MSU-General Santos

Agricultural Engineering Review

2018

Meteorology & Hydrology

Prepared By: ER Lapong
Weather – atmospheric condition over a short duration,
particularly the combination of heat, moisture and wind
characteristics of the atmosphere in a day

Climate – the total weather condition of an area as

generalized over a long period of time, i.e. seasons,
years, decades
Position of the earth
Insolation – incoming sunlight
Albedo – fraction of the incident radiation that is reflected by
an object

 An average of 1/3 (34%) of the isolation is reflected back,

19% absorbed by the atmosphere and 47% absorbed by
the earth’s surface.

Common albedo values:

snow = 0.81 ~
clouds = 0.17-0.81
forests = 0.03-0.10
dark dry sand = 0 – 0.18
Solstice and Equinox

Solstice – the period when the sun is farthest from the earth
(δ=23.450)
Equinox – sun’s position makes day and night equal
- sun is directly above the observer
(δ=0)

  284  n 
  23.45 sin 360 
  365 
where: (-23.450 ≤ δ ≤ 23.450)
n = days of the year (Jan.1=1, Dec.31=365)
 * Days get * Nights get
longer shorter

* Days get
shorter * Nights get
longer
Spring Tide

• Stronger high and low tides

• During new and full moon (earth, moon and sun are
parallel or in-line)
• Moon’s pull is supplemented or offset by sun’s gravity.
Neap Tide

• Smaller high and low

tides
• Moon is in the 1st and
3rd quarter (forms
900with the sun)
• Moon’s pull is
stronger but the sun’s
gravity lessens it.
Wind system and pressure belts (general circulation of
the atmosphere)
Kinds of climate:
1. Macroclimate – climate that prevail over a large region of the
earth’s surface
2. Mesoclimate – areas up to several square miles (e.g. river valleys,
mountain areas, watersheds and basins, shores,
urban areas)
3. Microclimate – over short distances, or within few feet or inches (e.g.
streets, immediate plant surroundings, garden plot)
Structure of the Atmosphere
Exosphere

Thermosphere/Ionosphere

Mesosphere
(UV Rays, cosmic rays, meteors)

(Ozone Maximum)
Stratosphere

Troposphere (most clouds, 4/5 of mass))

Temperature
Rainbows,
Halos

Mirages,
Rainbows,
Halos

Sky Color,
Crepuscular
Rays, Coronas,
Glories

Coronas,
Iridescence
• Monsoon – large-scale, seasonal version of the diurnal
sea/land breeze that occurs along many coast,
especially Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean
It was first applied to winds over the Arabian Sea
which blow 6 months from NE and 6 months from SW.
Fronts - are air-mass boundaries that lie along line of
low pressure

Cold Front - the cold air

advances and the warm
air retreats
Warm Front - the warm air
advances and the cold air
retreats
Occluded Front - combination Stationary Front - temporarily
of the warm and cold front, fixed boundary between polar
where cold air overtakes and and tropical air
lifts the warm front masses
Terms for Typhoons:
Typhoon – North and South Pacific
Cyclone – Indian Ocean
Hurricane – in North Atlantic and Carribean Sea
Willy-willy – Australia and Oceania
Cyclone/Typhoon/Hurricane - storm in a region of low
surface pressures
Development of Tropical Cyclone:
1. Low Pressure Area
2. Tropical Disturbance
3. Tropical Depression – winds up to 63 kph
2. Tropical Storm – wind velocity of 64-119 kph
3. Tropical cyclone/typhoons – winds velocity 120-240 kph
- are large rotating storms ranging from 100-1,600 km in
diameter and accompanied by violent, destructive winds,
heavy rains, and high tide
5. Supertyphoon – sustained winds of at least 240 kph
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
Low pressure area around equator where prevailing winds
are calm.
*Convergence of trade winds.
Major data collected in a Standard Agromet Station:
- rainfall
- temperature (atmospheric and soil)
- atmospheric pressure
- relative humidity
- wind data
- solar radiation
- evaporation

- phenological observations (crop growth and

production data, animal diseases outbreak,
insect population and infestation, etc.)
Phenology – the study of animal and plant life cycle as
affected by seasonal variations of climate
 A = 20 cm (8”)
1
area  AREA
10
a
 1  2 
d h
2
 D H
4 10  4 

The actual rainfall depth is magnified 10 times in

the collecting cylinder.
The condensation into water droplets and sublimation into ice
crystals of atmospheric water vapor generally occur around
condensation or sublimation nuclei.
Principal types of these nuclei
a. Dusts
b. ocean salt
c. products of combustion and
oxides of nitrogen
d. Other particulate matter
(less than a micron in diameter)
The initial process in the formation of precipitation is the
condensation or sublimation of atmospheric moisture.

