Ecological effects of invasive

earthworms in the United States

Kaitlin Schnepf, Matt Pedersen, Murray Gough & Fawn Lengvenis

Prepared for Environmental Systems 321

Instructor: Jae Pasari, PhD.
 Overview
● Earthworms Aren’t Native
○ European settlers brought them over
○ North America had a large vegetative layer
○ They altered the makeup of forests
● New Invasion
○ Amynthas Worms: “Jumping Worms”
■ Reproduce quicker
■ Live more densely
■ More aggressive
■ Consume more

(MinuteEarth, 2017)

Earthworms aren’t native to North America: all of the ones you’re familiar with are
invasive
And invasive species cause problems
They were brought over in 1800s by European settlers.
Thrived in our ecosystem because our forests had built up such a large layer
of vegetation that they eat up quickly
A new invasion (early 20th century) has come around with the so called “jumping
worms”
They are like European worms but on steroids.
They alter the makeup of forests and we need to get a handle on things
History: Ice & Native Worms
● Up until approximately 10,000 years ago
the North American continent was
covered in an ice sheet.

● All native earthworms went extinct

during this glaciation (Rosen, 2020).

● Limited ability to migrate meant they

couldn’t recolonize (Rosen, 2020).

(S. J. Crouthamel, 2013)

*The ice sheet covered ⅓ of the continent and went as far south as where Iowa and
Ohio is currently.
* Any native earthworms species in the area were killed by the glaciation.
* Missoula Floods from these glaciers melting changed the shape, soil composition,
and species diversity in our area.
 History: Darwin’s Influence
"It may be doubted if there are any other animals which have
played such an important part in the history of the world as
these lowly organized creatures." Charles Darwin .
● Darwin’s final book The Formation of
Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of
Worms (1881).
● He sought to answer the mystery of why
soil disappears and changes over time
(Megraw, 2012).

Images Source: Megraw, 2012.

*Darwin’s book Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Actions of Worms was
published in 1881
*Became his best seller due to England’s obsession with gardening.
*With children we recorded the habits, habitats, and the worm’s effects of soil
formation.
*Worms stones were used to measure the rate of burial by tracking the slow
submersion of the stone as the worms decompose the organic matter.
*Before the plough, worms were the most efficient tiller.
*With Darwin’s insights, the incorporation of worms in vermiculture was increased and
worm tea was hailed as superior fertilizer.
 History: Invasion of the New World
1800’s 1900’s 1912 1940’s Now

European Asian “Jumping Asian varieties Asian worms

earthworms Worms” arrived first appeared spread to New
arrived with first on the in Washington York.
European California coast D.C by the
settlers. then in the transport of
Southeast. cherry trees.
Image source: Hendrix, 2002

Dates Cited from (Rosen, 2020)

 Key Ecosystems
● Forests ● Soil Ecosystem
● Grasslands ● Forest Understory

(Gonzaga, 2016) (Gonzaga, 2016)

Major ecosystems affected are forests and grasslands.

- All varieties in the U.S.
Most immediate impacts seen in soil and forest understory ecosystems
Left: Understory without earthworms
Right: Similar forest after earthworm invasion
Key Ecological Processes Macro Scale
● Biodiversity
Micro Scale ● Water Quality
● Decomposition ● Landscape Patterns
● Nutrient Cycling ● Climate Change
● Soil Composition
● Soil Food Web

(Frelich, 2019)
(Gonzaga, 2016)

Decomposition: Soil litter is broken down much faster than pre-worm conditions
Nutrient Cycling: This accelerates nutrient cycling and flux
Soil Composition:
- Decomposers: Worms decrease upper organic horizon. Mix with lower mineral layer
- Ecosystem engineers: Worm burrows reduce water retention, reducing soil moisture and
increasing soil temperature
Soil Food Web: Displace native soil invertebrates and disrupt plant/fungi symbiosis

Biodiversity: Soil changes reduce the diversity of understory plants

Water Quality: Reduced organic layer and increased soil density -> increased runoff and
erosion
Landscape: Reduce diversity of native plant species and facilitate invasion of worm-adapted
plants
Climate Change: Accelerated decomposition increases CO2 release. Most tenuous finding ->
long-term net CO2 effect unclear
Major Findings: Soil Effects After Earthworm Invasion

(Ferlian, 2020)

Graph from a recent meta-analysis: past research on soil effects following earthworm
invasion.
Numbers in parentheses on left are number of studies and observations for each effect.
Bottom axis: +/- effect following invasion, dashed line at zero.
Bars show 95% confidence interval.
Significant when bars do not overlap with zero (asterisks: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001).
Broken down to overall effect in soil (black), upper organic layer (yellow) and lower mineral
layer (reddish)
Summary: increased soil acidity, decreased moisture levels, reduced C & N stock in organic
layer, increase soil carbon flux
Effect size means represented as black ticks indicate lack of studies (less than three).
Asterisks outside the plot on the right indicate significant differences in effect sizes between
soil layers.
Major Findings: Cascade Effects of Earthworm Invasion

