Variable Speed Drive Technology:

To achieve true variable speed control of a centrifugal pump, this article will look at the
following methods or technologies: fluid drive, eddy current drive, wound rotor motor,
adjustable voltage direct current (DC), adjustable frequency alternating current (AC),
magnetic drive and steam turbine.
Part 1 of this article will focus on fluid drive, eddy current drive and wound rotor motor. Part
2, which will be published in an upcoming issue, will focus on electronic speed control
drives, adjustable frequency drives, magnetic drives and steam turbine drives.

Fluid Drive

Variable speed fluid drives, known as hydro-kinetic, are typically used in high horsepower
(hp) applications. However, this type of fluid drive can be made from a few horsepower to
over 40,000 hp. For horsepower ratings under this level, other methods of speed control are
generally used. It should be noted the terms fluid coupling and hydraulic coupling are
sometimes used interchangeably with fluid drive.
In most applications, a variable speed fluid drive is driven by a constant speed motor of either
induction or synchronous type and delivers variable speed power to a process pump. The fluid
drive output shaft speed (pump speed) is controllable in step-less speed changes in a range,
typically, from 20 to 97.5 percent of the input shaft speed. The output shaft speed is extremely
smooth, eliminating torsional excitation pulsations. Fluid drive technology is still popular for
boiler feed and fan applications such as forced and induced draft.
It should be noted that every type of variable speed drive can be used with a constant ratio
gearbox to achieve the actual speed range desired by the pump application. However, the only
type of variable speed drive that includes a gearbox within the drive is the type called
“variable speed geared fluid drive.”
Image 1. Fixed speed motor and eddy current clutch. (Images courtesy of the author)

Eddy Current Drive or Coupling

An eddy current drive, also known as electro-mechanical drive, consists of a fixed speed
motor and an eddy current clutch. The clutch contains a fixed speed rotor and an adjustable
speed rotor separated by a small air gap. A DC in a field coil produces a magnetic field that
determines the torque transmitted from the input to the output rotor. The controller provides
closed-loop speed regulation by varying the clutch current, allowing the clutch to transmit
enough torque to operate at the desired speed. Speed feedback is provided by an integral AC
tachometer.
By regulating voltage to the clutch coil, a magnetic flux field is generated in the gap and
distortion of the flux field creates torque. Output speed is governed by the digital control. The
greater the power is to the clutch coil, the greater the strength of the magnetic flux field, and
the greater the output torque or speed.
The tachometer’s feedback signal is compared to a reference signal within the controller to
maintain accurate speed within 0.5 percent. This closed-loop speed system typically uses less
than 1 percent of the total AC input current to the motor. The only wear parts are bearings and
brushes, since the motors and drives are separated by an air gap.

Efficiency
Eddy current drives use a DC magnetic field to link two members, one on the input shaft and
one on the output shaft. Increasing the DC to the coil increases the coupling of the two
members, thus delivering more torque to the load. A tachometer is used to control the velocity
and torque.
Eddy current losses in efficiency in an AC motor are equal to nameplate rating as the motor is
running across the line. This is true for power factor and efficiency. With DC control losses in
efficiency are typically 2 percent or less.
And in a slip the reduction in speed is dissipated in the drum and rotor (the coupled
members). It reduces efficiency in proportion to reduction in speed.
It is best to run an eddy current device at or near rated speed. Typically, 82 to 100 percent is
best to optimize efficiency.

Maintenance

Bearing lubrication is needed to maintain an eddy current drive. The control, which can be a
single printed circuit board, requires no maintenance. A typical eddy current drive should last
40 years.

Image 2. By changing the external impedance connected in the rotor circuit, the speed or
current and speed or torque curves of the induction motor can be altered.