Causes of condensation or sublimation

1) adiabatic cooling
2) mixing of air masses of varying temperatures
3) radiation cooling
4) contact cooling
Adiabatic /dynamic cooling

Is the primary cause of condensation and hence, is responsible for

most precipitation.

Adiabatic cooling results mainly from expansion of air mass which

results from a decrease in atmospheric pressure.

Adiabatic cooling is triggered primarily

by the upward or vertical motion of air
masses. As a result, storm or
precipitation events are usually
classified according to the conditions
that cause this upward motion.
The initial process in the formation of precipitation is the
condensation or sublimation of atmospheric moisture.

Causes of condensation or sublimation

1) adiabatic cooling
2) mixing of air masses of varying temperatures
3) radiation cooling
4) contact cooling
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

1. Convective precipitation

2. Orographic precipitation

3. Cyclonic precipitation
1. Convective Precipitation
This type of precipitation results from the differential heating of air
masses near the ground surface resulting in the upward movement
of warmer air masses.

A heated air mass moving

upward is cooled down by the
surrounding air and by the
expansion process. Cooling
brings about condensation
which may develop into
precipitation.
 May be in the form of light showers to cloudburst or
thunderstorm depending on the temperature and
moisture conditions

 Convective precipitation are usually highly localized

and of short duration.

 Typical of the tropics

2. Orographic precipitation

Precipitation influenced by topography

Moist air masses moving
over mountain barriers are
cooled, resulting in
condensation and
precipitation. Such air
masses get dry and warm
as they move downslope
on the leeward side of the
mountain barriers.
The influence of this type of
precipitation on the climate of
many areas in the Philippines
is very significant considering
that the Philippines is
mountainous and made up of
a chain of many islands

Orographic types of rainfall are usually of very

low intensity.
 3. Cyclonic precipitation

Are associated with the movement of air masses due

to differences in barometric pressure

This type of precipitation is

triggered by the presence of a
low pressure into which air flow
converges resulting in the lifting
and subsequent cooling of air
masses.

In most parts of the Philippines, more than 80% of the total rainfall
are attributable to cyclonic precipitation.
a. Annual Series
- only the largest event for each year is selected for analysis

Application:
When the design is controlled by the most critical condition,
such as the design of spillway, the annual series should be used.
b. Partial Duration Series
All values above a given base are chosen regardless of the number
within a given time period.
Application:
An example is the design of farm drainage in which the
damage may be due to the extent of flooding, which in turn
may be caused by associated peak flows.

* The annual and partial

duration series give
essentially identical results
for recurrence intervals
greater than ten years.
 Class A Evaporation Pan measurement is highly correlated
with the potential evapotranspiration of the surrounding area.

Stilling Well

120 cm (47.5”) 25 cm
(10”)

Class A Evaporation Pan

Class A Evaporation Pan installation requirements:

 Galvanized iron Gage 20

 Operating water level depth: 175~200 mm

(water level kept at 50~75 mm from the rim)

 Installed 150-mm from the ground on wooden

stand/platform

 Measuring stick is 1.0 m and accuracy of 0.02 mm.

Aquifers - formations having structures that permit
appreciable water to move through them under ordinary
field conditions (e.g. sand)
Aquiclude is an impermeable formation which may
contain water but is incapable of transmitting significant
water quantities (e.g. clay)

Aquifuge is an impermeable formation that neither

contain nor transmit water (e.g. solid granite)
The specific retention, Sr, of soil is the ratio
expressed as a percentage of the volume of water it
will retain after saturation against the force of gravity
to its own volume.

