Tentative Grammar

Description
for the Mekeo [mek] Language

spoken in Central Province

Written by Rock Maino and Rose Aufo

with Juliann Bullock

November 2015
Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................7
2. WRITING SYSTEM AND SOUNDS........................................................................................................8
3. NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES............................................................................................................8
3.1. Pronouns and Possessive Suffixes...............................................................................................8
3.1.1. Pronouns..............................................................................................................................8
3.1.2. Possessive Pronouns............................................................................................................9
3.1.3. Possessive Suffixes.............................................................................................................11
3.1.4. Reflexive Pronouns.............................................................................................................11
3.2. Nouns.......................................................................................................................................13
3.2.1. Singular and Plural Nouns..................................................................................................13
3.3. Adjectives.................................................................................................................................14
3.3.1. Adjectives in general..........................................................................................................14
3.3.2. Comparatives.....................................................................................................................15
3.3.3. Translation Issues for Adjectives........................................................................................16
3.4. Numerals and Number-Marking...............................................................................................16
3.4.1. Traditional Counting System..............................................................................................16
3.4.2. Other Quantity Words........................................................................................................17
3.5. Demonstratives.........................................................................................................................18
3.6. Basic Noun Phrase Structure.....................................................................................................20
3.6.1. Noun Phrase Examples......................................................................................................20
3.7. Possession.................................................................................................................................21
3.7.1. Direct (Inalienable)............................................................................................................21
3.7.2. Indirect (Alienable)............................................................................................................21
4. POSTPOSITIONS...............................................................................................................................23
4.1. Examples...................................................................................................................................23
4.2. Translation Issues for Postpositions..........................................................................................23
5. VERBS..............................................................................................................................................24
5.1. Person and Number Marking....................................................................................................24
5.1.1. Subject Marking.................................................................................................................24
5.1.2. Object Marking..................................................................................................................24
5.1.3. Recipient Marking..............................................................................................................25
5.2. Tense.........................................................................................................................................26
5.2.1. Examples............................................................................................................................26

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 5.2.2. Translation Issues Related to Tense....................................................................................26
5.3. Aspect.......................................................................................................................................27
5.3.1. Continuous.........................................................................................................................27
5.3.2. Habitual.............................................................................................................................27
5.3.3. Repeated............................................................................................................................27
5.3.4. Beginning...........................................................................................................................28
5.3.5. Completed.........................................................................................................................28
5.3.6. Translation Issues Related to Aspect..................................................................................29
5.4. Realis and Irrealis Status...........................................................................................................30
5.4.1. Examples............................................................................................................................30
5.5. Serial Verbs...............................................................................................................................32
5.5.1. Examples............................................................................................................................32
6. CLAUSES...........................................................................................................................................33
6.1. Transitive clauses......................................................................................................................33
6.1.1. Examples............................................................................................................................33
6.2. Intransitive clauses...................................................................................................................33
6.2.1. Examples............................................................................................................................33
6.3. Di-transitive clauses..................................................................................................................34
6.3.1. Examples............................................................................................................................34
6.3.2. Translation Issues for Transitive, Intransitive, and Di-transitive Clauses............................34
6.4. Semantic roles (noun roles)......................................................................................................35
6.4.1. Agent.................................................................................................................................35
6.4.2. Force..................................................................................................................................35
6.4.3. Experiencer........................................................................................................................35
6.4.4. Stimulus.............................................................................................................................35
6.4.5. Possessor...........................................................................................................................36
6.4.6. Location.............................................................................................................................36
6.4.7. Source / Destination..........................................................................................................36
6.4.8. Instrument.........................................................................................................................36
6.4.9. Accompaniment.................................................................................................................37
6.4.10. Recipient..........................................................................................................................37
6.4.11. Beneficiary.......................................................................................................................37
6.4.12. Patient.............................................................................................................................37
6.4.13. Translation Issues for Noun Roles....................................................................................37

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 6.5. Adverbs.....................................................................................................................................38
6.5.1. Adverbs of Time.................................................................................................................38
6.5.2. Adverbs of Manner............................................................................................................38
6.5.3. Adverbs of Degree.............................................................................................................38
6.5.4. Adverbs of Place................................................................................................................38
6.6. Negative Clauses and Negation................................................................................................38
6.6.1. Examples............................................................................................................................38
6.6.2. Translation Issues for Negative Clauses.............................................................................39
7. SENTENCES......................................................................................................................................40
7.1. Conjunctions.............................................................................................................................40
7.2. Commands (Imperative Sentences)..........................................................................................42
7.2.1. Examples............................................................................................................................42
8. Questions.........................................................................................................................................43
8.1. Questions (Interrogative Sentences).........................................................................................43
8.1.1. Yes-No Questions...............................................................................................................43
8.1.2. Content Questions (WH)....................................................................................................43
8.1.3. Translation Issues for Questions........................................................................................44
9. Reason, Result, Purpose...................................................................................................................45
9.1. Reason and Result....................................................................................................................45
9.2. Purpose and Result...................................................................................................................45
9.2.1. Translation Issues for Purpose, Result, and Reason...........................................................46
10. Appendix – Glossed Stories............................................................................................................47
10.1. Ala Aoma Amai Ukarumpa.....................................................................................................47
10.2. Au Apao'i Ala Keoma Moku Kelao fou'i...................................................................................49
10.3. Aule, Ifi Kapa'ina Agakapa Fouga...........................................................................................50
10.4. E'a Looai E'agaa.....................................................................................................................52
10.5. Fea Aga'o Ke Aupugagauga fou..............................................................................................53
10.6. James Feisai Ray E'efaisa........................................................................................................54
10.7. Kapukapu Isonionina..............................................................................................................55
10.8. Ogopu Igope Fouga................................................................................................................57
10.9. Picture Isonionina...................................................................................................................59

Page 4
License
We are doing this work freely, to help our language community and others
like it. We want to make sure that our community and others can benefit from our work. We
give this permission for anyone to use this work, but only if they follow the rules of the
“Creative Commons Non-Commercial Share Alike License”. In simple English, those rules are 1)
My name must appear on any copies of this work, so people know I was the one who did it. 2)
No one may use this work for making money in business, without my permission. 3) Anyone
may build upon this work, but they must then share the resulting work the same way I am
sharing.

Copyright
All our contributions to materials listed below are Copyright Rock Maino and Rose Aufo. That
means if someone wants permission to do something different from what it says above, they
must ask this copyright holder.
Signed by:
Name: Rock Maino Language: Mekeo Province: Central
Name: Rose Aufo Language: Mekeo Province: Central

The following works are covered by this form:

Tentative Grammar Description Rock Maino and Rose Aufo November 2015
Written and Recorded Texts Rock Maino and Rose Aufo November 2015

Preface/Disclaimer/Acknowledgments
This grammar is very tentative. It has been written by Rock Maino and Rose Aufo during the
four-week long Discover Your Language Course at the PILAT Training Centre at Ukarumpa, EHP.
At that course the two Mekeo language speakers, Rock Maino and Rose Aufo, were participants.
So the data for this grammar was collected and written up very quickly and does not deal with
all aspects of Mekeo grammar. This tentative analysis is based on just nine natural texts
recorded and written by Rock Maino and Rose Aufo, and a selection of elicited sentences. There
may well be errors due to the time pressure in producing this document, and some
inconsistencies within the analysis. Despite its tentative nature, we hope this grammar will be
helpful to speakers of the Mekeo language, and to others who want to learn more about the
language. Hopefully, it provides a foundation for others to build upon in the future.

