EQUATIONS

Conversion 25.4 mm = 1 in Natural 𝑘 1

𝜔𝑛 = √ ; 𝑓𝑛 = 𝜔𝑛
factors 1 yard = 3 ft frequency 𝑚 2𝜋
1 m = 3.281 ft Impact 𝐹𝑖 𝛿𝑖 𝜂
1 km = 0.6214 miles force = = 𝑣𝑖 √
1000 L = 1 m3 𝑊 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝑔 ⋅ 𝛿𝑠𝑡
(horizontal)
1 lbm = 0.4536 kg Impact
1 oz = 28.35 grams 𝐹𝑖 𝛿𝑖 2⋅𝜂⋅ℎ
force = = 1 + √1 +
88 fps = 60 mph 𝑊 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝛿𝑠𝑡
(vertical)
1 gallon = 3.78541 L Impact
1 lbf = 4.448 N 1
dissipation- 𝜂= 𝑚 (axial load)
1 N = 1 X 105 dynes 1+ 𝑏
3⋅𝑚
correction
1 BTU = 1055 J
Beam
1 ft ⋅ lbf = 1.356 J 𝑑𝑉 𝑑 2 𝑀
1 hp = 550 ft ⋅ lbf/s loading 𝑞(𝑥) = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
1 hp = 0.7457 kW function
Principal
1 W = 1 J/s  +y x − y 
2

stresses  a , b = x    +  xy 2
(2D) 2  2 
𝜎𝑐 = 0
Principal 𝜎 3 − 𝐶2 𝜎 2 − 𝐶1 𝜎 − 𝐶0 = 0
stresses 𝐶2 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧
(3D) 𝐶1 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 2 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥 2 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑥
𝐶0 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑧 2 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑥 2 − 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2

Maximum |𝜎1 − 𝜎3 |
shear stress 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏13 =
2
Axial 𝑃 𝑃𝑙
𝜎𝑥 = ; 𝛥𝑥 =
loading 𝐴 𝐴𝐸
Modes of 𝑃 𝑃
Failure 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = ; 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = ;
𝐴𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃
𝜎𝑥𝑥 =
𝐴𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐴𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑙 ⋅ 𝑑 (w/o clearance)
𝜋
𝐴𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑙 ⋅ 𝑑 (w/ clearance)
4
Pure 𝑀⋅𝑦 𝑀⋅𝑐
bending 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = − ; 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐼 𝐼
Solid rectangular cross section
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼=
12
Solid circular Hollow circular
𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑4 𝜋 ⋅ (𝑑𝑜 4 − 𝑑𝑖 4 )
𝐼= ; 𝐼=
64 64
Pure 𝑇∙𝑟 𝑇∙𝐿
torsion 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ; 𝜃=
𝐽 𝐽∙𝐺
Solid circular cross section
𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑4
𝐽=
32
Hollow circular cross section
𝜋 ⋅ (𝑑𝑜 4 − 𝑑𝑖 4 )
𝐽=
32
Columns Fracture 𝑎
𝐼 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐾𝑡 = 1 + 2 ( )
𝑘=√ ; 𝑆𝑟 = mechanics 𝑐
𝐴 𝑘 𝐾 = 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 √𝜋 ⋅ 𝑎 (center)
2⋅𝐸 𝑆𝑦𝑐 𝜋 𝐸 2 𝐾 = 1.12 ⋅ 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 √𝜋 ⋅ 𝑎 (edge)
(𝑆𝑟 )𝐷 = 𝜋√ ; = 2
𝑆𝑦𝑐 2 𝑆𝑟 Stress
 =  max −  min
Euler range,
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝜋 𝐸 2
alternating  max −  min
column
𝐴
= 2 a =
𝑆𝑟 stress, 2
Johnson mean stress  +  min
column
𝑃𝑐𝑟 1 𝑆𝑦𝑐 ⋅ 𝑆𝑟 2  m = max
= 𝑆𝑦𝑐 − ( ) 2
𝐴 𝐸 2𝜋
Stress ratio
Transverse 𝑐
𝑉⋅𝑄 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝑎
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 ; 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = R,
loading 𝑙⋅𝑏 𝑅= ; 𝐴=
𝑦1 amplitude 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎𝑚
Rectangular beam ratio A
3𝑉 Endurance Steels
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝐴 / fracture 𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑡 < 200𝑘𝑠𝑖(1400𝑀𝑃𝑎), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
Round beam limit 𝑆𝑒 ′ ≅ 0.5 ⋅ 𝑆𝑢𝑡
4𝑉
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑡 ≥ 200𝑘𝑠𝑖(1400𝑀𝑃𝑎), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
3𝐴
𝑆𝑒′ ≅ 100𝑘𝑠𝑖(700𝑀𝑃𝑎)
Round beam (hollow)
2𝑉 Irons
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑡 < 60𝑘𝑠𝑖 (400 𝑀𝑃𝑎),  𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐴
I-beam 𝑆𝑓′@5𝑥108 ≅ 0.4 ⋅ 𝑆𝑢𝑡
𝑉
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑡 ≥ 60𝑘𝑠𝑖 (400 𝑀𝑃𝑎),  𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐴𝑤𝑒𝑏
𝑆𝑓′@5𝑥108 ≅ 24 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (160 𝑀𝑃𝑎)
Springs 𝑇 𝐹
𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 = ; 𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 = Aluminums
𝜃 𝛿
𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑡 < 48𝑘𝑠𝑖 (330 𝑀𝑃𝑎),  𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
Stress 𝑆𝑓′@5𝑥108 ≅ 0.4 ⋅ 𝑆𝑢𝑡
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝑡 ∙ 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚
Conc.
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝑡𝑠 ∙ 𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑡 ≥ 48𝑘𝑠𝑖 (330 𝑀𝑃𝑎),  𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑓′@5𝑥108 ≅ 19 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (130 𝑀𝑃𝑎)
Von Mises
𝜎′ = √𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 − 𝜎2 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 𝜎3 Copper Alloys
Stress
2 2 𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑡 < 40𝑘𝑠𝑖 (280 𝑀𝑃𝑎),  𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 ) + (𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 )2 + 6(𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 2 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥 2 )
𝜎′ = √
2 𝑆𝑓′@5𝑥108 ≅ 0.4 ⋅ 𝑆𝑢𝑡
𝜎 ′ = √𝜎1 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 2 𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑡 ≥ 40𝑘𝑠𝑖 (280 𝑀𝑃𝑎),  𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝜎′ = √𝜎𝑥 2 + 𝜎𝑦 2 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝑆𝑓′@5𝑥108 ≅ 14 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (100 𝑀𝑃𝑎)