The water which can be drained is expressed as the

specific yield, Sy.
Precipitation is that part of atmospheric
moisture that falls on the earth surface.

It is primary input into the hydrologic cycle.

Forms of Precipitation:
a. Rain
b. Snow
c. Sleet
d. hail
Rain and Shower (rain shower)

Showers come from cumuliform clouds – cumulus and

cumulonimbus.

Showers can be showers of rain, snow or hail but if snow

or hail is expected it is named directly.

“Showers” by itself always means showers of rain.

Showers are bursts of rain e.g. a rain shower of

say 5 mins, followed by a dry spell, then another
rain shower of 10 mins. etc.
Rain and Drizzle

Rain comes from stratiform cloud (altostratus and

nimbostratus)

Drizzle comes from stratus cloud which is very low level

cloud, often lifted fog.

Drizzle is defined by its size, the droplets always with a

diameter of less than 0.5mm. Larger than that, they are
raindrops. The maximum size of a raindrop is 5-6mm.
 Estimation of missing precipitation data

Normal-ratio method - seasonal and annual rainfall magnitudes

1  Nx Nx Nx 
Px   PA  PB  Pc 
3  NA NB NC 
where:
Px = estimated precipitation total for station x (with missing records)
NA,NB, NC = the normal precipitation totals for the index stations A, B, C
for the desired time periods
Nx = normal precipitation at station x for the desired time periods
PA, PB, PC = precipitation totals for the desired time period for the three
index stations
In this method, the three nearest stations with long years of
records are chosen as index stations.

Note:
If the normal precipitation in each of these three index stations is
within 10% of that for the station with the missing record, a
simple arithmetic average of the precipitation totals of the index
stations for the time period in question will suffice.
 Computation of Areal Precipitation

1. Arithmetic Averages
The simplest of the area averaging methods, this involves averaging arithmetically
all the rain amounts measured by the raingages within the area. This method,
however, assumes uniform gage coverage of the area and linear variations in
rainfall in between any two gaging stations.
2. Thiessen method

The method assumes

that the rainfall in an
area may be taken as
similar to that recorded
in the nearest gaging
station.
 3. Isohyetal method

In this method, the rainfall

depths recorded in all the
stations in and around an area
of interest are plotted on a
map of desirable scale. By
interpolation, lines of equal
rainfall depths or isohyets,
considerations may be given to
various factors influencing the
precipitation over an area
(e.g., orographic effects).
 Advantages Disadvantages
A. ARITHMETIC AVERAGE
1. Fast and easy 1. Ignores orographic effects
2. Objective 2. Uses only stations within the
basin
3. Accurate to extent controlled 3. Gives poor results if stations
by gage density are unequally distributed
4. Subject to only slight error in (which is the general case)
computation
 Advantages Disadvantages
B. THIESSEN METHOD
1. Stations are weighted 1. Requires some skills at drawing
according to area Thiessens
controlled
2. Utilizes stations outside 2. Slow
basin
3. Objective 3. Orography generally ignored
4. Stations have fixed areas of control
5. Requires more computations.
Therefore, subject to more errors.
 Advantages Disadvantages
C. ISOHYETAL METHOD
1. Possible to account for topography 1. Subjective
2. Gives best results (most accurate) 2. Slow
3. Takes advantage of unequal gage 3. Requires some training and skill
density
4. Utilizes stations outside basin 4. Subject to possible large errors due
5. For large basins it is possible to to number of computations
determine contributing area. Very
important in streamflow analysis
6. Results can be utilized in
transportation techniques
7. Easy at a glance to see rainfall
pattern
Frequency distributions or probability density curves:

Normal
Log-normal
Gamma
Poisson
Pearson types
 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

A distribution where its cumulative forms can be expressed as straight

lines by the use of the special abscissa scale which is derived from
the characteristics of the normal distribution.

Many phenomena in nature follow this distribution and

hydrologic events are not exceptions.