Page 5
Abbreviations and Symbols
1 first person(s), English: I, me, we
2 second person, English: you, Tok Pisin: yu, yupela
ADJ adjective
EXC exclusive, excluding the hearer
SG singular
DU dual
RED reduplication
RPT repeated
IRR irrealis
CNJ conjunction
INTER interrogative

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1. INTRODUCTION
Language name: Mekeo [mek]
Classification: Austronesian; Malayo-Polynesian; Central-Eastern
Malayo-Polynesian; Eastern Malayo-Polynesian;
Oceanic; Western Oceanic; Papuan Tip; Peripheral;
Central Papuan; West Central Papuan; Nuclear
Location of Language Group: Kairuku District, Central Province, Papua New Guinea
Dialect(s) represented in this description: West Mekeo
Name(s) of contributor(s): Rock Maino, Rose Aufo, and Juliann Bullock

Period during which this information was th th

7 October to 4 November 2015
collected:
Location where most data has been collected: PILAT, Ukarumpa, EHP, Papua New Guinea
Texts used to help produce this description: Ala Aloma Amai Ukarumpa
Au Apao'i Ala Keoma Moku Kelao Foui
Aule Ifi Kapa'ina Agakapa Ifouga
E'a Looai Eaga
Fea Agao Ke Aupugagauga
James Feisai Ray E'efaisa
Kapukapu Isonionina
Ogopu Igope
Picture Isonionina

Page 7
2. WRITING SYSTEM AND SOUNDS

Mekeo has fifteen letters: five vowels and ten consonants.

Consonants
f, g, k, l, m, n, p, s, t, v and '
The f is sometimes pronounced as v and the g is pronounced as 'ng'. The ' is a glottal stop.

Vowels
a, e, i, o, u

3. NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES

3.1. Pronouns and Possessive Suffixes

Our pronouns and possessive suffixes are shown in the tables in each section below.

3.1.1. Pronouns
Pronouns are words like I, you and they in English, which stand in place of other noun phrases.
We call these “free pronouns” because they are words in their own right, and are not parts of
other words.
1st person (1) = the speaker, English I, me, we
2nd person (2) = the listener, English you
3rd person (3) = neither the speaker nor the listener, English he/she/it/him/her/them/they
Singular (SG) = just one person/thing, English I/he/she/it/him/her
Plural (PL) = more than one, English we/they/them
1st person exclusive (1 EXC) = the speaker and some other people, but not the listener, Tok
Pisin mipela
1st person inclusive (1 INC) = the speaker and the listener (and maybe other people too),
Tok Pisin yumi

Table 3.1.1.1: Free Pronouns (Subject and Object)

Pronoun English / Tok Pisin equivalent
SG 1st person lau I
2nd person oi you
3rd person isa he, she, it
PL 1st person
i'a we / yumi
inclusive
1st person
lai we / mipela
exclusive
2nd person oi you / yupela
3rd person isa they

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Here are some examples of pronouns in the Mekeo language:
Example 3.1.1.1: Free Pronouns

Lau gau fou kapukapu a.lao

I son with hunting we.go

I went hunting with my sons.

Isa gugu maaga e.kopia

he arrow eye he.sharpen
He is sharpening the arrow.

Isa moni lau e.peniau

he money me he.gave
He gave me money.

Rule: Our language does not have different pronouns for subjects and objects.

3.1.2. Possessive Pronouns

In Mekeo, the possessive pronoun usually comes before the noun itself.
Table 3.1.2.1: Possessive pronouns
Possessive English / Tok Pisin
pronoun equivalent
SG 1st person e'u 'my'
2nd person emu 'your'
3rd person ega 'his, her ,its'
PL 1st person emai 'our' / 'bilong yumi'
inclusive
1st person i'a 'our' / 'bilong mipela'
exclusive
2nd person emi 'your' / 'bilong yupela'
3rd person e'i 'their'

Example 3.1.2.1: Possessive pronouns

Emai gugu afeau a.fiia

our arrow bow we.take

We took our bows and arrows.

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E'i mafe ke.afaisa

their betelnut they.sell

They sold their betelnut.

More Possessive Pronouns

Possessive English / Tok Pisin
equivalent
SG 1st person apu mine
2nd person apumu yours
3rd person apuga his/hers/its
PL 1st person apua ours
inclusive
1st person apumai ours
exclusive
2nd person apumi yours(PL)
3rd person apu'i theirs

Ma'a lau apu

fish I mine
The fish is mine.

Ago oi apumi
land you yours(PL)
This is your(PL) land.

Mekoi amu'e apuga

kaukau dog his
This is the dog's kaukau.

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3.1.3. Possessive Suffixes
A possessive suffix is a part at the end of a word showing whose it is. These are often used with
words for family relationships or body parts (such as ear, eye, brother or father), rather than
using a separate word.

Table 3.1.3.1: Possessive suffixes

Possessive suffix Word with possessive English / Tok Pisin
suffix equivalent
st
SG 1 person -u amau ‘my father’
nd
2 person -mu amamu ‘your father’
rd
3 person no suffix ama 'his/her father'
st
PL 1 person -'a ama'a 'our father'
inclusive
st
1 person -mai amamai 'our father'
exclusive
nd
2 person -mi amami 'your father'
rd
3 person -'i ama'i 'their father'

In our language, possessive suffixes are used to express a variety of things like body parts
and personal relationships (family and friends).

Example 3.1.3.2: Possessive Suffixes

maau ‘my eye’
inamu ‘your mother’
ake ‘his mouth’
maa'i ‘their eyes’
akeu 'my mouth'
ekefa'amai 'our friend'
akemu 'your mouth'

3.1.4. Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are words like myself and himself. They are used when the actor and patient
refer to the same person.
Table 3.1.4.1: Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronoun English / Tok Pisin
equivalent
st
SG 1 person ifou myself / mi yet
nd
2 person ifomu yourself / yu yet
rd
3 person ifo himself, herself ,itself
st
PL 1 person ifo'a ourselves / yumi yet
nd
2 person ifomi yourselves / yupela yet
rd
3 person ifo'i themselves / ol yet

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Example 3.1.4.1: Reflexive pronouns

Lau ifou mukimuki la.gapukia.

I myself grass I.cut

I cut the grass myself.

Ifou a'ifai la.gaisau

myself knife I.cut myself
I cut myself with a knife.

Translation Issues for Pronouns

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3.2. Nouns

Rule for plural on nouns: There is not usually a plural marker on the noun. For the plural we
use numbers or quantifiers at the end of the noun. There is a marker on the adjective
showing us that the noun is a plural.

