow moiré,
and then if I want to find out curvature or slope, I will have to use appropriate moiré
method. And if I want to have finer and finer measurement, I will go for moiré
interferometry, I can go for very small measurement of strain. And do you have any
questions at this stage.

Yeah

You have said that moiré is significantly used for large deformation, could it be used for
small deformation?

yes

We will see that later, you may know if you look at IC chips a lot of thermal stresses are
developed, if you go and look at any one this electronic packaging people are now
develops semiconductor technology would to the extend you can pack as many
transistors in a very, very small place. But one of the challenging problems there is the
heat generation, how would the heat generation be dissipated. And people have done
very experimental approach using method of moiré to find out the stresses on the IC
chips, the legs and all those electronic packaging components. If you want to look at that
moiré is only technique which can reveal that, so you have to select the technique for a
given application. Now you have digital image correlation you have grid method these
are all for large deformation problem, but for small deformation you have to use if you
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Video lecture on Experimental Stress Analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh, IIT Madras

are able to use a strain gauge well and good I go up to 1 micro strain. But I cannot put a
strain gauge on electronic packaging, because that is comparable in size. So, you will not
do that and if I want still finer measurement I will go for holography and find out very
small displacement, for Nano mechanics people use holography very well. So, there is
nothing like one technique has to be patronized, other technique has to be dropped.

For the problem on hand, which techniques is ideal that is one issue; another issue is,
whether you have the facilities to do that, you may have a technique available in the
literature, but you should also have the facilities, because experimental facilities are
expensive. And you may want to design answer yesterday, that is how industries come,
they want result yesterday; when they come today, they want result yesterday. So, you
have to solve the problem in a very shortest possible time. So, we will also discuss
towards the end of overview of experimental analysis, a detailed discussion on, how do
you go about selecting different techniques? Very general guidelines; you may not have
there is nothing like one to one matching for you to find out, the technique for a
particular problem, you can have multiple techniques, so it depends on various factors.
Thank you.