𝑆𝑦 Loading 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1 (bending, pure torsion)

𝑁=
𝜎′ effects 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 0.7 (axial)
Modified- 1 2𝑆𝑢𝑡 − |𝑆𝑢𝑐 | Size effects
𝐶1 = [|𝜎1 − 𝜎2 | + (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 )] 𝑑 ≤ 0.3𝑖𝑛(8𝑚𝑚): 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 1
Mohr 2 −|𝑆𝑢𝑐 |
0.3𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑑 ≤ 10𝑖𝑛: 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 0.869𝑑 −0.097
1 2𝑆𝑢𝑡 − |𝑆𝑢𝑐 |
𝐶2 = [|𝜎2 − 𝜎3 | + (𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )] 8 < 𝑑 ≤ 250𝑚𝑚: 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 1.189𝑑 −0.097
2 −|𝑆𝑢𝑐 |
𝑑 2 − (0.95𝑑)2
1 2𝑆𝑢𝑡 − |𝑆𝑢𝑐 | 𝐴95 = 𝜋 [ ] = 0.0766𝑑 2
𝐶3 = [|𝜎3 − 𝜎1 | + (𝜎3 + 𝜎1 )] 4
2 −|𝑆𝑢𝑐 |
~ 𝐴95
𝜎 = 𝑀𝐴𝑋(𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 , 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 ) 𝑑𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣 = √
0.0766
𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 1 (𝑎𝑙𝑙 axial loads)
𝑁=
𝜎̃ 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 0.6 (for larger sizes)
Surface Gears  out r 1
𝐶𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 ≅ 𝐴(𝑆𝑢𝑡 )𝑏 mv =
 in
=  in ;
rout
mA =
mv
effects (general) d N d
𝑖𝑓 𝐶𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 ≥ 1: 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐶𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 = 1 pc =
N
; pd = ;
d
m=
N
Tp
𝐶𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 = 1 (for cast, soft plating) Wt = ; Wr = Wt tan  ; mp = d
p Z
rp  cos
Temp 𝑇 ≤ 450∘ 𝐶(850∘ 𝐹): Z = (rp + a p ) 2 − (rp cos ) 2 + (rg + a g ) 2 − (rg cos ) 2 − C sin 
effects 𝐶𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 = 1 2𝑘
𝑁𝑝 = (1+2𝑚) (𝑚 + √𝑚2 + (1 + 2𝑚) sin2 𝜙)
∘ ∘ sin2 𝜙
450 𝐶 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 550 𝐶:
𝐶𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 = 1 − 0.0058(𝑇 − 450) (𝑁𝑝2 sin2 𝜙 − 4𝑘 2 )
𝑁𝐺 =
840∘ 𝐹 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 1020∘ 𝐹: 4𝑘 − 2𝑁𝑝 sin2 𝜙
𝐶𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 = 1 − 0.0032(𝑇 − 840) Gears 𝑊𝑡 𝑝𝑑 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
(based on data for steel only) (bending) 𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼 (US)
𝐹𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Strength @ 𝑆𝑚 = 0.9𝑆𝑢𝑡 (bending, pure torsion) 𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
1000 cycles 𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼 (SI)
𝑆𝑚 = 0.75𝑆𝑢𝑡 (axial) 𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
S-N 𝑆(𝑁) = 𝑎𝑁 𝑏 𝐴
𝐵

