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ASSIGNMENT #1 Waste Management Cause and Effect

Waste is anything generated as an unwanted consequence of human activity and, in general, of

any living thing. In order to survive, human beings must continually transform certain products
they have at their disposal into others that they can assimilate, consequently generating a part
that is waste. Waste management (or waste disposal) include the activities and actions required
to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.This includes the collection, transport,
treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste
management process.

The world’s big cities confront the difficult challenge of the environmental management of their
urban centers every day. Daily public, commercial and industrial life involves the challenge of
properly managing municipal waste to try to promote the reduction of waste production and
make better use of recoverable fractions.The problem of increasing waste production is already a
matter of world interest. Reducing waste at the point where it is produced and recycling it are the
best ways to halt the increasing wave of the production of waste at all levels.By 2050, the
recycling sector and industries that use clean technologies will have replaced today’s polluting
industries.

Wastes can be classified into three types according to the type of treatment that each
requires;Special waste , Non-Special wastes and Inert waste.Special wastes are industrial waste
which includes organic solvents, ethers, organochlorine compounds, pesticides, industrial oils,
creosotes, salt and metal baths, cyanides, heavy metal compounds, PCBs and PCTs, dioxins,
etc.Inert waste is that which, once dumped in a tip, does not undergo any significant physical,
chemical or biological transformation and which meets the legally determined leaching criteria.
It includes tiling waste, slag, scrap iron, gravel, etc. Non-special waste is waste not classified as
special or inert. It includes plastic, rubber, leather, textile packaging, etc.

Classification of wastes can also be done with reference to the site of production. Municipal
household wastes , garbage bins , selective collection bins,household wastes requiring special
management , commercial waste etc.

Municipal household waste is waste generated in private households, businesses, offices and
services and also waste not considered special waste and which, by its nature or composition,
could resemble the waste produced in the abovementioned places or activities.Municipal waste is
also considered to include: Waste from road-cleaning operations • Waste from green areas •
Waste from recreation areas and beaches • Dead household animals • Abandoned furniture, tools
and vehicles • Waste and rubble from minor construction works and household repair work .
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The amount of urban solid waste (USW) generated depends on many parameters:standard of
living,time of the year and population movements (vacations,festivals,weekends,etc). The United
States produces the most household waste, with 800 kg/inhabitant/year. The country that
produces the most waste in Europe is Holland, with more than 500 kg/ inhabitant/year. In Nepal,
Kathmandu produces the most waste, with 109.5 kg/inhabitant/year.

It became a requirement to have two bins in the home, or one with two compartments, to
separate daily rubbish. One was for organic material (food scraps, meat, fish, vegetables, fruit,
peelings, shells, coffee grains, etc.), which could be transformed into compost, and the other was
for the most common types of inert materials (inorganic products, pieces of glass, used tins,
broken china, cartons, plastic, scraps of metal, etc.), to be taken to the garbage dump or a
selection plant.

Containers appropriate for different types of materials, located in the street and, wherever
possible, close to people’s homes.There are different containers for paper/cardboard, glass, tin
and, hopefully in the near future, plastic and cartons. Other waste, such as batteries, surplus or
expired medicine, clothes, etc., can be taken to specific collection sites.

Some waste generated in the domestic sphere has characteristics requiring specific management:
Glues and pastes • Paint, varnish and solvents • Insecticides and pesticides • Household mineral
oils • Additives and other automotive fluids • MedicinesThe recipients and containers of the
abovementioned materials • Electrical and electronic waste • Cleaning products • Spent batteries
and accumulators are some of the examples .

This is municipal waste generated by commercial activity, e.g., the hotel industry, bars, markets,
offices and services. It also includes waste that originates in industry and which is considered to
resemble municipal waste. The management of commercial waste is the responsibility of the
person behind the activity that generates it, who should manage the waste in line with the
obligations on waste holders or producers. An authorized manager should be contacted so the
waste can be recovered (wherever possible), released to a clean point or dumped in a controlled
tip.

For good waste management , we need waste management containers . Since the 1980s,
containers have been the traditional method for collecting the household and commercial waste
generated by the public. This method represents a major advance over the door-to-door
collection that was carried out previously.