3.2.1. Singular and Plural Nouns

Table 3.2.1.1: Markers used to show singular/plural on nouns
What kind of
“Job” of the Example on/with words use the Equivalent in English / Tok
Marker marker a word marker? Pisin
-i plural inei akaikia'i adjectives big birds

Example 3.2.1.1: Singular nouns

inei e'a

bird house

Example 3.2.1.2: Plural nouns

inei ma'o e'a auni'i

bird many house two
"many birds" "two houses"

Translation Issues for Singular and Plural Nouns

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3.3. Adjectives

3.3.1. Adjectives in general

Adjectives are words which describe a noun. Adjectives might describe the size, shape and
colour of something, the age or feelings of a person, or the appearance of a place. In Mekeo
language, adjectives describe nouns, and come after the noun that they describe.
Example 3.3.1.1: Adjectives in noun phrases

aupugagauga pitoga

leaf red
a red leaf

amu'e e'ele

dog small
a small dog

fea felo

bilum good
a good bilum

Adjective Summary Statement1: In Mekeo language there are many adjectives.

Adjective Summary Statement 2: : In Mekeo language adjectives come after the noun.

Adjective Summary Statement 3: It is easy to use more than one adjective to describe a
noun in my language.

Example 3.3.1.2: More than one adjective in a noun phrase

kepo umuga e'ele falapa

stone black small flat

a small, black, flat stone

kapa akaiki'a maefa umuga

snake big long black

a big, long, black snake

In our language, certain words like ipauma can go with an adjective to give more weight to
the adjective.

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Example 3.3.1.3: Words or markers that make adjectives stronger and less strong

imoi felo ipauma

child good very
a very good child

kepo keloga ipauma

stone white very
a very white stone

amu'e e'ele alogaina

dog small really
a really small dog

3.3.2. Comparatives
Example 3.3.2.1: How we compare things in our language

e'isapu afa e'isapu e'isapu alogaina

powerful more powerful most powerful

akaiki'a afa akaiki'a akaiki'a pauma

big bigger biggest

e'a akaiki'a e'a afa akaiki'a e'a akaiki'a alogaina

house big house more big house big most
a big house a bigger house the biggest house

apaoga afa apaoga apaoga alogaina

old older oldest

agua afa agua agua pauma

young younger youngest

Summary Statement: In Mekeo language we compare adjectives using afa and pauma or
alogaina.

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3.3.3. Translation Issues for Adjectives

3.4. Numerals and Number-Marking

Number Rule 1: We usually use our traditional numbers for one through five.
For other numbers we use English.

Number Rule 2: Numbers usually come after the main noun.

3.4.1. Traditional Counting System

Table 3.4.1.1: Traditional counting system

Number Tok Ples English meaning (if there is one)
1 aga'o one
2 gua two
3 oiso three
4 pani four
5 ima hand [one hand]
6 imagea six hand bearer [bridge]
7 imagea gua hand two bearers
8 imagea oiso hand three bears
9 imagea pani hand four bearers
10 ou'aga opossing ends meeting,where they
branch out
11 ou'aga kuagai aga'o one at the [ nose] of where
opossing ends branch in
12 ou'aga kuaguai gua two at the tip[ nose ] ends branch
in
13 ou'aga kuagai oiso three at the tip [ nose] ends branch
in

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 14 oua'ga kuagai pani four at the tip [nose ] ends branch
in
15 ou'aga kuagai ima five at the tip [nose ] ends branch
in
16 ou'aga kuagai imagea six [ hand bear ] ends branch in
17 ou'aga kuagai imagea seven [ hand two bears ] ends
gua branch in
18 ou'aga kuagai imagea eight [hand three bears ] ends
oiso branch in
19 ou'aga kuagai imagea nine [hand four bears ] ends
pani branch in
20 ou'aga gua hands two bears of where branch
out
30 o'uaga oiso hands three bears of where branch
out
40 ou'aga pani hands four bears of where branch
out
50 ou'aga ima five hands bears of where branch
out
60 ou'aga imagea six hands bears of where branch
out
70 ou'aga imagea gua seven hands bears of where
branch out
80 ou'aga imagea oiso eight hand bears of where branch
out
90 ou'aga imagea pani nine hand bears of where branch
out
100 sinafu alot [more ]

3.4.2. Other Quantity Words

Quantifiers are words like some, many, all, or a few in English, which do not tell us a specific
number, but rather a general quantity. Mekeo uses quantifiers like ma'o 'many' or 'plenty', ma'oai
'all', oisomo 'few' (3-6), afa'agamo 'few', and iisa 'some'. We use afa'agamo for mass nouns, but we
use oisomo for count nouns.
Example 3.4.2.1: Quantifiers

la.pea afa'agamo
I.walk a little while

figu afa'agamo
sand a little bit
a little bit of sand

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mekoi oisomo
kaukau few
a few kaukau.

papiau ma'o
people many
many people

3.5. Demonstratives
A demonstrative (often called a “pointing” word) points you towards the place where the
people or things are. They might be near the person speaking (for example this dog), or
somewhere away from the person who is speaking (for example that man), or in some other
direction or place.
Table 3.5.1: Demonstratives

Mekeo has two demonstratives: egaina and inaina/i'ina. We can use the two demonstratives for
singular or plural, near and far.
Mekeo Equivalent in English / TP
inaina this, these
i'ina this, these
ega'ina that, those

Example 3.5.1: Sentences with demonstratives

Ega'ina lau e'u uma

that I my pig
That is my pig.

Inaina kina Deo e.pagama

this day God he.make
This is the day that the Lord has made.

Ega'ina imoi'i e'i pinauga ke.kapa

those children their work they.do
Those children are doing their work.

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inaina puka'i teipolo.ai ke.kae
these books table.on they.stay
These books are on the table.

Translation Issues for Demonstratives:

Page 19
3.6. Basic Noun Phrase Structure
A noun phrase is a group of words that together describe a particular object, such as ‘those two
big noisy dogs’ in English. Usually there is a common order for the different parts of speech in a
noun phrase.

3.6.1. Noun Phrase Examples

Example 3.6.1.1: Noun Phrases, normal word order

aupugagauga pitoga ma'o

leaf red plenty
many red leaves

I'ina iifaga eufai

This word first
This is the first word

Rule for ‘normal’ word order in Noun Phrases:

Demonstrative/Possessive – Noun – Adjective/Numeral – Quantifier

Example 3.6.1.2: Noun Phrases, Different word orders

Aupugagauga ageage aga'o

leaf green one
One green leaf

Aupugagauga aga'o ageage

leaf one green
One green leaf

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Rules for when word order can change in Noun Phrases: Adjectives and numerals can
change places. Even when the adjective and the numeral change places, the meaning
remains the same.

3.7. Possession

3.7.1. Direct (Inalienable)

Direct possession is when a possessed noun has part of the word itself telling you who it belongs
to, usually as a possessive suffix. For example, tew ‘my little brother’ in Awad Bing has the
possessed noun te with a first person singular possessive suffix –w. Direct possession is usually
used for nouns which have to belong to someone, such as body parts and family members. These
kind of nouns are said to be inalienable. Examples of direct possession are given in section
3.1.3.
For inalienable nouns, there is no possessive suffix for third person singular.
imoi kania
boy head
'the boy's head

For plural inalienable nouns, the third person plural possessive suffix is used.
imoi ma'o kania'.i
boy many head.PL
'the boys' heads'

3.7.2. Indirect (Alienable)

Indirect possession is when you have one or more words that go with a possessed noun to show
you who it belongs to, as in nanew aab ‘my house’ in Awad Bing. Often indirect possession is
used for alienable nouns, which do not have to belong to someone (like house or car).
Example 3.7.2.1: Noun Phrases - Indirect (alienable) possession

imoi ega mekoi

boy his kaukau
the boy's kaukau

imoi ma'o e'i mekoi

boy many their kaukau
the boys' kaukau

Translation Issues for Possession

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Page 22
4. POSTPOSITIONS

4.1. Examples
These are some examples of postpositions in our language:
Example 4.1.1: Postpositions

Aupugagauga ageage aga'o fea alogai ke.ukaisa

leaf green one bilum in they.put
They put one green leaf in the bilum.

