Digital Media

Summary
On-going and rapid advances in technology dictate that you store your electronic records on
media that enable you to meet your long-term operational and legal requirements. Legally, your
records must be trustworthy, complete, accessible, legally admissible in court, and durable for as
long as you need them. Because every digital storage option will eventually become obsolete,
consider digital storage options that will enable you to maintain records by migrating and/or
converting them during their required retention period.

Legal Framework
For more information on the legal framework you must consider when selecting digital storage
media, refer to the Introduction and Appendix D of the Trustworthy Information Systems
Handbook. Also review the requirements of:

• Official Records Act [Minnesota Statutes, Chapter 15.17] (available at:

<http://www.revisor.leg.state.mn.us/stats/15/17.html>), which mandates that government
agencies must keep records to fulfill the obligations of accountability and specifies that the
medium must enable the records to be permanent. It further stipulates that you can copy a
record and that the copy, if trustworthy, will be legally admissible in court.

• Records Management Act [Minnesota Statutes, Chapter 138.17] (available at:

<http://www.revisor.leg.state.mn.us/stats/138/17.html>), which establishes the Records
Disposition Panel to oversee the orderly disposition of records using approved records
retention schedules.

• Minnesota Government Data Practices Act (MGDPA) [Minnesota Statutes, Chapter 13]
(available at: <http://www.revisor.leg.state.mn.us/stats/13/>), which mandates that
government records should be accessible to the public unless categorized as not-public by the
state legislature.

• Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA) [Minnesota Statutes, Chapter 325L] (available
at: <http://www.revisor.leg.state.mn.us/stats/325L>) and Electronic Signatures in Global and
National Commerce (E-Sign), a federal law (available at: <http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query/z?c106:S.761:>). Both UETA and E-Sign address the issues of the legal
admissibility of electronic records created in a trustworthy manner and the application of the
paper-oriented legal system to electronic records.

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Key Concepts
Before you determine which digital media will meet your long-term legal and operational needs,
familiarize yourself with the following key concepts:

• Digital data

• Sequential versus random access

• Storage measurement

• Media life expectancy

• Magnetic media

• Optical media

• Performance issues

Digital Data
Your electronic records are digital data that are stored on digital media. Digital data exists, at its
most basic level, as just 0 and 1, or on and off. For example, black and white photographs in the
newspaper are printed as a series of either black or white dots (0 or 1, on or off). The complex
organization of a large number of dots allows the human eye to complete the image. The digital
data in an electronic record uses the same principle to organize digital data into the record to
make the record readable. A bit (short for binary digit) is the smallest unit of data in a computer.
A bit has a single binary value, either 0 or 1.

Digital data is stored on digital media. Digital media are divided into two types:

• Magnetic. On magnetic media, the digital data is encoded as microscopic magnetized needles
on the surface of the medium (e.g., disk or tape).

• Optical. On optical media, the digital data is encoded by creating microscopic holes in the
surface of the medium (e.g., disk).

For more information on the storage of digital media to preserve longevity, refer to the Storage
Facilities and Procedures guidelines.

Sequential Versus Random Access

Access to digital information on digital media is divided into two types:

• Sequential. Sequential access requires the user to access specific information by accessing
the preceding information on the medium. For example, if you want to view a specific

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portion of a videotape, you must first fast-forward through the preceding portion of the
videotape.

• Random. Some digital media allow users to access the stored information from any physical
place on the media. For example, when you put a disk into your personal computer’s disk
drive, you can access any single file stored on the disk without having to first access all the
files that precede it.

Storage Measurement
The storage capacity of digital media is measured in bytes, the basic unit of measurement:

• 1,024 bytes make a kilobyte (KB)

• 1,024 KBs make a megabyte (MB)

• 1,024 MGs make a gigabyte (GB)

• 1,024 GBs make a terabyte

For example, a one-page, text-only letter might be 20 KB, a graphics file might be
200 KB, and a fifty-page, desktop-published document with graphics might be 2 MB.

Media Life Expectancy

All storage media have finite life spans which are dependent on a number of factors, including
manufacturing quality, age and condition before recording, handling and maintenance, frequency
of access, and storage conditions. Studies have indicated that under optimal conditions, the life
expectancy of magnetic media ranges from 10 to 20 years for different types, while optical
media may last as long as 30 years. However, in real life situations, most media life
expectancies are significantly less.

Magnetic Media
Magnetic media include:

• Magnetic disk. Magnetic disks include the hard disk found in your computer that stores the
programs and files you work with daily. Magnetic disks provide random access. Also
included are:

− Removable hard disk. These disks are encased in a plastic housing that allows them to
be inserted and removed from a processor. In this way, a single processor can have
access to the data on multiple hard drives.

− Removable disk. Removable disks include the relatively small-capacity floppy disks, as
well as the larger-capacity peripheral disks, such as the Iomega Zip disks.

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− Cartridge. Removable cartridges contain disks encased in a metal or plastic casing for
easy insertion and removal.

