Unit 9 - Argumentation and Academic

Vocabulary
9.1. Language and context
 

Reflection task 9.1.

Activate your knowledge! Read the title of the text. What do you think the text is
about?

a) What kind of academic texts do you know?

Descriptive, analytical, persuasive and critical.

b) Why do you think academic texts are important?

Because, they are used to communicate and help students to think critically and
objectively.

c) What is an argument?

It is a set of sentences, statements, propositions where some are the premises

and one is the conclusions.

d) Have you ever written an argument? If so, what were the main characteristics
of your argument?

The usage of sound reasons and relevant evidence to support a point

Listing random facts about the topic is useless unless it is supporting the claim.

Read the comments about this task in the virtual campus. The comments are
posted in the section "Evaluation".

The argumentative text

Arguing a position is considered an academic text which objective is to convince

the reader to accept or reject a particular position on a controversial issue by
giving plausible reasons supported by reasoned arguments. According to
Axelrod and Cooper (2004), in order to be a convincing text, it also has to
anticipate reader's likely objections and opposing arguments. Moreover, The
Purdue Writing Lab (2012) affirms that these types of papers "generally call for
extensive research". Thus, it "allows the student to learn about a topic...,
choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during research".
An argumentative essay can also include descriptions and explanations, so you
will need to take into account unit 9 contents in order to support an argument.

An argumentative text is considered crucial to the academic life not only

because it is usually required, but because according to the Student Learning
Centre from the Flinders University of Australia (2006), an argument can be
used to:

- Support something we think has merit - a position, a point of view, a program,

an object.

- Persuade someone that something would be beneficial to do (or not to do) - a

particular course of action.

- Convince someone that something is true, likely to be true or probable - a fact,

an outcome.

- Show someone the problems or difficulties with something - a theory, an

approach, a course of action.

- Reason with someone to get them to change their mind or their practice.

On the other hand, as it has been exposed in previous units of this course,
academic grammar and academic vocabulary are key aspects to be covered in
academic writing. Academic vocabulary, for instance, is related to the
appropriate connectives, indicator words or discourse markers used in
academic writing. By using the correct vocabulary in your arguments, you will
be able to achieve your purpose: convince the reader to accept or reject a
particular position.

9.1.1. Computer language learning: internet influence on learners

The use of the internet for academic purposes has given students broad
opportunities to obtain information. The next article suggests teaching youth
about plagiarism and its consequences as a new method to prevent cheating.
Read the article.

Does the internet encourage Youth to Steal?

Are they Cheaters?

Our research shows that the Net Generation are big believers in integrity -
honesty, consideration, accountability, and transparency. Yet, according to
nGenera research, 77 percent of Net Geners have downloaded music,
software, games, or movies without paying for it. It sounds like a contradiction
until you start talking to them. They don't see it as stealing and their
assessment of the situation is pretty sophisticated. They think this is a case of a
business model that needs to be changed. Net Geners, they say, pay more for
music than ever - but not the old-fashioned way. They buy some music online
and they spend a big chunk of their disposable income on concerts, ringtones,
and artists' products.

This old model of owning and selling music makes no sense for this entire
generation, or for anyone else for that matter. I don´t think it is stealing. It is a
classic example of a disruptive technology. For a decade I have described a
model that would work. Music should be a service, not a product. Instead of
purchasing tunes, you should pay a small monthly fee for access to all the
songs in the world. They could be streamed to you when you want and where
you want via the internet. I call my vision of music bliss Everywhere internet
Audio. I'd listen to my own Don Channel. I could slice and dice the massive
musical database anyway I liked -by artist, by genre, by year, by songwriter, by
popularity, and so on. The Don Channel would know what I like, based on what
I've chosen in the past. I could even ask my Everywhere Audio service to
suggest new artists that resemble my known favorites.

If Everywhere internet Audio existed, no one would ever "steal". Why would
they take possession of a song? Once again young people are showing how we
need to change our business models - if we would only listen to them. Rather
than build bold new approaches for digital entertainment, the industry that
brought us the Beatles is now hated by its customers and collapsing. Sadly,
obsession with control, piracy, and proprietary standards on the part of large
industry players has only served to further alienate and anger music listeners.