The variability of the distributions is indicated by the slope of the

cumulative distribution; that is, the greater the variability, the
greater the slope.
Positive or negatively skewed distributions
Positive or negatively skewed distributions
 LOG-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

The utility of the log-normal

distribution arises from the
fact that many classes of data
form a skewed distribution
close to normal results. This
distribution has found a place
in many different fields of
science.
PEARSON TYPE III DISTRIBUTION
- considers the skewness of the logarithmically transformed
hydrologic data

Compared to the log-normal distribution, it has a wider

range of application.

The log-normal is just a special case of the Pearson Type III

distribution; that is when the skewness of the transformed
data is zero.
Types of Evapotranspiration
 Combined Mass Transport and Energy Balance

Penman (1948) mainly for estimating evaporation for an open water surface.
On the basis of this equation, other workers such as Van Bavel (1966)
developed an equation for estimating potential evapotranspiration.

Penman equation is so far the most theoretically sound equation for

estimating potential evapotranspiration (PET).

It is sometimes referred to as the combination equation because it combines

the effects of heat transfer and air mass movement in transporting water
molecules from evaporating or transpiring surfaces into the atmosphere.
In compatible but mixed system of units, Penman Equation may be
expressed as:

H  0.27 Ea
Et 
  0.27

Et = potential evapotranspiration in mm of water per day

H = heat budget at the evapotranspiring surface in mm of
water per day
Δ = slope of the saturated vapor pressure curve of air at
absolute temperature in oF in mm-Hg/oF.
Ea = evaporation (due to mass movement) in mm of
water per day
Penman Equation
Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo)

is the loss of water to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration from a

reference crop, usually a well-watered and mown lawn 100mm in height. By
applying a suitable coefficient, this value can be used to estimate the crop
evapotranspiration (ETc) and the evaporation losses from storage and reticulation
systems.

The ET rate is normally expressed in millimetres (mm) per unit time (mm/day)
– it represents the amount of water evaporated from a cropped surface
in units of water depth.
The evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by
the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo), which
represents the ET from a standardised vegetated surface
(well-watered grass).

Calculation of ETo is generally performed by automatic

weather stations, software packages or ET data providers
The current standard for calculating ETo is the Penman-Monteith method –
also referred to as the FAO 56 method. Calculations based on pan
evaporation are no longer used as the standard.
Hargreaves Radiation Equation
Pan Evaporation Equation
Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc)

describes the actual ET of a crop given standard conditions of

optimum soil water, excellent management conditions, large fields
and full production. Understanding and determining crop (ETc) is
critical for scheduling irrigations to meet the crops water use
demands and to optimise crop production.
Time of Concentration

tc = 0.0195L0.77S-0.385
where: L – maximum length of slope
S (watershed gradient) = (ΔElevation)/L
Important Properties of Runoff
Runoff hydrograph – a plot of runoff magnitude versus time.
Hydrograph properties and their relevance to water resources
engineering.
peak flow (qp) – magnitude of floods, design of structures such as
drainage canals, flood spillways and culverts

time to peak (tp) – flood warning time, watershed response, water

quality

runoff volume (V) – total water yield from a storm for a given
watershed

recession time – time for surface and interflow to recede, duration

of flooding

base flow → low flow, dependable flow, groundwater recharge

base time, tb : tb = tp + tr
 Perennial Flow

Intermittent Flow Ephemeral Flow

Basic Flood Hydrograph
1. Unconfined aquifer 2. Confined aquifer
- water table serves as the upper surface -where ground water is confined under
of the zone of saturation. pressure greater than atmospheric by
(also known as free, phreatic or non- overlaying, relatively impermeable
artesian aquifer.) strata
(also known as artesian or pressure
aquifer)

3. Perched aquifer
- occurs wherever a ground water body is
separated from the main ground water by a
relatively impermeable stratum of small
areal extent and by the zone of aeration
above the main body of ground water.
Piezometric surface or level of a confined aquifer is an
imaginary surface coinciding with the hydrostatic pressure level
of the water in the aquifer.