diagrams 𝐾𝑣 = ( ) (US)
1 𝑆𝑚 1 𝑆𝑚 𝐴 + √𝑉𝑡
𝑏 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) or = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) 𝐵
3 𝑆𝑒 5.699 𝑆𝑓 𝐴
𝐾𝑣 = ( ) (SI)
𝑆𝑚 𝑆𝑓 𝑆𝑒 𝐴 + √200𝑉𝑡
𝑎= 𝑏
or = 𝑏
or =
(1000) (5𝐸8) (1𝐸6)𝑏
𝐴 = 50 + 56(1 − 𝐵)
Fatigue 𝐾𝑓 = 1 + 𝑞(𝐾𝑡 − 1); 𝐾𝑓𝑠 = 1 + 𝑞𝑠 (𝐾𝑡𝑠 − 1) (12 − 𝑄𝑣 )2/3
stress conc. 𝐵= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 6 ≤ 𝑄𝑣 ≤ 11
1 4
𝑞= ; 𝑉𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [𝐴 + (𝑄𝑣 − 3)]2 (ft/min) (US)
√𝑎
1+
√𝑟 [𝐴 + (𝑄𝑣 − 3)]2
𝑉𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (m/s) (SI)
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 ∙ 𝐾𝑓 ; 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚 ∙ 𝐾𝑓𝑠 200
50
Modified 1 𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝑄𝑣 ≤ 5, 𝐾𝑣 = (US)
Goodman ≥ + (fatigue) 50 + √𝑉𝑡
𝑁𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆(𝑁)
criteria 50
1 𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝑄𝑣 ≤ 5, 𝐾𝑣 = (SI)
≥ + (yield line) 50 + √200𝑉𝑡
𝑁𝑓 𝑆𝑦 𝑆𝑦
𝐾𝐿
Shafts 𝑆𝑓𝑏 = 𝑆
𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅 𝑓𝑏′
1
3 Gears
√(𝐾𝑓 𝑀𝑎 ) + 3 (𝐾𝑓𝑠 𝑇𝑎 )
2 2
4 (surface) 𝑊𝑡 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑚
+⋯ 𝜎𝑐 = 𝐶𝑝 √ 𝐶𝐶
32𝑁𝑓 𝑆𝑓
𝑑= 𝐹𝐼𝑑 𝐶𝑣 𝑠 𝑓
𝜋
√(𝐾𝑓𝑚 𝑀𝑚 ) + 3 (𝐾𝑓𝑠𝑚 𝑇𝑚 )
2 2
4
𝐶𝑎 , 𝐶𝑚 , 𝐶𝑣 , 𝐶𝑠 = 𝐾𝑎 , 𝐾𝑚 , 𝐾𝑣 , 𝐾𝑠
{ [ 𝑆𝑢𝑡 ]} 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
𝐼=
1 1
Bearings ( ± ) 𝑑𝑝
𝐿𝑃 = 𝐾𝑅 𝐿10 𝜌𝑝 𝜌𝑔
𝐶 3 1 + 𝑥𝑝 2 2 𝜋
𝐿10 = ( ) (ball bearings) 𝜌𝑝 = √(𝑟𝑝 + ) − (𝑟𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
𝑃 𝑝𝑑 𝑝𝑑
10
𝐶 ⁄3
𝐿10 = ( ) (roller bearings) 𝜌𝑔 = 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 ± 𝜌𝑝
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑋𝑉𝐹𝑟 + 𝑌𝐹𝑎 1
𝐶𝑝 =
√ 1 − 𝑣𝑝 2 1 − 𝑣𝑔 2
𝜋 [( )+( )]
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑔

𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐻
𝑆𝑓𝑐 = 𝑆
𝐶𝑇 𝐶𝑅 𝑓𝑐′
TABLES & FIGURES
APPENDIX
Beam Tables
Singularity functions:

“x” is the location of a point of interest at a distance along the beam length

“a” is a user-defined parameter that denotes where in x the singularity function acts or begins to act

〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉2 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, 〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉2 = (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 𝑎

〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉1 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, 〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉1 = (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 𝑎

〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉0 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 < 𝑎, 〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉0 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎 〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉0 = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 𝑎

〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉−1 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 < 𝑎, 〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉−1 = ∞ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎, 〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉−1 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 𝑎

〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉−2 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 < 𝑎, 〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉−2 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎, 〈𝑥 − 𝑎〉−2 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 𝑎

𝑞 𝑑4 𝑦 𝑉 𝑑3 𝑦 𝑀 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼
= 𝑑𝑥 4 𝐸𝐼
= 𝑑𝑥 3 𝐸𝐼
= 𝑑𝑥 2 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥

𝑉 = ∫ 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1

𝑀 = ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2

𝑀
𝜃 = ∫ 𝐼𝐸 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑥 2 + 𝐶2 𝑥 + 𝐶3

𝑦 = ∫ 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑥 3 + 𝐶2 𝑥 2 + 𝐶3 𝑥 + 𝐶4

𝐹𝛿
𝑈= 2

𝜕𝑈
∆= 𝜕𝑄

1 𝐹2 𝑙
𝑈 = 2 𝐸𝐴

𝐹𝑙
𝛿 = 𝐴𝐸

1 𝑙 𝑇2 1 𝑙 𝑀2
𝑈 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 𝑈 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐺𝐾 2 𝐸𝐼