(Frelich, 2019)

Green: Plant habitat effects, Blue: Soil Chemistry & habitat effects, Red: Vertebrate habitat
effects
Directly alter soils: Decomposer & ecosystem engineer. Increase density, reduce & mix
organic layer
Change nutrient balance, decrease moisture, increase temperature
Decrease nutrients for microbes & native invertebrates in food web
Both above impact plant habitat, but also direct impacts from root structure disturbance and
seed consumption
Altered plant community -> Altered vertebrate habitat

So that’s micro-cascade effects

Macro effects:
- Reduce diversity/natives in plant community -> opens the door for invasive plants to
take hold
- Invasive plants associated with elevated allergy risks and tick populations
- Decreased wildlife habitat, primary productivity, soil & water quality
- Increase CO2 flux contributes to climate change
- More susceptible to wind and fire disturbance
Now, some of these effects manifest over decades,
but mounting evidence of extensive cascading impacts from invasive earthworms
 Portrayal in Popular Media
● Most often portrayed as loveable and helpful.

● Still seen as positive in gardening.

● Still recommended by Metro.

(Lilliworms, 2012)

Darwin’s influence continues today.

In media worms are helpful.
Metro still recommends worm composting.
This is changing with the Asian Jumping Worms.
 Portrayal in Popular Media
● Reactions to European varieties vs. Asian Varieties.

(Milwaukee Journal, 2016)

In many of the articles I’ve read, different species evoke different reactions. Even
among scientist, the aversion reaction is strong with the asian variety of invasive
worms.
 Disagreements/ Controversies

● Agriculture vs Forests: Context is Key (MinuteEarth, 2017)

○ Earthworms rapidly consume vegetation that covers forest floor

■ Layer is important habitat for native species
■ Tunneling moves nutrients out of reach of plants
○ Agriculture: “Nature’s Plows”
■ They aerate soil
■ Reduce compaction of soil created by farming
■ Help water flow
(Watsonville Worm Casting, 2019)

They are in soil because it is healthy they don’t necessarily make soil healthy.
As in nature thing usually aren’t good or bad. Context is what is important

Forests: They are seen as very harmful

because North America didn’t have worms for so long a large vegetative layer built
up that the invasive worms love.
The removal of this layer changes the composition of our forests.

Agriculture: They are seen as positive because they help aerate soil that gets
compacted by farming practices.
 Worm Infection Vectors
Natural Vector
● Slow Migration

Anthropogenic
● Live Fishing Bait Discard
● Importation and Release
● Potted Plant/ Vermicompost/ Soil
● Recreational,Government and Forestry Vehicles
● Changes in Land Usage/ Disturbance

The Main Introduction Vectors for Earthworms lie within anthropogenic origins. Major
spreading of earthworms is the online potted plants, fishing bait and importations then
being released. Large areas of concern is changes in land usage through disturbance
of soils making habitat for exotic earthworm species and decreasing native resistant
ecosystems.
The slow expanding natural movement of earthworms is ~15-30ft/year that can be
slowed from naturally resistant ecosystems
 Agencies and Policy
EPA= NISA(1996), USFWS, DNR, USFS

Regulation of Invasive Containing Materials

● APHIS PPQ 526 Permit [Prevention]

● CFIA Regulation Permit/ PPA [Alternative]
● Executive Order 13112 [Management Plan]
● ANS Species Taskforce [Enforcement]

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS): Only Dendrobaena veneta
European nightcrawler worm is allowed for importation to the U.S. from other
countries other than Canada for release into the environment. PPQ (plant protection
and quarantine) 526 permit is required for exotic earthworm importation from all
countries except Canada. A PPQ permit is not required for the movement of
earthworms across the U.S. except for; movement to Hawaii from the mainland,
Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and the U.S. Territories.

Canadian Food Inspection Agency and the Plant Protection Act of Canada regulation
importation of earthworms to only endemic species for commercial usage. Of which
the producers, distributors and sellers are impacted.

Executive order 13112 address terrestrial and aquatic invasive species prevention, early
detection, rapid response, and control; monitoring; restoration, research; and education.
Signed by Bill Clinton in 1999.
 Current Management Plan (Alaska/Minnesota)
● Infested soil materials/ transport
● Vermicompost species regulation
● Earthworm species regulation
● Regulate against live fish bait for recreation
● Forestry, Government and Recreation Vehicle

(1)Infested soil, compost, plants, castings and potted plants and tree plantings
should not be transported into potential invasion sites (2)Vermicompost
operations should use species not likely to persist in the local environment
(3)Regulate further species from being imported into affected areas (4) Remove
live fishing bait from being used through regulation and enforcement of qualifying
agencies (5) Tires of all forestry, government and recreational vehicles going into
unaffected areas need to be cleaned of eggs and cocoons to mitigate the spread.
 Next Steps
● Federal agencies under single policy

● Remove non-endemic species from transport

● Public education initiative

-Management & Policy of all state and federal agencies consistent and not diverging
based on origin philosophy. USDA and NCRS still use positive earthworm literature for
agricultural usage, this increases an opposing ethic against an already difficult task to
show that earthworms are causing ecological harm to forests, recreational areas and
grasslands.