'Hydrostatic pressure' is the pressure exerted by a

fluid due to its weight.
Pumping Cone
(Cone of Depression)
– forms in the aquifer
around a pumping well as
the water level decline

Drawdown
– the decline in water level
Confined Aquifer

h0  hw
Q  2Kb
lnr 0 rw 
 Q r2 Q r2
K ln T ln
2bh2  h1  r1 2 h2  h1  r1
 Unconfined Aquifer

h h
2 2
Q  K 0 w

lnr0 rw 
Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Recharge

h h 
2
0
2 P 2
2K

r0  r 
2
ln
K r

Qw r0
 A well is 30 cm diameter and penetrates 50 m
below the static water level. After 36 hrs of pumping
at 4 m3/min, the water level in a test well 200 m
distant is lowered by 1.2 m and in a well 40 m away,
the drawdown is 2.7 m. What is the transmissivity of
the aquifer

a. 0.001 b. 0.12 c. 0.19 d. 1.01

Thiessen method

The method assumes

that the rainfall in an
area may be taken as
similar to that recorded
in the nearest gaging
station.
Recurrence interval, T,
- is defined as the average interval of time within which the
magnitude of a given variable is equaled or exceeded.

Probability of occurrence, P,
- which is defined as the percentage of observed events that
are equal to or greater than a given event within a period
of time.

Recurrence interval and probability of occurrence

are inversely proportional

Recurrence interval of an event with a probability of

occurrence of 0.05 would be 1/0.05 or 20 years.
 INFILTRATION EQUATION

An infiltration equation may be expressed as:

a. Instantaneous infiltration rate (f)

b. Cumulative infiltration rate (i)

1. Gardner and Windsoe Equation

i = C1t + C2 (1-eβt)

Where: i = cumulative infiltration at time t

C1, C2 and β = constants or parameters
2. Lewis-Kostiakov

i = ctα
f = αctα-1
Where: c and α are constants with the value
of α in between zero and unity
Lewis-Kostiakov equation implies that at t → ∞, f = 0. This
is only possible if the soil is underlain by an impermeable
layer. As such, the equation will only apply for soil
underlain with impervious layers or for small t values in
soils with pervious layers.

log i = log c + α log t

Hence, it will be very easy to test for the fit of infiltration test
data into this equation.
3. Horton Equation
Horton realized that infiltration rate is a decay type function
whereby continuous infiltration and wetting of the soil will
decrease infiltration due to decrease in soil profile storage
potential, inwashing of fine soil particles into soil voids and
swelling of soil colloids and closing of soil cracks.
All these processes have the nature of an exhaustion
phenomenon.
 fo  fc 
i  fc t   
 1  e  kt 
 k 
f = fc + (fo - fc)e-kt
4. Philip
Philip analyzed infiltration as a general phenomenon of water
movement in a porous medium. In particular, he described
vertical infiltration in terms of the partial differential equation,
The resulting equation is a rapidly converging series which
can be truncated after the first two terms without much loss in
accuracy. Thus,

i = St1/2 + At
S 1 / 2
f  t A
2
•Probability that it will be dry if the preceding day was dry

Markov Chain Analysis

Peak Runoff by Rational Equation

Qp = CIA
where; Qp - peak runoff (m3/s)
C – runoff coefficient depending on land use and soil
characteristics
I – mean rainfall intensity
A – watershed area
Leaf area index (LAI)
is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes plant canopies. It is
defined as the one-sided green leaf area per unit ground surface
area (LAI = leaf area / ground area, m2 / m2) in broadleaf canopies.
The separation of ET into evaporation and transpiration over the
growing period for an annual field crop
 Hydrologic process

-is any hydrologic phenomenon which undergoes

continuous changes with time

It is either deterministic, probabilistic, or

stochastic in nature.
A deterministic process is one in which a definite law of
certainty exists. It is one where the change element is ignored as
in the case of flood routing.
A probabilistic or stochastic process is one governed by chance
phenomena, that is, there are so many causes at work that the
influence of one cannot be readily identified.

A stochastic process is time dependent.

This means that the sequence of occurrence of
events or the time series is considered in its
analysis.

A probabilistic process, on the other hand, is time series independent.

All hydrologic processes are more or less
stochastic.

They are assumed to be either deterministic or

probabilistic to simplify their analysis.