• Magnetic tape. Magnetic tapes come in reel-to-reel, as well as cartridge format (encased in a
housing for ease of use). The two main advantages of magnetic tapes are their relatively low
cost and their large storage capacities (up to several gigabytes). Magnetic tapes provide
sequential access to stored information, which is slower than the random access of magnetic
disks. Magnetic tapes are a common choice for long-term storage or the transport of large
volumes of information.

• Digital audio tape (DAT). DATs are in a cartridge format a little larger than a credit card.
The industry standard for DAT cartridge format is a digital data storage (DDS) cartridge.
DDS cartridges provide sequential access.

• Videotape. Videotape provides sequential access to video footage (e.g., feature films).

Optical Media
Optical media options include:

• Compact Disk (CD). Compact disks come in a variety of formats. These formats include CD-
ROMs that are read-only, CD-Rs that you can write to once and are then read-only, and CD-
RWs that you can write to in multiple sessions.

• Write-Once, Read-Many (WORM) disk. WORM disks require a specific WORM disk drive
to enable the user to write or read the disk. WORM disks function the same as CD-R disks.

• Erasable optical (EO) disk. The user can write to, read from, and erase from EO disks as
often as they can magnetic disks. EO disks require special hardware.

• Digital versatile disk (DVD). These disks are also called digital video disks, but do not
necessarily include video. DVD disks are new types of optical disks with more storage
capacity than CD-ROMs. Common types of DVDs include:

− DVD video. These DVDs provide a format for showing full-length films using a special
DVD player connected to a television set. DVD videos contain a scrambling system that
prevents users from copying the contents.

− DVD-ROM. These DVDs are read-only disks that also have enough storage capacity for
a full-length feature film. They are accessed using a special DVD drive attached to a
personal computer. Most of these drives are backward-compatible with CD-ROMs and
can play DVD video disks.

− DVD-RAM. These DVDs are rewritable disks with exceptional storage capacity. They
come in one- or two-sided formats.

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− DVD+RW. DVD+RW is a direct competitor to DVD-RAM with similar functionality

and slightly greater storage capacity.

Note: DVD-RAM and DVD+RW are not compatible. The two technologies are being developed
by competing vendors and require different hardware.

• Optical cards. Optical cards, also known as “smart cards,” are the size of a credit card. They
come in read-only and read-write formats. They are not in widespread use except for limited
applications, such as automatic teller machines, personal identification for security systems,
and airline reservations.

• Optical tape. Optical tape is tape coated with optical recording material. Optical tape is not
widely used.

Performance Issues
As you discuss your digital media options, consider each option’s performance characteristics in
terms of your records management needs.

• Speed of access. Consider how quickly you or authorized members of the public may need to
access your records. You may find that some types of records require fast access, while
others do not. For example, you may need fast access to key policy decisions, but not to
employee records.

• Capacity. The volume of records that you can store on the medium will be a key
consideration. Examine the volume of the records you now store, and try to determine what
your needs may be in the future. Consider the official definition of a record and whether that
definition will affect the records volume that you need to manage. For example, you may
anticipate greater use of e-mail and the expansion of your web site, which would affect the
capacity that you need.

• Longevity. Research how long the industry will support various media options and compare
those figures with the time period that you need to keep your records according to the
approved records retention schedule. You may find a medium that meets all your needs, but
is not widely used or has a high risk of becoming obsolete, thereby limiting its usefulness in
the future.

• Durability. Research how easily a given medium can be damaged or will deteriorate. You
may find that a medium that deteriorates after three years will still be a suitable option for
records that need to be retained for only one year. Be sure to review your records retention
periods.

• Versatility. If your records contain multiple file formats (as described in the File Formats
guidelines), research how many file formats a medium can store. For example, a floppy disk
cannot store large graphics files, but a CD or a DVD can store graphics, text, audio files, or
video files.

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• Portability. Determine how portable your stored records should be. Some media, such as
DVD-ROMs, are very portable, while hard disks in a computer processor are not. You should
also consider whether you will need special devices to read the records. For example, not
many organizations are equipped with DVD-ROM players. Consider who will be accessing
your records. For example, will the public, the press, or other agencies frequently access your
records?

• Compatibility. Assess the backward and forward compatibility of the digital media you are
considering. For example, DVD-ROM drives are backward-compatible for CD-ROMs, but a
CD-ROM drive is not forward-compatible for DVD-ROMs. This discussion will help you to
determine how often you may need to upgrade supporting computer systems, migrate
records, and/or convert records.

• Cost. Assess the costs and benefits of each medium you consider. Be sure to discuss the costs
of converting and/or migrating records, as well as the basic costs of the system.

Summary
Table 1 summarizes the capacity of the basic digital media options. Research the specific
medium and manufacturer for exact specifications, including cost. Because of rapid technology
developments in a highly competitive market, the costs for each option change frequently.