What about intellectual property in the corporate world? Should employers be

worried that the Net Geners will blog it to the world? This is not a complicated
problem. Simply tell Net Geners what's confidential, and set rules about the
problem. As for revealing corporate secrets, experience shows that they have
good judgment. When Jonathan Schwartz became CEO of Sun Microsystems,
he gave every employee the right to blog publically. They have never had a
problem releasing inappropriate information.

It's a big issue in the university too. The internet makes it easy to plagiarize,
and, according to one 2003 survey, 38 percent of college and university
students cut and paste information they find on the internet. Plagiarism appears
to have gone up by eight percentage points since the early 1960s. But Don
McCabe, a Rutgers Business School professor and expert on plagiarism, sees
no widespread increase in plagiarism on campus. Rather, the students who are
plagiarizing are using the internet to do it more. It's not clear whether cheating
overall has increased, either. Sixty percent of high school students admitted to
cheating on an exam "at least once" on a 2006 survey conducted by the
Josephson Institute -virtually the same number who admitted to cheating in
1992.

Whether or not it is gone up, cheating is clearly a problem. The internet cuts the
cost of stealing or buying someone else's work and young people are under
enormous pressure to score good grades so that they'll get into universities of
their choice. So what's the answer? UCLA and other U.S. universities, as well
as several others in Canada and elsewhere, are using an online program called
Turnitin.com to detect plagiarism. The company claims it can cut "measurable
rates" of plagiarism to "almost zero." My own kids say that online programs like
this are an effective deterrent -because then most students wouldn't even think
about trying to plagiarize when the penalty could be a failure or even a
suspension. Yet the Center for Academic Integrity, a coalition of hundreds of
educational institutions, does not think that technology can solve the problem
completely. "Instead, we should be encouraging respect and fairness among
the students," says the center's director, Dr. Stephen Satris.

Source: Tapscott, J. (2009, p. 69).

Reflection task 9.2.

1. Answer the following questions about the text.

a) What controversial issue is being argued in the text?

The usage of the internet to encourage students to study using it.

b) The title of the article posts two questions. The answer to these questions is
the main thesis of the text. Can you identify the answer?

Our research shows that the Net Generation are big believers in integrity -
honesty, consideration, accountability, and transparency

c) Along the text there are three supportive reasons to the main thesis. Identify
them and list them.

1. They don't see it as stealing and their assessment of the situation is

pretty sophisticated

2 They think this is a case of a business model that needs to be changed.

3. Net Geners, they say, pay more for music than ever - but not the old-
fashioned way

d) After reading the text. Do you think the internet encourages Youth to Steal?
Do you think they are Cheaters? Write your answer using your own words.

I do not think that young people steal because some websites are free and
another have some restrictions.

I think that some of the percentages of learners are cheaters because they
copy on the exams or assignments
 2. Draw a diagram with the thesis and supporting arguments of the text.

Does the internet

encourage Youth to
Steal?

Not stealing What is confidencial Plagiarize and

and rules percentages
Disruptive technology

Detector of plagarism

Read the comments about this task in the virtual campus. The comments are
posted in the section "Evaluation".

9.1.2. Vocabulary

Academic vocabulary refers to the words associated with the content

knowledge. Antonacci & O'Callaghan (2011, p. 11) state that "Within every
discipline there is a specific set of words to represent its concepts and
processes. These words are conceptually more complex than everyday
language; therefore, they are more difficult to learn." Students who intent
academic success, require the ability to write and expose their ideas precisely,
avoiding repetition.

Reflection task 9.3.

1. In what ways do you think academic vocabulary will contribute to your

successful studies at university?

It will help me to create essays in a formal way and to use more academic
words in my assignment.

2. What techniques do you already use to learn academic vocabulary?

I used a technique called Work in a context. It help me build links between

information to remember things and the manner to make sense of that to use the
vocabulary into a text.
Read the comments about this task in the virtual campus. The comments are
posted in the section "Evaluation"

9.1.2.1. Use of verbs

Reflection task 9.4.

Study the next examples and the words given in the box. Which one best
express what the author means?

a) The author thinks that Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is...

b) The article says that computer use in the English classroom is a positive...

c) Skinner (2008) shows that there are three steps to follow...

 Argues  Declares  Illustrates  Rejects

 Believes  Defends  Implies  Proposes
 Claims  Emphasizes  Indicates  Suggest
 Clarifies  Insists  Observes  Supports

Read the comments about this task in the virtual campus. The comments are
posted in the section "Evaluation".