Probabilistic analysis of hydrologic processes deals with the

estimation of the chance or likelihood of occurrence of a given
event by determining the frequency curves of best fit to samples
of hydrologic data.
Criteria for selection of Agromet Station site:

 Accessibilty for data monitoring, operation

and maintenance
 Should be in a location truly representative
of the natural conditions of the agricultural
region it suppose to serve

 Site has no problem on right of way,

ownership and security

 Site is fairly level and flood-free

Criteria for selection of Agromet Station site:

 Site free from obstruction

 at least 4x the height of the nearest obstruction
(other reference: 8-10 times)
 no shadow casted greater part of the day

 Facing north
(east-west direction
should be identified)
Criteria for selection of Agromet Station site:

 Site has grass cover and no tall weeds

 Site is not concrete, asphalted, nor made
of crushed stone.
 Security should be provided (fence)
Agromet Station Instruments:
Agromet Station Instruments:

1. Rainfall-measuring instruments:

a. Standard Rain Gage

 A = 20 cm (8”)
1
area  AREA
10
a
 1  2 
d h
2
 D H
4 10  4 

The actual rainfall depth is magnified 10 times in

the collecting cylinder.
b. Tipping Bucket Rain Gage
b. Tipping Bucket Rain Gage
c. Optical Rain Gage
d. Weighing-type Rain Gage

Consists of a storage bin atop a pen recording the changes of weight on a

rotating drum.

Unlike Tipping Bucket, it does not underestimate intense rain.

Contains a device to measure the quantity of chemicals contained in the

locations atmosphere. This is extremely helpful to study the effects of
greenhouse gases.

However, they are more expensive.

e. Acoustic-type Rain Gage

Ombrometer – rain gage

Disdrometer – measures drop size distribution and

velocity of precipitation
- distinguish rain, snow, hail, etc

Hydrometeors – precipitation
Why are rainfall measurements expressed
in terms of depth and not by volume?

‘Depth’ (mm) is the amount of rainfall that would

accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable
surface in a given time (min or hr)

Ans.

a. It is not feasible to calculate rainfall volume

since areal coverage may be different
Why are rainfall measurements expressed
in terms of depth and not by volume?

b. To provide an international standard and uniform

measurement of rainfall. It is more simple,
effective and easier to measure, describe and
compare amount of rainfall in ‘depth’.

 For consistency, simplicity and standardization

Agromet Station Instruments:

2. Temperature-measuring instruments:

Ordinary Maximum-Minimum
Thermometers Thermometers
Maximum Thermometer

When temperature rises, the

expanding mercury is forced
past the constriction but when
the temperature falls the
column of mercury remains in
the tube, thus indicating the
maximum temperature
Agromet Station Instruments:

3. Pressure-measuring instruments:

a. Mercury Barometer b. Aneroid Barometer

Aneroid Barometer

It is basically a manometer
with one end exposed to the
atmosphere

It is more sensitive than

aneroid barometer since it
has Vernier scale on it and
has already temperature,
elevation and altitude
corrections.
Other differences between aneroid barometer and mercury
barometer?

• Aneroid barometer is more stable and

compact, less fragile; thus, is easy to
transport and take readings.

• The mercury barometer can be

constructed easily, but the aneroid
barometer requires machinery.
 Why is barometer installed inside rather
than outside the building?
Ans.
a. To prevent effect of wind and solar radiation
(Vibration and shock may lead to fluctuation)
(Barometer does not give a true reading if affected
by gusty wind.)
b. To prevent effect of outside temperature and
humidity
(However, if the room is not airtight, no significant
difference.)
Why is barometer installed inside rather
than outside the building?
Ans.

c. To prevent wear and tear.

Note: Barometer should not be placed in an air

conditioned room.
(It may create a pressure differential between the
inside and outside environment)
 Instrument Shelter (Thermometer Screen)

To provide a standardized
environment in which to put
or keep the temperature-
and humidity-measuring
instruments.

It shields the instruments

against rain and direct solar
radiation while allowing air
to circulate freely around
them.
Why should instrument shelter be painted
white?