APHIS needs to remove nightcrawlers from the only allowed species to be

transported without a PPQ 526 Permit. Only allowing endemic species to be used so
as to prevent any fishing bait introductions in the future. This can be done using
governmental incentives to help proliferate endemic species and increase resistance
across US.

-Information on earthworm harm to ecosystems is difficult to find even in government

sites. Most talk about increasing education, and this is a part of the policy of NISA and
Executive order 13112. A more widespread campaign to help educate youth (sesame
street), public service announcements on television like the 1990’s on reading and
drugs as well as on government agency sites with documented literature available to
he public.
Special Thanks to our instructor Jae Pasari, PhD.
for his guidance through this process.
 References
● Bergquist, L. (2015) Invasive jumping worms on the move across state. Milwaukee-Wisconsin Journal Sentinel. Retrieved from:
http://archive.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/invasive-jumping-worms-on-the-move-across-state-b99521664z1-309389371.html
● Bowser, M. (2010). Exotic earthworms in Alaska: an insidious threat : Matthew L. Bowser : Free Download, Borrow, and
Streaming. Retrieved February 26, 2020, from https://archive.org/details/ExoticEarthwormsInAlaskaAnInsidiousThreat
● Bowser, M. (2015). Earthworms in Alaska: friend or foe? - United States Fish ... Retrieved February 26, 2020, from
https://www.fws.gov/uploadedFiles/Bowser_ML_2015-03_earthworms.pdf
● Callaham, M., González, G., Hale, C., Heneghan, L., Lachnicht, S., & Zou, X. (2006). Policy and management responses to
earthworm invasions in North America. Biological Invasions, 8(6), 1317–1329. doi: 10.1007/s10530-006-9016-6
● Crouthamel, S. (2013) Prehistoric Cultures of North America. American Indian Studies.
● Earthworms. (2019). Retrieved February 26, 2020, from
https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/planthealth/import-information/permits/plant-pests/sa_earthworms/earthworms
● Frelich, L., Blossey, B., Cameron, E., Davalos, A. & Eisenhauser, N. (2019) Side-Swiped: ecological cascades emanating from
earthworm invasions. Ecological Society of America. 17(9):502-510.
● Ferlian, O., Thakur, M. & Castañeda González, A. (2019) Soil chemistry turned upside down: a meta analysis of invasive
earthworms effects on soil chemical properties. Ecological Society of America. 2936.
● Gonzaga, S., (2016) Earthworm invaders alter northern forests. Earthsky. Retrieved from:
https://earthsky.org/earth/european-earthworms-change-u-s-forests
 References, cont.
● Government of Canada, Canadian Food Inspection Agency. (2019). Government of Canada. Retrieved February 26, 2020, from
https://inspection.gc.ca/about-the-cfia/accountability/transparency/consultations-and-engagement/earthworm-import-requirement
s/for-commercial-purposes/eng/1561387935569/1561387935818
● Hendrix, P. & Bohlen, P. (2002) Exotic earthworm invasions in North America: Ecological and Policy Implications. BioScience.
52(9): 801-811.
● Hendrix, P., Callaham, M., Drake, J., Huang, C., James, S., Snyder, B., & Zhang, W. (2008). Pandoras Box Contained Bait: The
Global Problem of Introduced Earthworms. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 39(1), 593–613. doi:
10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.39.110707.173426
● Lilliworm Organics. (2012) Famous Worms: The light green edition. Lilliworm Organic Endeavours. Retrieved from:
https://lilliworm.blogspot.com/2012/08/famous-worms-light-green-edition.html
● Megraw, J. (2012) The importance of earthworms: Darwin’s Last Manuscript. New York Public Library. Retrieved from:
https://www.nypl.org/blog/2012/04/19/earthworms-darwins-last-manuscript
● MinuteEarth. (2017) Invasion of Earthworms! YouTube. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=icGV8bJRkkg
● Rosen, J. (2020) Cancel Earthworms. Atlantic. 3.1.20
● Watsonville Worm Casting (2019) Local Worm Castings!: Worms digest horse manure and create organic fertilizer. Whiskey
Hills Soils. Retrieved from:
https://www.watsonvillewormcastings.com/local-worm-castings-help-fertilize-your-soil-while-recycling-waste/#more-236
● U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service/Fish and Aquatic Conservation. (2016). Laws, Policies and Regulations. Retrieved February 26,
2020, from https://www.fws.gov/fisheries/ANS/ANSLaws.html