Study the next table by Khoo (2005), and practice the use of precise verbs to introduce
authors and sources.

SHOWING Increase:
CHANGE OR
DIFFERENCE
 Broaden  Enlarge  Exceed  Expand
 Generate  Improve  Maximize  Optimize

Decrease:

 Decline  Deteriorat  Erode  Minimize

e
  Narrow  Reduce  Worsen

Difference or varying:

 Alter
 Contrast  Convert  Deviate

 Differ
 Differentia  Distingui  Diverge

 Evolve
te sh  Transfor
 Modify  Revise m

SHOWS
 Maintain  Sustain    
STABILITY

SHOWS
KEEPING
WITHING A
CERTAIN
 Confine  Inhibit  Prohibit  Restrict
RANGE/KEEP
ING UNDER A
CERTAIN
LEVEL

SHOWS IN-  Analyze  Investiga

 Examine  Observe
DEEP STUDY  Survey te

Stating:

 Acknowled
 Argue  Attribuite
ge  Comment
  Establish  Identify
Propose  Mention
STATING,
 Note
 Observe  State
RESTATING
OR
EMPHASIZIN Restating:
G
IDEAS/CONC
EPTS
 Elaborate  Expand    

Emphasizing:      

 Emphasize  Stress    

DESCRIBES Describes phenomena:

PHENOMENO
N OR DATA
 Acquire  Define  Impact  Signify
 Symbolize
 Describes data:      

 Approximat
e  Demostrat
 Indicate  Levels off
e
 Reflect

Positive:    

 Propose
 Advocate  Hypothesi  Hold the view that
STATING ze
POSITION

Negative / contradict:

 Deny  Dispute  Negate  Reject

  Uncertainty:      

SHOWING
UNCERTAINT
Y OR AN  Predict
EXTRAPOLAT      
 Speculate
ION OF
INFORMATIO
N

SHOWS
 Comprise  Consist
 Constitut  Incorpora
COMPONENT
e te
S

Table 9.1. Sourcing authors.

Reflection task 9.5.

Complete the next text by Zohrabi (2010), using precise verbs from the table
above.

Nunan (1999, p. 98) _____ mantains______ that coursebook is the main

element of any curriculum and "it is difficult to imagine a class without books ..."
In this regard, Robinson (1991, p. 57) _____ analize___ that coursebooks
provide "a framework for a course, forming in essence a syllabus." Meanwhile,
she _____proposes_____ that using a coursebook has positive psychological
effects on the students because coursebooks provide the whole semester's
course to them. At this juncture, Hedge (2002, p. 358) ____defines______ that
when we choose a coursebook, we, in fact, choose a "planned sequence of
items to be taught." In this regards, Dudley-Evans and St John (2000, p. 170)
____demostrates_____ four main reasons for using materials in the
classroom: "as a source of language, as a learning support, for motivation and
stimulation, and for reference." Cunningsworth (1995, p. 7)
______sustains_____ that coursebooks have multiple roles in English
language classes and can help to present the written and spoken material,
provide activities, promote interaction, serve as a reference on vocabulary and
grammar, act as a source for classroom activities, serve as a syllabus, and offer
self-access work or self-directed learning. Richards and Rodgers (2002, p. 30)
_____emphasizes______that the main aim of materials is to present and
practice content, ease interaction between students, and promote learner
autonomy. However, as Hutchinson and Waters (1989) _____evolves __, the
primary role of materials is to facilitate the learning process because useful
materials do not teach rather they encourage learning. Hedge (2002, p. 36)
______sustains_____ that good materials allow the learners to prepare in
advance by offering a grammatical and functional framework that provide for
their common needs and wants... Finally, Harmer (2002, p. 304)
_____consists_____ that coursebooks foster students' perception of progress,
provide materials for revision, and engage them in multiple ways.

Read the comments about this task in the virtual campus. The comments are
posted in the section "Evaluation".

9.1.2.2. Discourse markers

The use of connectives, indicator words or discourse markers is crucial to show

cohesive device in your writing. By using them, you will show the logical
connection between your ideas, paragraphs and in a general sense, your text.
When using them, it will indicate the reason why you include a particular piece
of information and its relevance to your thesis.

Some useful discourse markers are the ones listed by the Student Learning
Centre of the Flinders University (2010, p. 4):

Citing evidence:

 This is supported by...  Smith claims that...