Ans. To reflect the solar radiation and avoid

absorption of radiation that may affect
the setting/calibration and accuracy of
the instruments placed inside.
Agromet Station Instruments:

4. Humidity-measuring instruments:

a. Hygrometer
b. Hygrothermograph
Sling Psychrometer
Hand-held Digital
Psychrometer
c. Psychrometer
 Dry-Bulb
Thermometer

Wet-Bulb
Thermometer
Agromet Station Instruments:

5. Wind-measuring instruments:

a. Anemometer
b. Wind Vane
Anemometer installation
requirements:

 3-cup

 Site where wind flow freely and

not distracted by obstructions (trees, tall buildings, other
structures)

 Oriented in the prevailing wind direction

 Mast should be absolutely vertical.

2 m – flat urban terrain
4~10 m – for rural terrain
for roof installation: 3 m from the most exposed part
Minimum height of an anemometer above ground when there
are obstacles of height h (where h is 12 or more) at various
distances around it is given by the following:

Distance of Obstruction Minimum height of

Anemometer

h 2.0h
5h 1.67h
10h 1.5h
20h 1.25h
25h 1.13h
30h h
Wind vane installation requirements:

 Best mounted in an open terrain, at least 30 m from the

nearest obstruction
(wind can blow freely, no nearby obstruction)

 Should be mounted towards true north

(use magnetic compass and corrected by the magnetic
delineation for specific area)

 Satisfactorily exposed and can rotate 3600

 Mounted 6-10 m above the ground

 Wind vane installation requirements:

 Could be as simple as
handcrafted wooden or light
metal; or as elaborate with
decorative ornament

 Lightning rod may be installed to

minimize risk of damage during
thunderstorm.
Agromet Station Instruments:

6. Evaporation-measuring instruments:

Evaporation Pan
 Class A Evaporation Pan measurement is highly correlated
with the potential evapotranspiration of the surrounding area.

Stilling Well

120 cm (47.5”) 25 cm
(10”)

Class A Evaporation Pan

Class A Evaporation Pan installation requirements:

 Galvanized iron Gage 20

 Operating water level depth: 175~200 mm

(water level kept at 50~75 mm from the rim)

 Installed 150-mm from the ground on wooden

stand/platform

 Measuring stick is 1.0 m and accuracy of 0.02 mm.

Why should measurement be done in the
stilling well?

 Measurement should be done in still well as it

prevents the effect of waves and ripples which
affects accuracy.
Agromet Station Instruments:

6. Solar Radiation-measuring instruments:

a. Sunshine Recorder
Campbell-Stokes
Sunshine Recorder:

A device that measures or

records the amount of
sunshine at a given location.

Campbell-Stokes
Sunshine Recorder
b. Actinometer – used to measure heating power of radiation

Solar radiation as transmitted directly by the sun, scattered by the

atmosphere, or reflected by the earth.
c. Pyranometer

A type of actinometer used to

measure broadband solar
irradiance (short wave radiation)
c. Pyrheliometer

Used to measure intensity of

direct solar radiation
Agromet Station Instruments:

7. Other instruments:

a. Ceilometer

A device which uses a laser or

other light source to
determine the height of a
cloud base.
b. Radiosonde

A group of instruments for

simultaneous measurement and
radio transmission of
meteorological data:
temperature, pressure, and
humidity of the atmosphere.
The instrument package is
usually carried into the
atmosphere by a balloon.
AWS (Automatic Weather Station)

 A typical AWS comprises 8

sensors for measuring wind speed,
wind direction, air temperature,
RH, solar radiation, soil temp.,
surface wetness, and rainfall.

 Battery- or solar-powered.
What are the differences between a typical
Agromet station and AWS?

 AWS is an automated version of the traditional Agromet

station, either to save human labor or to enable
measurements from remote areas.

 An AWS is equipped with data storage system, thus

data downloading can be done on a daily, weekly, or
monthly basis. The frequency of data collection can
also be programmed according to the needs and use of
such information.
  Moreover, a telemetry system could be connected to
the AWS so that data can be remotely accessed through
mobile SMS or other form of messages in real time.
Thus, data from the AWS can be transmitted in real
time to a central server which can be viewed from
a web-based system through the Internet.

 While, the data from the existing agromet station are

recorded daily in a prescribed form from PAGASA by an
assigned agromet observer and are submitted to BSWM
every month through mail.
End