Aupugagauga auni'i fea laagai ke.kae

leaf two bilum on they.stay
The two leaves are on the bilum.

Aupugagau'i akaiki'a'i auni'i fea muninai ke.kae

leaves big.PL two.PL bilum at the back they.stay
The two big leaves are at the back of the bilum.

4.2. Translation Issues for Postpositions

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5. VERBS

5.1. Person and Number Marking

5.1.1. Subject Marking

Many languages have markers on the verb to show who or what the subject is. The following
table shows the subject markers in our language:
Table 5.1.1.1: Verbs - Subject markers
Subject marker Example of a verb with English / Tok Pisin
subject marker translation
st
SG 1 person la- lafeu I slept
nd
2 person lo- lofeu you slept
rd
3 person e- efeu he/she slept
st
PL 1 person a- afeu we slept
nd
2 person o- ofeu you (pl.) slept
rd
3 person ke- kefeu they slept

5.1.2. Object Marking

Many languages also have markers on the verb to show who or what the object is. The
following table shows the object markers in our language:
Table 5.1.2.1: Verbs - Object markers
Object marker Example of a verb with English / Tok Pisin
object marker translation
st
SG 1 person -au eauniau he hit me
nd
2 person -o eaunio he hit you
rd
3 person -a eaunia he hit him/her
st
PL 1 person -mai eaunimai he hit us
nd
2 person -mi eaunimi he hit you (pl.)
rd
3 person -i eauni'i he hit them

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5.1.3. Recipient Marking
Some languages have markers on the verb to show who or what the recipient is, for verbs
where something is given to someone. The following table show the recipient markers in our
language. Notice that the recipient markers are the same as the object markers.

Table 5.1.3.1: Verbs - Recipient markers

recipient marker Example of a verb with English / Tok Pisin
recipient marker translation
st
SG 1 person -au epeniau he gives it to me
nd
2 person -o epenio he gives it to you
rd
3 person -a epenia he gives it to him/her
st
PL 1 person -mai epenimai he gives it to us
nd
2 person -mi epenimi he gives it to you (pl.)
rd
3 person -i epeni'i he gives it to them

In a ditransitive sentence with both an object and a recipient, the verb marks the recipient, not
the object.

imoi mekoi amu'e ma'o e.peni'.i

boy kaukau dog many he.give.them
The boy gave the kaukau to many dogs.

imoi mekoi ma'o amu'e e.peni.a

boy kaukau many dog he.gave.it
The boy gave many kaukaus to the dog.

Translation Issues for Subject, Object, and Recipient Markers

Page 25
5.2. Tense
In Mekeo, verbs do not change to show present and past tense. Instead, time words such as pau
'now' and fai 'yesterday' show whether the tense is past or present. To show the future tense we
use the irrealis prefix a- on the verb. See the irrealis section for examples.

5.2.1. Examples
Example 5.2.1.1: Present and Past

Pau Kainantu la.lao

now Kainantu I.go
I am going to Kainantu now.

Fai Kainantu la.lao

yesterday Kainantu I.go
Yesterday I went to Kainantu.

5.2.2. Translation Issues Related to Tense

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5.3. Aspect
Aspect has to do with the timing of an action or event itself, for example if it is continuing,
completed, repeated, and so on.

5.3.1. Continuous
Continuous aspect ( ) describes an action or event that is viewed as carrying on at
some point in time. For example, in Tok Pisin, mi ritim buk i stap or mi wok long ritim buk.
Mekeo uses reduplication to show continuous aspect.
Example 5.3.1.1: Continuous

peni e.afia malele e.pa.papua laolao, . . .

pen he.took school he.RED.write while
He took a pen, and while he was writing, . . .

5.3.2. Habitual
Habitual aspect ( ) describes an action or event that happens several times, whether in
the past or the present. For example, in Tok Pisin, em i save ritim buk, or in English ‘he used to
read books’ or ‘he often reads books’.
Mekeo does not mark habitual aspect on the verbs. However, the word 'aisama' at the end of
the clause can show that the aspect is habitual. Also, the expressions 'maagakania', 'kania
ipauma', and 'maaga ipauma' can show habitual aspect.
Example 5.3.2.1: Habitual

Ufainagai au apao'i moku ke.lao ke.oma aisama

long time ago men old Port Moresby they.went they.want when
A long time ago, when the ancestors used to go to Port Moresby,

Kuku la.ani maaga.kania.

smoke I.eat eye.head
I smoke every day.

Kuku isa.ani.na maaga ipauma.

smoke you.eat.? eye very
You smoke all the time.

5.3.3. Repeated
Repeated aspect ( ) describes an action or event that happens repeatedly over a short
time. For example, in Tok Pisin, em i singaut singaut.
Mekeo shows repeated aspect with reduplication and the suffix -ka or -kai.

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Example 5.3.3.1: Repeated

teipolo e.gapu.gapu.ka
table he.RED.hit.RPT
he kept hitting the table

inei e.gefa.gefa.kai
bird he.RED.shoot.RPT
he kept shooting the bird

5.3.4. Beginning
Beginning aspect ( ) describes an action or event that is viewed as just beginning. For
example, in Tok Pisin, em i stat long wok.
Mekeo does not mark beginning aspect on the verb. We know from the context that it is
beginning aspect.
Example 5.3.4.1: Beginning aspect

Peni la.fia malele la.papua kai aule e.gaga la.lao ti la.inu.

pen I.take school I.write but bell it.ring I.go tea I.drink.
I picked up my pen and started writing, but then the bell rang so I went and drank tea.

A'ifa la.fia mukimuki la.gapukia.

knife I.take grass I.cut
I took the knife and started cutting the grass.

5.3.5. Completed
Completed aspect ( ) describes an action or event that is viewed as having finished.
For example, in Tok Pisin, em i ritim buk pinis, or in English ‘he read a book’.
Mekeo does not mark completed aspect on the verb. Instead, the verb 'efua' after the main verb
shows that the aspect is completed.
Example 5.3.5.1: Completed aspect

mafe a.'afalai e.fua aisama

betelnut we.sell it.finish when
when we finished selling betelnut

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5.3.6. Translation Issues Related to Aspect

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5.4. Realis and Irrealis Status
PNG languages often have a difference between realis and irrealis status. Realis refers to the
more real and certain events, while irrealis refers to possible or doubtful events.
Mekeo shows irrealis with the prefix a- on the verb. The irrealis marker a- comes before the
subject marker on the verb.

5.4.1. Examples

Example 5.4.1.1: Realis and Irrealis

Fai Kainantu la.lao

yesterday Kainantu I.go
Yesterday I went to Kainantu.

Fafoko Kainantu a.la.lao

tomorrow Kainantu IRR.I.go
Tomorrow I will go to Kainantu.

Lau pau Kainantu a.la.lao

I now Kainantu IRR.I.go
I am not going to Kainantu now.