Wound Rotor Motor

Wound rotor (also called slip ring) motors are based on inserting external resistances into the
induction motor rotor circuit for induction motor torque controls. Prior to the advent of
variable frequency drives (VFDs), there was no other way for an induction motor to develop
high overload torques (200 to 280 percent) over a wide speed range as required for many
industrial applications such as crane hoists, pulpers or trolley drives and in some centrifugal
pumping applications where the solids in the pumpage may have dropped out of suspension
during brief shutdowns.
The wound rotor motor is an induction motor where the rotor circuit is terminated in slip rings
to which external impedances can be connected. The stator is essentially the same as used in
any standard squirrel cage motor. By changing the external impedance connected in the rotor
circuit, the speed or current and speed or torque curves of the induction motor can be altered.
A three-phase wound rotor induction motor consists of a stator core with three-phase winding;
a wound rotor with slip rings, brushes and brush holders; and two end shields to house the
bearings that support the motor shaft.
While this technology is popular in many large motor applications, there are still a few wound
rotor applications in the 20- to 500-hp range. Wound rotor technology is not the most cost-
effective solution for high-torque variable torque applications, especially with centrifugal
pumping (variable torque) applications. A few advantages of wound rotor motor technology
include: high capacity of overloading; lower starting current as compared to squirrel cage
motor; maintains a constant speed while running; high-torque value at the start; and ability to
vary speed by use of external rotor resistance.

Maintenance

While the resistor banks may not be prone to failure, the contractors, which switch resistor
banks in and out of service for speed control of the wound rotor motor, can be replaced or
serviced yearly, or more depending on usage. Wound rotor motors may experience slip ring
brush contamination; slip ring brush maintenance; slip ring brush rigging, burning and
melting; resistor contactor bank pitting and maintenance; and energy losses in the resistor
bank during low speed operation.
Users occasionally inquire about the feasibility of converting an existing wound rotor motor
to operate as a squirrel cage design. One way is to short circuit the slip rings and eliminate the
variable resistance speed control in the external circuit. This can cause inrush current to
become high, with starting torque so low that the motor may be unable to accelerate its load.
And the rotor winding remains a potential source of failure caused by the effects of heat,
vibration and centrifugal force.
A conversion is best done by replacing the rotor shaft assembly with a simple “deep bar”
rotor, based on what would be used in a squirrel cage design for the parts involved. Some
increase in horsepower may be possible because of the elimination of the rotor slot space
taken up by insulation.
To achieve true variable speed control, we are looking at the following methods or
technologies: fluid drive, eddy current drive, wound rotor motor, adjustable voltage direct
current (DC), adjustable frequency alternating current (AC), magnetic drive and steam
turbine. Part 1 of this series reviewed fluid drive, eddy current drive and wound rotor motor.
This article will review the other methods or technologies.

Electronic Speed Control Drives: Adjustable Voltage DC

The oldest electronic speed control methods are the DC drives, which are also known as DC
motor speed control systems. The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to armature
voltage and inversely proportional to motor flux; either armature voltage or field current can
be used to control the motor speed. DC motors have become expensive and most DC motor
speed control systems have been retrofitted with an AC motor and AC variable speed drive.
AC variable speed drives are less expensive, more available and more efficient than DC
systems. Many DC drive systems have been replaced where possible with AC variable
frequency drives (VFDs).

Adjustable Frequency Drives

A VFD is the most popular method to control the speed of an electric motor driven pumping
system.

Image 1. Basic drive system (Images courtesy of the author)

A VFD is defined as an electronic device used for controlling the rotational speed of an AC
electric motor by controlling the frequency and voltage of the electrical power supplied to the
motor. A basic drive system consists of an AC motor and VFD managed by a control system
(Image 1).
A method of control is required to vary the speed of the drive. This control method can be as
simple as an on/off switch and a speed potentiometer controlled by the operator. More
complex systems often incorporate a programmable logic controller (PLC).
Larger systems will usually use a distributed control system. This is basically a host computer
running a software package that allows the operators to both monitor and control their overall
system by one or multiple interface screens.
The drive has an embedded microprocessor that governs the overall operation of the VFD
controller. This microprocessor has an operating system firmware that is not accessible to the
VFD user. User-defined programming and parameter adjustment is usually done through the
operator keypad. This allows the user to customize the VFD controller to meet specific
process, motor and equipment requirements.
Unlike the other speed control methods discussed in this article when applying a VFD, the
following concerns must be addressed to ensure optimum reliability: added heating of
winding (Class F or H Insulation); added winding insulation stresses; reflective wave or
voltage overshoot; added chance of bearing currents (insulated bearing, grounding brush,
earth ground); added chance of vibration issues; effect on sound levels; large motor concerns;
how VFD will be used and key details needed to choose large motors for VFDs.
The non-sinusoidal VFD waveform contains harmonics and peak voltage or current in excess
of normal sine wave grid power. On low voltage VFDs, it is common for the motor to see an
additional 10 to 15 degree temperature rise. On medium voltage VFDs, motors typically see
only a 3 to 5 degree temperature rise.
Additional concerns specific to the motor when applying a VFD: motor torque, speed and
temperature; operation above base speed; running current; starting current; motor efficiency;
sound levels; motor cable length and grounding.
Image 2. Components of a typical steam turbine driver