The municipal evolution experienced by cities and the changes introduced in the waste
management model have, however, required the incorporation of significant modifications to the
container models used. The design has been gradually modernized and the way of emptying
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them optimized to adapt to the characteristics of the streets, the needs of the public and the new
systems of selective collection.

In areas with new buildings or already constructed buildings, where town-planning and
economic conditions allow, it is even possible to bury the containers underground or implement
other waste collection systems.

Although most people have got used to using rubbish containers in the streets, the difficulty in
placing them in particular parts of a city or the trouble that cleaning and collection operations
may occasionally cause people have led to other systems also being developed.

Side-loading containers have a greater capacity than traditional containers. Increased capacity
means fewer containers on the street and a rise in the volume/area ratio thanks to the installation
of 3,200-liter side-loading containers, except in areas where particular street characteristics make
their installation unadvisable (narrow or steep streets). They are called ‘side loading’ because of
the adapted collection vehicles that automatically lift the containers: the truck parks near the
container and lifts and empties it with the aid of articulated arms.This method was also designed
with the idea that it would reduce sound levels. Side-loading containers are today used to collect
different waste fractions. The fraction is determined by the color of the container or another type
of visual identifier on the outside of the container.

There is no question that in the challenge that environmental management has become for the
Administration, institutions and citizens, especially in a globalized world (which some people
believe is on the verge of environmental collapse), it is not enough to approach the problem from
a strictly technical or technological perspective, but rather a lot of attention must be given to the
‘human factor’. Technology, economy, science, etc. shows us the way, the most efficient model
for solving our environmental problems. But behind the science there are people and the
complex world of psychology and sociology. Aspects such as learning, motivation, changes of
habits, etc. are vital not only to explain what is happening, but also how to promote
sustainability.

First of all, it is necessary to stress that the management and general issue of waste today,
whether industrial, business or household, and in particular municipal waste, has become a
serious problem for 21th century society. The problems have different levels of seriousness
depending on the culture and region of the planet in question, or on the type of territorial, town-
planning and human structure. Everywhere, however, the increase in waste production and the
wasting of raw materials and natural resources are having devastating effects on the planet and
its inhabitants. To solve the problem it is important to analyze the causes, possible solutions, and
above all, the active agents in this process. Until today, the general belief about environmental
management and elements of communication has been that technology can solve all problems,
provide solutions to all questions posed, that the issues to be solved are basically related to
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economic questions and that it is enough that the public be informed so that the system continues
to function. In other words, we simply have to provide instructions and guidelines to determine
behavior in accordance with the programs established. However, experience tends to show that
that is not enough, and that grand waste-management plans with millions spent on infrastructure
and material can fail if at the end of the chain, the main agent – the everyday citizen - does not
understand their role and does not become involved in the process, i.e., if he or she thinks it is
not their responsibility, for example, to segregate organic material, paper or glass. What does the
future hold? Above all,the observation that we are facing greater complexity and seriousness in
environmental problems.With the effects of globalization,the internationalization of the market,
together with the general increase in emissions and other pollutants,and waste production,we
have to adopt new approaches to environmental management. The growing complexity calls for
greater involvement by all of society; with the active and dedicated participation by citizens
based on awareness and cooperation, and management that is more socialized, democratic and
involved.

ASSIGNMENT #2 Economic Blockade,Causes And Effects

A blockade is an effort to cut off supplies, war material or communications from a particular area
by force, either in part or totally. It is the blocking of men of war of the approach to the enemy
coast or a part of it for the purpose of preventing the ingress or egress of vessels or aircraft of all
nations. India blockade Nepal is also distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually directed at
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an entire country or region, rather than a fortress or city. While most blockades historically took
place at sea, the blockade is still used on land to prevent someone coming into a certain area.

The economic isolation of a blockaded country, the aim of which is to produce disruptions in its
economy by depriving it of raw goods and of markets for the sale of its commodities. An
economic blockade is carried out by means of the termination (prohibition) of trade, financial,
credit, and other economic ties with the blockaded state. It may be extended simultaneously to all
economic ties or only to particular forms of such ties with the blockaded country. The
termination of credit ties with a blockaded country, for example, can be an instance of partial
economic blockade. An economic blockade is generally connected with a political blockade and
is often combined with a military blockade, even without military operations.