 This is supported by...  Research findings indicate/show that...

 This indicates that...  There is evidence to show that...

  As Smith claims/shows/illustrates,...  Smith states...

Showing agreement: Showing disagreement:

 Consequently,...  In contrast,...

 At the same time,...  On the contrary,...

 As indicated,...  On the other hand,...

 Further to...  However,...

 In support,...  Contrary to...

 As a consequence,...  but...

 Furthermore,...  

Disjunction (qualifying):

 Despite this,...
 In spite of this,...
 Nevertheless,...
 Nevertheless,...
 Regardless of...
 Even if, even though...

Other language for addressing the literature:

 It is clear that...
 As shown, current research...
 In relation to X, this is very important/ significant because...
  As can be seen, many theorists hold that...
 There are serious implications that can be drawn from...
 These findings indicate that...
 These findings indicate that...
 This finding is supported by...
 This seems to imply that...
 It is still not completely clear that...
 Interesting research has been conducted by...
 They extend the idea of...
 Evidence of this can be seen in the work by...

9.1.3. Genres: academic argumentations

Although people may think that an argument is quarreling or debating with

others about something, as it is usually presented in TV shows or radio
programs, in the academic world an argument do not necessarily lead to
discrepancy. Academically, arguing a position means to critically look at other's
and my own point of view on a controversial issue. Axelrod and Cooper (2004)
state that "Although it is not possible to prove that a position on a controversial
issue is right or wrong, it is possible through reasoned argument to convince
others to accept or reject a particular position".

An argument is NOT:

 A statement of fact (i.e. 26.7% of Australians prefer dark chocolate).

 An assertion or claim (i.e. Wearing a seatbelt reduces the risk of injury).
 A prescriptive statement (i.e. The government should spend more money on healtcare).
 A conditional statement (i.e. if you drink too much, you will damage your brain).
 A series of statements about the same thing.

An argument IS:

 A group of statements of which one is a proposition or claim that is supported by at least

one of the other statements (Drinking water daily is good for your healt as it cleans out
your liver and reduces the level of toxins in your blood).

Table 9.2. Meaning of argument.

Source: The student Learning Centre, Flinders University.

9.1.3.1. Basic features for arguing a position

 
Read the next selected paragraphs by Axelrod and Cooper (2004, pp. 294-295),
which best summarize the basic features for arguing a position:

- A focused presentation of the issue

Writers use a variety of strategies to present the issue and prepare readers for
their argument. For current, hotly debated issues, the title may be enough to
identify the issue (allusions to stories, chants, poems; brief histories; examples;
detailing, among others). Many writers provide concrete examples early on to
make sure that readers can understand the issue.

How writers present the issue depends on what they assume readers already
know and what they want readers to think about the issue. Therefore, they try to
define the issue in a way that promotes their position.

- A clear position

Very often writers declare their position in a thesis statement early in the essay
(first or second paragraph). This strategy has the advantage of letting readers
know right away where the writer stands. In composing a thesis statement,
writers try to make their position unambiguous, appropriately qualified, and
clearly arguable (avoiding common words like 'wrong').

- Plausible reasons and convincing report

To argue for a position, writers must give reasons. Even in relatively brief
essays, writers sometimes give more than one reason and state their reasons
explicitly. Writers know they cannot simply assert their reasons. They must
support them with examples, statistics, authorities, or anecdotes.

- Anticipating opposing positions and objections

Writers also try to anticipate other widely held positions on the issue as well as
objections and questions readers might raise to an argument. Writers counter
argue by both accommodating or refuting opposing positions and objections.
Anticipating readers' positions and objections can enhance the writer's
credibility and strengthen the argument. When readers holding an opposing
position recognize that the writer takes their position seriously, they are more
likely to listen to what the writer has to say. It can also reassure readers that
they share certain important values and attitudes with the writer, building a
bridge of common concerns among people who have been separated by
difference and antagonism.

Reflection task 9.6.

Taking into account what you have read about academic argumentations, use
your own words to list the main steps to create an argument. Explain them.
Identify the goal

Know the important points in the argument

Link the points in the argument

Use experiences or evidences

Have a precise conclusion

Read the comments about this task in the virtual campus. The comments are
posted in the section "Evaluation".

9.2. Review
 

This section summarises the knowledge acquired during this unit.