Maintenance

The VFD must be in a clean, filtered environment. Heat the sinks, vacuum away dust and do
not use compressed air. If heavily soiled, used a light natural fiber brush. Do not use a
synthetic brush. For Type 12 enclosures with cooling fans, replace the air filters as necessary.
Conduct a thermal scan, paying special attention to the connections. Check the cable lug
torque. Use a megger to measure insulation resistance.
The typical life expectancy of a VFD is five to 10 years. After 10 years, most drive OEMs
will discontinue the manufacturer or replacement parts. In addition, VFD technology
continues to change, making older drives obsolete.

Magnetic Drive

The principle behind a magnetic drive or coupling is like that of an eddy current drive. The
magnetic drive replaces the physical connection between motor and load with a gap of air.
Motor torque is transferred to the load across an air gap. Varying the air gap between the
magnets and conductor changes the strength of the magnetic field and, hence, controls output
speed.
A few features of magnetic drive technology:

• No-contact power transfer. This eliminates vibration, reduces noise, tolerates

misalignment, provides overload protection, extends motor and equipment life and
reduces overall maintenance costs.
• Energy efficiency. The application and load requirements will determine the
efficiency.
• Quality. Technology improves product quality and optimizes process rates.
• Soft start/stop. Reduces the motor’s startup power demands and the resulting
brownouts, alleviates paying for peak power, allows downsizing of motors, increases
motor life and reduces maintenance.
• Simplicity and ruggedness. System can be maintained in-house and used in harsh
conditions.

Steam Turbine Drive

Steam power is one of the oldest technologies in the industrial sector providing power
through the industrial revolution and into the 20th century. However, there are some
limitations when applying a steam turbine.
First and foremost, you need steam and you need a source to generate the steam. This
requirement limits the use of turbines in certain applications.
The most notable pumping application for steam turbine drivers is powering boiler feed
pumps.
A steam turbine is powered by the hot gaseous steam generated by a boiler. The steam enters
the turbine through a nozzle that controls the speed of the steam (Image 2). The turbine is
fitted with blades mounted on a shaft that is coupled to the driven component (pump) that turn
as the steam blows past them. The blades have tight clearances that contain the steam,
maximizing the efficiency of the turbine. The steam expands and cools as it flows through the
turbine blades.
Image 3. How an impulse turbine works vs. a reaction turbine
The rotating element (shaft and turbine blades) are contained in the turbine’s outer casing.
This casing must handle the high pressure and temperature produced by the steam.
There are two types of steam turbines:

• An impulse steam turbine features a jet of steam from a fixed nozzle that pushes
against the rotor blades driving the blades forward (Image 3). Pressure drops take
place in the fixed blade (nozzle).
• A reaction steam turbine does not use nozzles. The rotor blades are configured to
form convergent nozzles using the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates
 through the nozzles. The steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes in the
stator (casing).

Efficiency

The efficiency of a steam turbine driver or any engine can be defined as its ability to convert
the input energy into useful output energy, which is expressed in Equation 1. Steam turbine
efficiency or isentropic efficiency is the efficiency that compares the actual output with the
ideal isentropic output to measure the effectiveness of extracted work.
Efficiency (ɳ) = Output/Input
Equation 1

Maintenance

Steam turbines require the correct steam pressure at the turbine inlet and high steam quality in
order to ensure optimum reliability.
One guideline for maintenance to keep in mind is that the steam must be of highest quality.
Also, steam supply lines, valves and casing should be insulated to prevent loss of latent
energy. The steam supply lines must be properly configured for condensate removal, correctly
sized drip pockets and steam traps.
Additionally, excessive forces to the turbine flanges should be mitigated. They include pipe
dead weight, thermal expansion, thrust and spring rate caused by different expansion joints.
Impact as a result of improper installation will result in premature bearing failure, nozzle
degradation, turbine blade failure or distortion and premature coupling failure.
Which speed control is best? It depends on the application and business model. Also, consider
your issues and concerns—such as energy efficiency, reliability, uptime, production concerns
or environmental