Table 1: Storage Capacity of Digital Media Options

Medium Capacity
(Uncompressed)
Magnetic Media
Removable hard disk 10 GB
Removable disk 1.44–120 MB
Cartridge 10–30 GB
Magnetic tape 20–180 MB
DAT 24+ GB
Videotape Up to 8 hours of video
Optical Media
CD 650-800 MB
WORM (CD-R) 650-800 MB
EO 650-800 MB
DVD 4.7–17 GB

Note: Numbers current as of July 2001.

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Key Issues to Consider

Now that you are familiar with some of the basic concepts and options of digital storage media,
you can use the questions below to discuss how those concepts relate to your agency.

Pay special attention to the questions posed by the legal framework, including the required
records retention periods. Examine your current and future records series. Some records series
may require large storage capacities, may need to be retained for a long time, or may be
frequently accessed by the public, other agencies, or other groups. Prioritizing your needs in
light of the legal requirements will help you narrow your discussion and focus your research.

The point is to determine the best option for your agency that meets your legal and operational
needs, not merely to automatically upgrade technology. For example, if you are currently using
magnetic tape, you may discover that magnetic tape remains your best choice.

Discussion Questions
• What types of records do we need to store (e.g., graphics, text, database text)? What file
formats? How large are our record files?

• Which performance issues are most important in our situation?

• How long do we need to retain the records?

• How often will we need to access the records?

• Will all records or specific records series be frequently accessed by the public or other
groups?

• How well do our current media meet our needs? What costs would be incurred for supplies,
equipment, and training that would be required if we were to switch to or add a new storage
medium?

• Are any of the media we are considering expected to become obsolete in the near future?
Will the medium, as well as the necessary hardware and software, still be available from a
number of suppliers for as long as we need? Has the developer defined a migration path for
improved versions of the medium?

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Annotated List of Resources

Primary Resources
Beyers, Fred R. Information Technology: Care and Handling for the Preservation of CDs and
DVDs – A Guide for Librarians and Archivists. NIST Special Publication 500-252.
Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology; Washington, D.C.: Council
on Library and Information Resources. October 2003.
<http://www.foray.com/images/pdfs/CDandDVDCareandHandlingGuide.pdf>
This guide discusses the physical characteristics of various optical media, as well as
methods for their proper care and handling to ensure longest possible use in any given
environment. A useful glossary is included.

The PC Technology Guide

<http://www.pctechguide.com>
This site is a comprehensive resource on all aspects of the personal computer. Topics
include hardware, software, computer use, and digital media.

Webopedia
<http://webopedia.internet.com>
This comprehensive online encyclopedia for the information technology community
provides an easy-to-understand, searchable database of terms.

Additional Resources
International Council on Archives, Committee on Electronic Records. Guide for Managing
Electronic Records from an Archival Perspective. Paris: International Council on Archives,
1997.
<http://www.ica.org/sites/default/files/ICA%20Study%208%20guide_eng_0.pdf>
This handbook provides a comprehensive overview of electronic records management
from an archival perspective. It provides useful information on key concepts, such as life-
cycle management, legal issues, technological issues, and implementation tactics for all
readers.

COOL (Conservation OnLine): Electronic Storage Media

<http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/bytopic/electronic-records/electronic-storage-media>
These pages are part of the Conservation OnLine, Resources for Conservation
Professionals web site at Stanford University. This web page is a collection of materials
from other sources about electronic conservation, including resources on disaster
recovery, electronic media, electronic formats, and storage environments.

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Bell, R. and A. Waugh. “VERS Standard for the Management of Electronic Record Formats,
Appendix Four: Digital Storage Media.” In Standard for the Management of Electronic Records.
Version 1.0. North Melbourne, Australia: State of Victoria, 2000.
<http://www.prov.vic.gov.au/vers/standard/ver1/99-7-3toc.htm>
An appendix to the State of Victoria (Australia) standard for electronic records
management outlines the digital media available for electronic records storage.

Minnesota Historical Society, State Archives Department. Trustworthy Information Systems

Handbook. Version 4, July 2002.
<http://www.mnhs.org/preserve/records/tis/tis.html>
This handbook provides an overview for all stakeholders involved in government
electronic records management. Topics center around ensuring accountability to elected
officials and citizens by developing systems that create reliable and authentic
information and records. The handbook outlines the characteristics that define
trustworthy information, offers a methodology for ensuring trustworthiness, and provides
a series of worksheets and tools for evaluating and refining system design and
documentation.

Puglia, S. “Creating Permanent and Durable Information: Physical Media and Storage
Standards.” CRM: Cultural Resource Management 22 (1999): 25–27.
<http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/22-2/22-02-10.pdf>
Refer to this web page for a list of references on creating and storing records, including
paper records, microfilm, and electronic records.

U.S. General Services Administration. “Applying Technology to Record Systems: A Media

Guideline.” Information Resources Management Services, KML-93-1-R. (Washington, D.C.,
1993).
Published in 1993, this booklet from the federal government provides an overview of
digital storage media considerations. Topics include an introduction to concepts and
definitions of storage options, physical properties of different media (e.g., paper,
microfilm, digital storage, magnetic media, optical media), organization records,
capturing and converting records, and cost considerations.

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