9.2.1. Vocabulary

Academic vocabulary refers to the words associated with the content

knowledge. To write appropriate academic argumentations it is necessary to
use precise verbs to introduce authors and authors, and discourse markers.

PRECISE VERBS INCLUDE:

 Accounts for  Depicts  Judges

 Analyze  Describes  Justifies

 Argues  Determines  Maintain

 Asserts  Distinguishes  Narrates

 Assesses  Emphasizes  Proposes

 Assumes  Evaluates  Questions

  Claims  Examines  Recognizes

 Clarifies  Exemplifies  Refers to

 Compares  Exhibits  Reflects

 Concludes  Explains  Relies on

 Contrasts  Frames  Reports

 Conveys  Identifies  Reviews

 Criticizes  Illustrates  Stresses

 Defends  Implies  Supports

 Defines  Indicates  Suggests

 Demonstrates  Investigates  

Table 9.3. Precise verbs.

Discourse markers include:

TYPE OF DISCOURSE
EXAMPLE
MARKER

Addition Additionally, furthermore, in addition, moreover.

Cause / reason As a result of, because of.

Comparison Compared with, in the same way, in comparison with, likewise.

Condition If, unless, whether... or not.

Contrast Although, despite, however, by contrast, nevertheless, yet,

 conversely, on the contrary, on the other hand.

Effect /result As a result, hence, therefore, thus.

Exemplification For example, for instance, particularly, such as, thus.

Reformulation In other words, rather, to paraphrase.

Summary Finally, hence, in all, in conclusion, in short, in summary.

Time sequence After, at first, at last, before, first, second, subsequently, eventually.

Transition As far as... is concerned, to turn to, as for.

Table 9.4. Discourse marker.

9.2.2. Genres

The next chart summarizes the main characteristics of a good argument.

A good argument:

 Make it a very clear what position or point of view you are taking:

- What will you be claiming or arguing?

 Work out what will support your case:

- Include sopporting evidence.

- Acknowledge counter arguments / counter evidence.

- Use the right language / discourse markers.

Facts or evidence alone do not make an argument, they merely support it.

 Draw out the implications:

- Why am I saying this here?

- What is the point I am trying to make?

- What does this evidence show?

 Comment on what you are doing and what you include as you write.
  Make sure your essay has a good. Clear, logical structure:

- Your points are relevant.

- They lead towards the conclusion.

- It is easy to follow where you are heading and why.

Table 9.5. Guidelines for argumentation.

Source: The student Learning Centre, Flinders University.

For more information on academic essay writing search on:

- http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/01

- http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/05/

- http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/1/

9.3. Check your knowledge

 

Enter the virtual campus and access the Reflection exercises section. There
you will find the tasks you have seen during this unit. You have to complete all
of them and, when you finish them, the system will provide you the feedback. If
you need more information, consult the files "Assessment", right under the
section Assessment of the unit.

Remember that, apart from reading the contents and completing the
Reflection exercises, you have to complete the activities and the exam or the
final task. The teacher had provided the information about them in the Group
forum.

Bibliography
 

[1] Aexlrod R. B. & Cooper C. R. (2004). The St. Martin's Guide to Writing. Short
Seventh Edition. Bedford/St Martin's.

[2] Antonacci P. A. & O'Callaghan C.M. (2011). Developing Content Area

Literacy. Sage Publications. Retrieved from:
http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/34121_Section1.pdf
[Checked on the 15th December 2013].
[3] C. Martín Vide, ed. (1996). Elementos de Lingüística. Octaedro, Barcelona.

[4] Khoo, E. (2005). Verbs in Academic Writing. The Writing Centre, University
of Toronto at Scarborough. Retrieved from:
http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~tlsweb/TWC/webresources/terms.htm
[Checked on the 15th December 2013].

[5] Taspcot, J. (2009). Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation,
McGraw-Hill.

[6] Writing an Argument. (2006). The Study Skills Brochure. The Flinders
University of South Australia. CRICOS Provider Number 00114A. Retrieved
from:
http://www.flinders.edu.au/slc_files/Documents/Brochures/writg_argument.pdf
[Checked on the 15th December 2013].

[7] Zohrabi, M. (2010). Coursebook Development and Evaluation for English for
General Purposes Course. Published by Canadian Center of Science and
Education: www.ccsenet.org/elt English Language Teaching Vol. 4, No. 2; June
2011. The University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
[Checked on the 15th December 2013].