Other forms of irrealis

Mekeo English equivalent
st
SG 1 person afamai I might come
nd
2 person afomai You might come
rd
3 person afemai He/she/it might come
st
PL 1 person afamai We might come
nd
2 person afomai You (PL) might come
rd
3 person afekemai They might come

Mekeo English equivalent

st
SG 1 person afalamai I might not come.
nd
2 person afolomai You might not come
rd
3 person afaemai He/she/it might not
come
st
PL 1 person afalamai We might not come
nd
2 person afolomai You (PL) might not come
rd
3 person afakemai They might not come

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 Mekeo English equivalent
st
SG 1 person famai I should come
nd
2 person fomai You should come
rd
3 person femai He/she/it should come
st
PL 1 person famai We should come
nd
2 person fomai You (PL) should come
rd
3 person fekemai They should come

Translation Issues for Realis and Irrealis

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5.5. Serial Verbs
Serial verbs mean two or more verbs that go together and that show closely related actions.
Often both (or all) the verbs keep at least some of their basic meaning. The whole group of
verbs acts as one unit and often the verbs in the group all have the same subject (and object).
For example, the meaning of the English verb bring is expressed in many PNG languages with a
serial verb meaning ‘(go) get come’. Another example is Tok Pisin, 'Kisim kam'.
Mekeo language has person markers on each serial verb. There are usually two verbs in a series.

5.5.1. Examples
Here are some examples of serial verbs in our language:
Example 5.5.1.1: Serial Verbs

Eifa a.lo.lao Kainantu aisama fo.mue fo.mai e.oma.

He.said IRR.you.go Kainantu if you.back you.come he.said
He said, “If you go to Kainantu, you should come back.”

lau la.ufai la.pea

I I.lead I.walk
I walked in front.

a.fia a.lao a.inoino a.oge

we.take we.go we.fish we.put

ma'a e'ele'i kekoko a.fi'i

fish small.PL they went inside we.take
We take it and put it in the water and we catch the small fish that go inside.

Translation Issues for Serial Verbs

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6. CLAUSES

6.1. Transitive clauses

Transitive clauses include a subject, a verb, and an object.

6.1.1. Examples

Our usual word order for a transitive clause is SOV (Subject, Object, Verb)
Here are some examples:
Example 6.1.1.1: Word order in transitive clauses

Mafe a.'afalai
betelnut we.sell
We sold betelnut.

Auni'i gugu ke.gope'i

two arrow they.tie
Two men are tying the arrow.

6.2. Intransitive clauses

Intransitive clauses have only a subject. They do not have an object.

6.2.1. Examples
Here are some examples of intransitive clauses:
Example 6.2.1.1: Intransitive clauses

Keaga.i a.lao ago alogai a.koko aisama,

road.on we.go bush inside we.go in when
We went on the road and when we went inside the bush . . .

Lau lau.fai la.pea

I I.go first I.walk
I was leading.

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6.3. Di-transitive clauses
Clauses that have a subject and both an object and a recipient are called di-transitive. An
English example is: I gave the book to him.

6.3.1. Examples
Example 6.3.1.1: Di-transitive clauses (that have recipients)

imoi mekoi amu'e epenia

boy kaukaudog he gave

The boy gave the kaukau to a dog.

This is our usual order for sentences that have recipients: Agent, Patient, Recipient, Verb

6.3.2. Translation Issues for Transitive, Intransitive, and Di-transitive Clauses

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6.4. Semantic roles (noun roles)

6.4.1. Agent
An agent deliberately makes an action or event happen. E.g. ‘Cain murdered his brother’. In
the following example, e- 'he' is the agent.

Example 6.4.1.1: Agent

Inei aga'o e.gefaisa

bird one he.shoot
He shot one bird.

6.4.2. Force
A force makes an action happen but not deliberately. E.g. ‘the wind blew down Job’s house’. In
the following example, ameku 'wind' is the force.
Example 6.4.2.1: Force

Ameku au e.pua'afogaina
wind tree it.blew down
The wind blew the tree down.

6.4.3. Experiencer
An experiencer does not control what happens, and they are not changed by what happens.
They feel what happens with their senses or emotions. E.g. ‘Samuel heard the sheep’, ‘Jonah
felt angry’. In the following example, la- 'I' is the experiencer.

Example 6.4.3.1: Experiencer

a'o la.logonia
noise I.hear
I heard a noise.

6.4.4. Stimulus
A stimulus is something that is seen, thought about, or felt. E.g. ‘I saw a dog’, ‘The man thought
about his daughter’. In the following example, a'o 'noise' is the stimulus.
Example 6.4.4.1: Stimulus

a'o la.logonia
noise I.hear
I heard a noise.

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6.4.5. Possessor
A possessor is someone who has something. E.g. ‘Joseph has a coat’. In the following example,
e'i 'their' is the possessor.
Example 6.4.5.1: Possessor

E'i mafe ke.afaisa

their betelnut they.sell
They sold their betelnut.

6.4.6. Location
A location is where an action or event takes place. E.g. ‘Eli slept in his bed’, ‘She found the
coin under the table’. In the following example, fea 'bilum' is the location.
Example 6.4.6.1: Location

Aupugagauga pitoga fea paapagai e.kae

leaf red bilum under it.stay
The red leaf is under the bilum.

6.4.7. Source / Destination

A source is where something moves from, a destination is where something moves to. E.g.
‘Abraham travelled from Ur (source) to Haran (destination)’. In the following examples, oita
'toilet' is the source, and Aiyurai 'Aiyura' is the destination.
Example 6.4.7.1: Source

James oita afugai e.pealai

James toilet at place he.came out
James came out of the toilet.

Example 6.4.7.2: Destination

Ke egae a.mai Aiyurai

and there we.came Aiyura
We came to Aiyura.

6.4.8. Instrument
An instrument is used by someone to make something happen. E.g. ‘Jael killed Sisera with a
tent peg’ ‘Saul attacked David with a spear’. In the following example, auliisoai 'spear' is the
instrument.
Example 6.4.8.1: Instrument

Jon auliiso.ai uma e.opugua.

John spear.with pig he.killed
John killed the pig with a spear.

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6.4.9. Accompaniment
An accompaniment is someone who does something with someone else. E.g. ‘Moses went to
Pharaoh with his brother’. In the following example, ekefa'amai 'our friend' is the
accompaniment.
Example 6.4.9.1: Accompaniment

laai ekefa'amai fou a.gamiamia

we friend.our with we.celebrate
We celebrate with our friend.

6.4.10. Recipient
A recipient receives something from someone else. E.g. ‘The angel gave food to Elijah’. In the
following example, auga 'the one [sitting]' is the recipient.
Example 6.4.10.1: Recipient

E.agukipo auga e.penia

he.sat one he.gave him
He gave it to the one who is sitting down.

6.4.11. Beneficiary
A beneficiary is someone who benefits from an action done by someone else. E.g. ‘Dorcas made
clothes for the children’. In the following example, Mateo 'Matthew' is the beneficiary.
Example 6.4.11.1: Beneficiary

Isa Mateo ega malele afa e.ogeisa

he Matthew his school fees he.paid
He paid Matthew's school fees.