This is an extreme case of lack of political power due to landlockedness – most landlocked
countries have alternative trade routes through other transit neighbours.Nevertheless, there are
still hurdles where trade can be blocked or severely restricted by transit nations. Sanctions were
easily placed upon Burundi by its neighbours in 1996 (Dinar 1996). Bolivia has had severe
difficulties transiting through Chile because of poor political relations that have lasted over 100
years. When political tensions result in military conflict between the landlocked state and their
transit neighbour, the effect can be quite acute. Armenia is currently blockaded by Armenia and
Turkey following the occupation of Kelbadiar (Azerbaijan) by ethnic Armenian forces. The
alternative routes through Georgia and Iran are restricted due to geographic obstacles
(mountains) and relatively poor infrastructure (Tavitan 2001).

It is an irony that the country which claimed to be the largest democracy in the world had
rejected the most democratic process to write a constitution. India, Nepal's southern neighbour,
had stopped so low as to effectuate an economic blockade following the promulgation of the new
constitution through the Constituent Assembly (CA) in Nepal on September 20, 2015. The new
constitution was endorsed by over 90 per cent of the total strength of the CA. There was no
consensus among the political parties in the CA, but it was near consensus.

Nowhere in the world has any constitution been promulgated by any CA with such a majority.
Many world powers, including China, USA, France, Japan and Pakistan, welcomed the new
constitution. However, India, the colony of the British Raj till 1947, simply took note of it and
took an inhuman measure of an unannounced economic blockade to register its dissatisfaction
forgetting that Nepal, a country which safeguarded its sovereignty and independence even at the
time when the world was divided among the world empires, is a sovereign, independent country.

In fact, the blockade was not unexpected. The statement of the Indian Ministry of External
Affairs issued just after the promulgation of the new constitution was rife with such threats.
Expression of the Indian Foreign Secretary, S. Jaysankar, during his visit to Nepal as a special
envoy of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi had issued similar threats when he reportedly
told the Nepalese leaders: What if India does not welcome the new constitution?

Jaysankar was here, on September 18, after the CA had endorsed the new constitution and the
date for the promulgation, Sept 20, had been fixed. He was here to postpone the promulgation so
that the demands of the agitating Madhes-based parties were addressed. Three major parties had
already called the Madhesi leaders for dialogue, and put on hold the CA process for two days as
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demanded by them. But no formal dialogue was held as the Madhesi leaders did not reciprocate
the major three party's move. Given this, the Nepalese leaders were in no position to postpone
the promulgation date and thus bow down before Indian hegemonic pressure.

It had just been five months since Nepal was devastated by an earthquake of magnitude 7.6.
Many poor people were still waiting for government relief and rehabilitation. And India had
imposed an undeclared economic blockade. There was a double standard at work. The Indian
government had claimed that the economic blockade had not been imposed, however, at the
border points, its agencies, the customs offices and Sima Surakshya Bal (SSB), do not allow
passage to Nepal-bound containers.

India had used different covers to hide its blockade - that the agitating parties have blocked the
entry points. That was totally wrong.Nepali containers had been stranded in India for over a
week. And except for Birgunj, no sit-in had blocked the road. Moreover, reports said even at
Birgunj, cadres of the agitating parties held the sit-in at the no man's land and pelted stone at the
Nepali security personnel from Indian soil. Had the agitation in the southern plains blocked the
transportation of the goods, they would have been blocked some 40 days ago when the agitation
started.

It was clear that India had supported the agitation in the southern plains in an open and ugly
manner. In this light, India had interfered in Nepal's internal affairs. Now the Indian move has
even jeopardised the agitation in Madhes itself. Many have already started saying that the
agitation is continuing on the strength of India. Thus, Indian interference and Madhesi agitation
have become interconnected. It is upto the Madhesi leaders how they work to detach their
movement from the Indian clutch so that the movement for what they say rights can be legitimate
and a domestic affair.

This scribe suggests them to remember what Yudhisthira told his brothers when the Kaurav were
tied by the Gandharvas in the jungle near where the Pandavas had taken shelter: When outsiders
attack us, we all brothers are one, when it is a matter of our right, we are five Pandavas and they
are 100 Kauravs.