6.4.12. Patient
A patient is someone or something an action happens to. E.g. ‘John ate a locust’. In the
following example, teipolo 'table' is the patient.
Example 6.4.12.1: Patient

teipolo mo e.gapukia
table only he.hit
He only hit the table.

6.4.13. Translation Issues for Noun Roles

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6.5. Adverbs

6.5.1. Adverbs of Time

la.pea afa'agamo uma aga'o e.aniani a'o la.logonia
I.walk a little while pig one it.was eating noise I.heard it
I walked for a little while, and then I heard a pig eating.

Ufainagai au apao'i moku ke.lao ke.oma

long time ago men old Port Moresby they.went they.wanted
A long time ago our ancestors wanted to go to Port Moresby.

6.5.2. Adverbs of Manner

Au iku.ai e.talaifa felo alogaina.
man mountain.on he.drive good very.
The man drives very carefully on the mountain.

6.5.3. Adverbs of Degree

lo e'a aepalifua alogaina
fire house did not spoil very
the fire did not spoil the house very much

6.5.4. Adverbs of Place

Egae ke.feu e'i mafe ke.afaisa
there they.slept their betelnut they.sold
They slept there and sold their betelnut.

6.6. Negative Clauses and Negation

Negative clauses are those which include a meaning like no or not in English. When the
sentence has a verb we use a- on a verb to make it negative and if there is no verb we use laa'i.

6.6.1. Examples

Example 6.6.1.1: Words that say ‘no’

amu'e akaiki'a amu'e akaiki'a laa'i

dog big dog big not
The dog is big. The dog is not big.

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oi isa lo.logonia ma? E. Oi isa lo.logonia ma? Laa'i.
you he you.know INTER Yes. You he you.know INTER No.
Do you know him? Yes. Do you know him? No.

Lau isa la.logonia. Lau isa a.la.logonia.

I him I.know I him IRR.I.know

I know him. I don't know him.

Imu e.au Imu a.e.au

rain it.rain rain IRR.it.rain
It is raining. It is not raining.

Example 6.6.1.2: Negative commands

oi a'ifa fo.lo.afia
you knife 2IRR.you.take
Don't take the knife.

Oi foama fo.lo.ania
you food 2IRR.you.eat
Don't eat the food.

Example 6.6.1.3: Words with a negative meaning

laa'i – nothing

kai aga'o laa'i – nobody

afu laa'i – nowhere

ae- – never (ae-maimai – never-come, ae-miamia - never-happen)

6.6.2. Translation Issues for Negative Clauses

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7. SENTENCES

7.1. Conjunctions
Here is a list of conjunctions in Mekeo.
ke and
o or
kai but, while
aisama as, when, whenever, if, until, while, unless
ega puo so
gome because
pau since, now
ganinagai although
felao until
alogai while
ega'ina afeigai after, after that

The conjunction ega puo points to what comes before as the reason for what comes after the
conjunction.
Ega puo aule kina amagai aga.lao loli aga'o

CNJ CNJ Saturday day morning we.go truck one

Kainantu e.lao auga aga.afia.

Kainantu it.go ? we.take

So that is why on Saturday morning we are going to take a truck and go to Kainantu.

The word aisama is used in this example to tell what happens after, and it tells how we feel
about something. It can be used in both irrealis and realis. Aisama can mean either 'if' or
'when', depending on the context.

Lo agaefalo agefua aisama e'a alo aga.isa lo e'a

fire we.put.out finished when house in we.see fire house
aepalifua alogaina koa aisama aga.isa a.lomai age.gama
did.not.spoil very like if we.see we.feel we.happy
When we finished putting the fire out, we would check the house and if it was not badly
damaged we would feel happy.

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Translation Issues Related to Conjunctions

When translating conjunctions: remember that Mekeo often does not use as many
conjunctions as the English language.

Page 41
7.2. Commands (Imperative Sentences)
In Mekeo we can give a command using the prefixes mo- or fo-, fa-, fe. The words paumamo
used on the sentence tells that this command must be done and paumaniamo also strongly
commands that it must be done.

7.2.1. Examples
oi mo.ufele
you 2.wash
Wash.

Oi afa fo.ufele
you should 2IRR.wash
You should wash.

i'a inaina aguagu apala fa.pua'afuga

we this life bad 1IRR.leave
We should leave this bad life.

oi fo.lo.mai
you 2IRR.you.come

Don't come.

oi o'o fo.lo.ania
you banana 2IRR.you.eat
Don't eat the banana.

Isa fe.mai paumamo

He 3IRR.come must
He must come.

Isa loli afa fe.ke.oge paumaniamo

they truck fee 3IRR.they.put really must
They really must pay the truck fee.

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8. Questions

8.1. Questions (Interrogative Sentences)

8.1.1. Yes-No Questions

When asking questions, the sentence order remains the same but we only change our intonation.
It goes up for the question, and for the statement it stays normal. We can use the interrogative
marker ma at the end of a sentence to make it a question, but we do not have to use it always.
Example 8.1.1.1:

Isa uma agelao? Isa uma agelao.

he garden he.go he garden he.go
Is he going to the garden? He is going to the garden.

Isa e'a alogai eague ma? Isa e'a alogai eague.

she house inside she.stay INTER she house inside she.stay
Is she in the house? She is in the house.

8.1.2. Content Questions (WH)

When we want to find out more than just ‘yes’ or ‘no’, in English we ask questions using
question words such as Who? What? Which? How many? When? Where? How? Why? (People
sometimes call these WH questions because most of these English question words start with wh.)
In Mekeo, we don't use the interrogative ma for WH questions. In WH questions, the question
word does not always come at the beginning. It can also be used in the middle of the sentence.
kapa'ina what
kaisau who
kapapuo why
ala'ina which
pika how many
gaika when
kapai where
alakoa how

Example 8.1.2.1:

Kaisau eifa puka lo.kuapina?

who said book you.read
Who told you to read the book?

Gaika a.lo.lao Kainantu?

when IRR.you.go Kainantu
When are you going to Kainantu?

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Oi emu phone kapai lo.geisa?
you your phone where you.put?
Where did you put your phone?

Oi kapapuo isa lo.aunia

you why he you.hit
Why did you hit him?

8.1.3. Translation Issues for Questions

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9. Reason, Result, Purpose

9.1. Reason and Result

Here are some sentences that show a reason and a result in our language.
Example 9.1.1: Reason and Result

REASON Ifi kina auga Deo ega kina puo

Sunday day ? God his day so
RESULT amagai agaufele agefua aisama, agalao megamega
morning we will wash finished when we.go prayer
Sunday is God's day, so in the morning we will wash and go for service.

RESULT Ama'a Deo tenku agapenia,

Our Father God thank you we give
REASON gome e'a looai aea'afeai.
because house fire.on not burned all
We would thank our Heavenly Father, because the whole house did not burn.

Reason/Result Rule: In Mekeo, the result and reason clauses in a sentence can change
places, and either one can come first.

9.2. Purpose and Result

Here are some sentences that show a purpose and a result in our language.
Example 9.2.1: Purpose and Result

RESULT Gugu afeauai epaapauka

arrow with the bow he put the arrow on the bow
PURPOSE inei gagefa eoma
bird he shoot he wanted
The man put the arrow on the bow and got ready to shoot the bird.