By imposing an unannounced blockade, Indian rulers have violated their own constitution.
Article 51 of the Indian constitution says: maintain just and honourable relations between
nations, respect international law and treaty obligations. India has violated the international law
on the rights of a landlocked country, it has also crushed the just and honourable relations with
Nepal. What wrong did Nepal do to India by promulgating the new constitution?

A blockade or threat of a blockade has been a weapon used by India to impose its interests in
Nepal. But the blockade has always added pains to the common people than to the ruling elite.
Indian sanctions on Nepal, direct and indirect interference, have fuelled anti-Indian sentiments in
Nepal. And Indian diplomacy has failed in most south Asian countries. With the blockade,
Nepalese are having a taste of the Modi government's ‘first neighbourhood’ policy.

No excuse can justify the Indian blockade. But Nepalese leaders cannot be excused for such a
situation as well. When India imposed a blockade in 1989, these leaders did not protest against it,
because they thought it was supportive of their movement against the partyless Panchayat
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system. At the moment, the Madhesi leaders are repeating the same mistakes. Moreover, they
decided to stage sit-ins at the border points as if the common people in the hills were their
enemies.

A good diplomatic relation between two countries needs cooperation from both the countries
rather than just one of them . Nepal was also dull to respond to this blockade as prime minister
Ser Bahadur Deuba called it “Asahaj Avastha” rather than calling it a blockade which shows our
helplessness when it comes to dealing with the Indian Government.

ASSIGNMENT #3 Smokers VS Non Smokers

The age at initiation of daily smoking is 18.2 in Nepal . So we can consider that many people in
Nepal start very early leading to various consequences . Considering the diversity and the
numbers of Nepalese smokers, smoking and nonsmoking folks inevitably will be placed near
each other in the workplace,educational hubs, parties,clubs,homes,restaurants and so on . Given
the adverse effects of tobacco smoke on some nonsmokers, that situation will sometimes lead to
conflict.

An early age of smoking initiation predicts lower cessation rates, shorter periods of smoking
abstinence, and greater dependence on nicotine.The act of smoking cigarettes sends carbon
monoxide, tar, nicotine, and many other harmful substances into the body.Smoking can create
serious health issues for a person’s body.Smokers have more problems with their body than
nonsmokers do. They have a higher percentage of getting heart disease.one of the most common
cancers to come from smoking is pulmonary cancer that means it affects your lungs and causes
them to shrivel up.

Smoking can also affect other people. Smokers harm more than just themselves. They harm other
people around them as well. Smokers expose others to secondhand smoke. Cigarettes also cramp
smokers' lifestyles too. Smokers spend more money every week on cigarettes than on essentials.

Nonsmokers do not have as many problems because they do not smoke. They do have a stronger
immunity system against colds and viruses. Also, they do not have to worry about getting cancer
 Chapagain 8

because they do not smoke. Their heart and lungs will be healthy as well.Smokers expose others
to secondhand smoke.

Secondhand smoke is one of the leading causes of death among people that do not smoke. It
makes the nonsmokers feel and develop problems as if they were smoking.Smoking by smokers
in public places is a danger to non-smokers health for the reason of second-hand smoke. Second-
hand smoke is the third major cause of lung cancer.

Smoking could be a small subset of air pollution. However, if you look at it like a ‘verb’ and
something that one indulges in, then here is another interesting fact. Air pollution the scourge of
the modern world affects a smoker more than a non-smoker. Yes, all the auto exhausts, industrial
pollutants etc affects smokers more than the non-smoker. This is because when one smokes
regularly, the cilia that clean the lungs die gradually, while a non-smoker has the benefit of the
lung-cleaning cilia. In such a case a smoker is more prone to be affected by lung cancer than a
nonsmoker. However, secondhand smoke exposure should be a real concern among nonsmokers.

The time taken to recover from any specific illness, of any nature is usually more for a smoker
than for a non-smoker. This could be an illness and not just an affliction that is the result of
smoking. There have been many cases wherein, a non-smoker has lived to tell the tale, while a
smoker hasn’t pulled through.

If a smoker calculates or keeps track of the amount of money spent on cigarettes, they will
realize after a few years that they have actually spent a small fortune. It’s not just the cigarettes,
but consider the amount of money that a smoker will spend in buying matches, holders, and
various other accessories that are a part of smoking. A non-smoker can make good use of this
kind of money elsewhere.If you are a smoker then your lifespan is shorter than that of a non-
smoker. This fact has been proven through various studies. The average nonsmoker has a
tendency to live longer than an average smoker.

You, if you are a smoker, would like to believe that you work as hard as the next man; and
maybe you do. But on an average, a smoker misses more work days per year than a non-smoker.
These ‘misses’ are accompanied by a loss of pay and you have a very dissatisfied smoker.
Employers need to implement workplace tobacco testing if they want to keep productivity at
peak.

The muscle strength was significantly different in smokers and non-smokers (P = 0.012).
Moreover, smokers had less agility (P = 0.004) and speed (P = 0.008) than non-smokers.
However, although smokers were weaker than non- smokers, the differences in muscle
endurance (P = 0.066) and flexibility (P = 0.095) were not statistically significant.

In a survey of employees at 147 U.S. companies, smokers incurred the highest health-related
productivity losses compared with nonsmokers and former smokers, according to an article in the
October edition of the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine.To obtain the data
for this survey, researchers used the Wellness Inventory, which is a tool that measures lost
productivity related to 11 common health conditions. The Wellness Inventory is able to measure
days away from work (absenteeism) and unproductive time at work (presenteeism) due to health
conditions.
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Employee volunteers at 147 companies completed the Wellness Inventory, providing

information on sex, age, smoking status, perceived health status, occupational classification and
hours worked per week. The employee volunteers also were asked to specify the number of days
during the year that they experienced any of the 11 health conditions; the number of days away
from work due to these conditions; and the typical number of hours they were unproductive at
work on the days they experienced those conditions.

The volunteers were classified as nonsmokers, current smokers or former smokers, based on this
question: "Which cigarette smoking pattern best describes your behavior - never smoked, former
smoker or current smoker?"

During the study period - from 2001 to 2005 - 45,630 people completed the Wellness Inventory,
although 10,696 records were thrown out due to missing data or because the responders were less
than 16 years old.Nonsmokers were nearly twice as likely to report a better health status
compared with current smokers.

Both male and female nonsmokers and former smokers with anxiety disorders missed
significantly fewer days of work compared with current smokers.Fewer nonsmokers experienced
asthma compared with former and current smokers.Nonsmokers were less likely to report
depression than former and current smokers.The highest percentage of current smokers was
reported in customer service and production, construction, operating, maintenance occupations
and material handling occupations.

Non-smokers' lungs are pink in color and healthy while that of smokers is dark and mottled due
to the accumulation of impurities from smoke.

An average human inhales 388 cu.ft. of air per day. This is the amount of air that fits into the
trucks of 3 sedans. Out of this only 19 cu.ft is made of oxygen. Rest is all a combination of other
gases.

In conclusion , not smoking increases your chance of living longer than the smokers . However
to quit smoking is a tough task and should require a cautious effort both from the user and the
people around them.
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ASSIGNMENT #4 Health Care Systems in Two Worlds

Health care system is an organized plan of health services. The term usually is used to refer to
the system or program by which healthcare is made available to the population and financed by
government, private enterprise, or both.Healthcare is the maintenance or improvement of health
via the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of illness, injury, disease, and other physical or
mental impairments. Healthcare includes dentistry, psychology, nursing, medicine, physical
therapy, occupational therapy, and more. Access to healthcare varies across countries,
municipalities, and individuals and is largely influenced by economic and social factors.

According to the World Health Organization, a well-functioning healthcare system requires a

steady financing mechanism, a properly-trained and adequately-paid workforce, well-maintained
facilities, and access to reliable information to base decisions on.

Having access to healthcare is seen as a basic human right by many people. Lack of quality
healthcare can result in a poor quality of life and lower life expectancy than countries with a
stable and accessible healthcare system.