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emai fei eafia kaniagai e'efaisa,
he came water he took head.on he poured
REASON faaga efei gamuga eoponia aisama,
skin wet felt he felt it when
RESULT e'uegekae au eafia eulaisa epiau
he got up stick he took he chase he ran
PURPOSE gaauga eoma
hit he wanted
He came and poured water on his head. When he felt wet, he got up, took a stick and he
chased after him, to hit him.

PURPOSE au apao'i moku kelao keoma aisama,

man old Port Moresby they went wanted when
REASON keaga laa'i
road no
RESULT ega puo e'i mafe keafia gaagai keukaisa
so their betelnut they took canoe.in they put it

keaguka a'umo kelao

they stay in sea they went
Our ancestors wanted to go to Port Moresby, but because there was no road, they put their
betelnut in a canoe and went by sea.

Purpose/Result Rule: The purpose and the result clauses can come in any order in a
sentence.

9.2.1. Translation Issues for Purpose, Result, and Reason

When we translate Purpose/Result/Reason sentences, the purpose, result and reason might
have to change places in the sentence so that the flow of the language is acceptable in
Mekeo language.

Page 46
Page 47
10. Appendix – Glossed Stories

10.1. Ala Aoma Amai Ukarumpa

Ifikina amai Akefairuai mafe a'afalai efua aisama
Sunday we came to Akefairuai betelnut we sold we finished when
n v n n v v conn

amai Mokuai gapi aga'omo famili e'iai afeu

we came Port Moresby night one family with them we slept
v n n num n post v
On Sunday we came to Agevairu. When we finished selling the betelnut we came to Port
Moresby and slept one night with the family.

Egani amagai 7am eafia aisama

Next morning 7am at when

det n *** v conn

amai akeafimai afugai aagu

we came will take us place stay
v v n v
So next morning at 7am we came to the pick up point and waited.

Ega'ina afegai 9am koa iopoga amai palai afugai aagu

That after 9am like same we came plane at place stay

dem post *** adj adj v n n v

elao 1pm aisama , palaisai aaguka agopo alao

he went 1pm when plane in stay in we flew we went
v *** conn n v v v

Karasai papiau isa'i keake

Karasa at people some they went
n n quant v

After that at 9am we went to the airport and waited until 1pm we got in the plane and flew to
Garasa to drop some people there.

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Ke egae amai Aiyurai ake keukaimai
And there we came Aiyura we went down they put us
conn det v n v v

amai Ukarumpa malele afugai kepakeimai

we came Ukarumpa school at place they drop us
v n n n v
And there we came to Aiyura and went down, then they took us to the school place and they
drop us at Ukarumpa .

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10.2. Au Apao'i Ala Keoma Moku Kelao fou'i
Ufainagai au apao'i moku kelao keoma aisama
long time ago men old Port Moresby they went wanted when
adv n adj n v v conn

keaga la'i ega puo e'i mafe keafia gaagai keukaisa

road no that so their betelnut they took canoe.in they put it
n *** det conn pro n v n v
keaguka a'umo kelao
they stay in sea they went
v n v
A long time ago our ancestors wanted to go to Port Moresby, but because there was no road,
they put their betelnut in a canoe and went by sea.

Egae kefeu e'i mafe keafaisa efua afegai aisama,

there they slept their betelnut they sold them finished after when
det v pro n v v post conn

akemue afaekaina puo palaisai keaguka kemue pagua kelao

they came back cannot so plane in they stay in they went back village they went
v v conn n v v n v
They stayed there until they finished selling all of their betelnut. Then they could not get back
so they went back to the village by plane.

Kai pau kina auga keaga elao epealai puo

but now day one road he went went out so
conn adv n num n v v conn

papiau loliai keaguka kelao Mokuai mafe keafalaisa,

people truck.in they stay in they went Port Moresby betelnut they sold
n n v v n n v

kapa'ina anina keani kea'afaisa pagua kemai

what something they like they buy village they came
det n v v n v
But now there is a road, so people go to Port Moresby in a truck to sell betelnut, and buy
whatever they want, and go back to the village.

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10.3. Aule, Ifi Kapa'ina Agakapa Fouga
Aule kina laai Mekeo group ekefa'amai eifanimai eega falao,
Saturday day we Mekeo group friend.our called.us his went
n n pro n n n v pro v

egae fou faagu famiamia gapaigapi kai famue famai eoma

there with stay celebrate afternoon but we.back we.come he wanted
dem post v v n conn v v v
On Saturday our friend invited us, the Mekeo group, to go and celebrate at his house until
afternoon and then we will all come back.

Ega puo aule kina amagai agalao loli aga'o

his so Saturday day morning we go truck one
pro conn n n n v n num

Kainantu elao auga agaafia agalao Kainantu

Kainantu he went one we will take we go Kainantu
n v num v v n
So that is why on Saturday morning we are going to take a truck and go to Kainantu.

Egae laai ekefa'amai fou agamiamia agaagu,

there we friend.our with celebrate we will stay
dem pro n post v v

agelao gapigapi ke loli aga'o agaafia agamue agamai

until afternoon and truck one we will take we.back come
post n conn n num v v v
We will stay there and celebrate with our friend until afternoon and then we will come back in a
truck.

Ifi kina auga Deo ega kina puo

Sunday day God his day so
n n n pro n conn

amagai agaufele agefua aisama, agalao megamega

morning we will wash finished when we go prayer
n v v conn v v

Sunday is God's day, so in the morning we will wash and go for service.

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Megamega afegai agamue agamai agaagu alaagai
prayer after we.back come we will stay we will rest
v post v v v v

agelao Monday ke malele age'ina puo aga malele

until Monday and school will start so future school
v n conn n v conn *** n
After service we will come back and rest until Monday.

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10.4. E'a Looai E'agaa
E'a looai afeaga koa aisama, lau akafau,
house fire.on will burn like if I my.wife
n post v adj conn pro n

gau fou alapaini'i e'ai amu felo'i kekae

son with I.will tell house things good stay
n post v n n adj v

auga agafi'i agaake agoai agaoge'i akeka

that we take we come down ground we put them will stay
det v v n v v
I‎ f the house were on fire, I would tell my wife and sons and we would take the important things
from the house and bring them down to the ground.

Egae kai e'a looai eaga e'ele koa aisama,

there but house fire.on burn small like if
dem conn n post v adj adj conn

lau akafau gau fou fei paketai agafia lo agaefalo

I my.wife son with water bucket.in we take fire we put the fire out
pro n n post n n v n v
If the fire on the house was small, my wife and sons and I would take a bucket of water to put
the fire out.

Lo agaefalo agefua aisama e'a alo agaisa lo

fire we put the fire out finished when house in we see fire
n v v conn n post v n

e'a aepalifua alogaina koa aisama agaisa alomai agegama

house did not spoil very like if we see we feel we happy
n v adj adj conn v v v
When we finished putting the fire out, we would check the house and if it was not badly
damaged we would feel happy.

Ama'a Deo tenku agapenia, gome e'a looai aea'afeai

Our Father God thank you we give because house fire.on not burned all
n n v v conn n post v
We would thank our Heavenly Father, because the whole house did not burn.

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10.5. Fea Aga'o Ke Aupugagauga fou
Aupugagauga ageage aga'o fea alogai keukaisa.
leaf green one bilum in they put
n adj num n post v
They put one green leaf in the bilum.