Several factors determine the level of healthcare quality in each country. These include the care
process (preventative care measures, safe care, coordinated care, and engagement and patient
preferences), access (affordability and timeliness), administrative efficiency, equity, and
healthcare outcomes (population health, mortality amenable to healthcare, and disease-specific
health outcomes). A study by The Commonwealth Fund used these metrics to rank 11 countries
based on their quality of healthcare. The top-ranked countries are the United Kingdom, Australia,
and the Netherlands. These are some of the developed countries and the condition is not the same
for developing countries .

People in poor countries tend to have less access to health services than those in better-off
countries, and within countries, the poor have less access to health services. Although a lack of
financial resources or in-formation can create barriers to accessing services, the causal
relationship between access to health services and poverty also runs in the other direction. When
Health care is needed but is delayed or not obtained,people’s health worsens, which in turn leads
to lost income and higher health care costs, both of which contribute to poverty.Deprivations that
lead to ill health are common in developing countries, and the poor in developing countries are
particularly at risk.

Although it is generally accepted that national policies and conditions influence economic
growth,poverty, and other determinants of health status, there is relatively little systematic
evidence about how na-tional policies and conditions affect the divergent pat-terns of health
services. An important exception is the studies of “good health at low cost” cited for China,Costa
Rica, Cuba, Kerala, and Sri Lanka.

Switzerland's health care is universal and health insurance is required for all persons living in
Switzerland. Unlike other European countries, Swiss healthcare is not tax-based or financed by
employers, but rather it is paid for by individuals through their contribution to Swiss healthcare
schemes. There are no free state-provided health services, but basic health insurance coverage
covers 80-90% of healthcare costs, including outpatient treatment, emergency treatment,
 Chapagain 11

prescriptions, maternal medicine, vaccinations, postoperative rehabilitation, and more.

Switzerland combines private, subsidized private, and public healthcare systems to provide its
citizens with a large network of qualified doctors, best-equipped medical facilities and hospitals,
and no waiting lists.

Finland's healthcare system is believed to be one of the best in the world. Healthcare in Finland
is a highly decentralized, three-level, publicly funded system. Municipalities are responsible for
offering their residents healthcare services. Funding comes from two sources: municipal
financing based on taxes that is used to provide primary healthcare services and National Health
Insurance (NHI), which is financed with compulsory fees. NHI funds private healthcare,
occupational healthcare, and outpatient care. In a European Commission survey, 88% of Finnish
respondents stated that they were satisfied with their healthcare.

In the context of Nepal , approximately two-thirds of the health problems in Nepal are infectious
diseases. Epidemics occur frequently with a high rate of morbidity and mortality and there are
occasional outbreaks of infectious diseases of unknown etiology. In addition, the rapid rate of
HIV infection in the Indian subcontinent is likely to add a new dimension of opportunistic
infections. Until now, the Health System introduced as the General Health Plan in 1956 has been
expanded by focusing on primary health care, and a comprehensive network-like Health System
has been developed; the most basic unit is a Sub-Health Post or Health Post in each Village
Development Committee area. However, the expansion of the Health System has not been
matched by an expansion in the domestic resources, workers and supplies, and the available
resources are not efficiently distributed. In addition, insufficient resources available for
preventive and promotive medicine and the occurrence of non-infectious diseases such as cancer
and cardiovascular diseases has been increasing. The Government recently introduced a Health
Policy encouraging the private sector to invest in the production of health workers and in
providing quality health services. But that is still not enough .

Despite improvements in providing access to healthcare in developing countries, substantial

proportion of their populations have limited access. The poor in these countries suffer from a
disproportionate burden of disease yet usually have less access to health care,whether measured
by geographic accessibility, avail-ability, financial accessibility, acceptability, or quality of care.
However, recent studies show that this out-come is not inevitable. Success depends in part on
gaining a local understanding of the dimensions and determinants of access to health services,
along with determined attempts to improve services for the poor.There are many innovations in
financing, service delivery, and regulation of care that hold promise for improving access for the
poor. The same can be said of older strategies. In either case, the challenge remains to find ways
to ensure that vulnerable populations have a say in how strategies are developed,
implemented,and accounted for and to ensure that information and incentives are aligned in ways
that can demonstrate improvements in access by the poor.
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