Aupugagauga pitoga fea paapagai ekae.

leaf red bilum under stay
n adj n post v
The red leaf is under the bilum.

Aupugagauga auni'i fea laagai kekae.

leaf two bilum on stay
n adj n post v
The two leaves are on the bilum.

Aupugagauga akaikia fea eegai ekae.

leaf big bilum beside stay
n adj n post v
The big leaf is beside the bilum.

Aupugagauga pitoga ke ageage fea laagai kekae.

leaf red and green bilum on stay
n adj conn adj n post v
The red leaf and the green leaf are on top of the bilum.

Aupugagau'i e'ele'i pito'i fea eegai kekae.

leaves small.PL red.PL bilum beside stay
n adj adj n post v
The small red leaves are near the bilum.

Aupugagau'i akaikia'i auni'i fea muninai kekae.

leaves big.PL two bilum at the back stay
n adj num n post v
The two big leaves are at the back of the bilum.

Page 54
10.6. James Feisai Ray E'efaisa
Ray elao tieai eagu peni eafia malele epapapua laolao,
Ray he went chair.on he sat pen he took school he was writing while
n v n v n v n v conn

kai James oita afugai epealai emai, fei eafia

but James toilet at place he came out he came water he took
conn n n n v pro n v

kaniagai e'efaisa, faaga efei gamuga eoponia aisama,

head.on he poured skin wet felt he felt it when
n v n n v v conn

e'uegekae au eafia eulaisa epiau gaauga eoma.

he got up stick he took he chase he ran hit he wanted
v n v v v v v
Ray went and sat on a chair. While he was writing with a pen, James came out of the toilet and
poured water on his head. When he felt wet, he got up, took a stick and he chased after him, to
hit him.

Kai teipolo epiaulofe,

but table he ran around
conn n v

puo gaauga eoma auga aekainia teipolo mo egapukia

so hit he wanted could not table only he hit
conn v v v n n v
Ray wanted to hit him, but James ran around the table, so he could not hit him. He only hit the
table.

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10.7. Kapukapu Isonionina
Kina aga'ogai lau gau auni'i fou kapukapu alao aoma,
day one I son two with hunting we went we.said
n num pro n n post v v v

emai gugu afeau afiia kapukapu alao

our arrow bow we took it hunting we went
pro n n v v v
One day my sons and I wanted to go hunting, so we took our bows and arrows and we went
hunting.

Keagai alao ago alogai akoko aisama, lau

On road we went bush in we went inside when I
n v n post v conn pro

laufai lapea, lapea afa'agamo uma aga'o eaniani a'o lalogonia

I lead I walk I walk a little while pig one was eating noise I heard it
v v v adv n num v n v
We went on the road and when we went inside the bush I was leading. We walked for a little
while and then we heard a pig eating.

Lau gau lapaini'i keapakipo lapakaisamo lalao uma

I son I told them they stopped I slowly went pig
pro n v v v v n

laisa uma akaikia alogaina puo e'ele koa

I saw it pig big very so small like
v n adj adv conn adj adj

i'opoga auga lagefaisa laagefapugua emae, lala'aisa lamaseina

same that I shot it I shot it died I pulled it out I brought
adj det v v v v v

lau gau kegopeisa apuaisa amai pagua,

I son tie it we carried it we came village
pro n v v v n

lau gau kekimunia keifaisa famili kegakunia aniia.

I son they burnt they cut it family they cooked we ate it
pro n v v n v v

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I told my sons to stop and I walked slowly until I saw a very big pig and another smaller pig. I
shot it and it died, and I pulled it over to my sons. They tied it, and we carried it to the village.
My sons burnt the hair, and cut it up into pieces. The family cooked it and we all ate it.

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10.8. Ogopu Igope Fouga
Ogopu akapa aoma aisama , ago alogai faoki,
trap we make we wanted when bush in cane
n v v conn n post n

ago alo ufe omaga ke kooga ininauga afiamai ogopu akapa.

bush in vine "omaga" and coconut leaf we took trap we make
n post n n conn n n v n n
When we wanted to make a trap, we took cane, "omaga" vine and coconut leaves from the bush,
and sat down to make a trap.

Ega'ina amu'i oiso afi'i amaiseini'i efua aisama,

That things three we took them brought them finished when
dem n num v v v conn

kooga ininauga apa'i'ini'i ege emia

coconut leaf we clean them coconut stick it became
n n v v v
When we finished gathering these three things, we clean the coconut leaves and they become
coconut stick.

Ega'ina afegai faoki afia ufeai agope, egae kai

That after cane we took string.with we tie there but
dem post n v n v dem conn

ege afia ega'ina igopelofe elao ogopu akaikia emia,

coconut stick we took that tie it around he went trap big it became
n v dem v v n adj v

Ogopu akaikia auga ikapa emia afegai,

trap big that making it became after
n adj det v v post

ogopu e'ele ega'ina ogopu gauga keoma egai'na ikapa emia

trap small that trap son (small trap) wanted that making it became
n adj dem n n v dem v v
‎After that we take the cane and tie it with a vine, and then we took the coconut stick and tied
that around to make the big trap. After making the big trap, then we make the small trap.

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Egae kai ipakoko emia agopeapia efua aisama,
there but put inside it became we tie finished when
dem conn v v v v conn

afia alao ainoino aoge ma'a e'ele'i kekoko afi'i.

we took we went we fish we put fish small.PL they went inside we took them
v v v v n adj v v
We put the small trap inside the big one, and then we take it and put it in the water and we
catch the small fish that go inside.

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10.9. Picture Isonionina
Au gugu maaga ekopia
man arrow eye he sharpen
n n n v
A
‎ man is sharpening the tip of an arrow.

Alala ekapa
Spear he make
n v
He is making a spear.

Au gugu ikapa epalogo

man arrow making he teaching him
n n v v
‎A man teaching him how to make an arrow.

Auni'i gugu kegope'i

Two arrow they are tying
num n v
Two of them are tying the spears.

Au au'i oiso gugu kegopei'i

man those three arrow they tie them
n dem num n v
Those three men are tying the spears.

Au au'i oiso alala kekapaisa

man those three spear they make them
n dem num n v
Those three men make the spears.

Au gugu ekapaisa efua

man arrow he make finished
n n v v
The man finished making the arrow.

Inei ala agegefaoma auga epolaga

bird how he will shoot could he was thinking
n v v
He was thinking about how he could shoot the bird.

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Au inei pokeleai eisa
man bird pawpaw on he saw it
n n n v
A man saw a bird on the pawpaw tree.

Gugu afeauai epaapauka inei gagefa eoma

arrow with the bow he put the arrow on the bow bird he shoot he wanted
n n v n v v
The man put the arrow on the bow and got ready to shoot the bird.

Au ima felo puo

man hand good so
n n adj conn
The man's hand was very good.

Inei gamagai egefaisa emae

bird head/heart/stomach he shoot it it died
n n v v
He shot the bird in the stomach and it died.

Inei aga'o egefaisa

bird one he shoot it
n num v
‎He shot one bird.

Inei auni'i kemae

bird two they died
n num v
The two birds died.

Au afeau eafia
man spear he took
n n v
He took the spear.

Eagukipo auga epenia

He sat that he gave him
v det v
He gave it to the man who was sitting down.

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NOTES

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