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Development of Software Program for Roads Geometric Design

Research · October 2017

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Magdi Zumrawi
University of Khartoum
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 University of Khartoum
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment for the

Degree of B.Sc. (Honor)

Development of Software Program for Roads Geometric

Design (CAD-RGD)
Computer Aided Road Geometric Design

Presented by:
Abubaker Ahmed Mohammed. 123003
Ahmed Abdelrahim Mohammed. 123016
Ahmed Dafa-Alla Mohammed. 123013
Supervised by:
Dr. Magdi Mohamed E. Zumrawi.

October 2017
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance
and assistance from many people and we are extremely privileged to have got
this all along the completion of our project. All that we have done is only due
to such supervision and assistance and we would not forget to thank them.
We respect and thank Dr. Magdi M.E. Zumrawi, for providing us an
opportunity to do the project work and giving us all support and guidance
which made as complete the project duly. We are extremely thankful to him
for providing such a nice support and guidance, although he had busy schedule
managing the corporate affairs.
We owe our deep gratitude to our project guides (Mohamed Alamin and
Abu-Almaali Alamin) who took keen interest on our project work and guided
us all along, till the completion of our project work by providing all the
necessary information for developing a good system.
We would not forget to remember Ms. Madeena for her encouragement
and more over for her timely support and guidance till the completion of our
project work.

I
 ‫ب‬
‫*ليس هناك فرح أعظم من فرح ألابن مجد أبيه‪ ،‬و لا أعظم من فرح ألاب بنجاح‬

‫أبيه‪.‬‬

‫لن‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫لي‬

‫إلى من جرع الكأس فارغ ًا سقينى قطرة حب ‪،‬إلى من كلتـ أنامله ليقدم لنا لحظه سعادة ‪،‬إلى من حصد ألاسوأكـ عن د برى مهد لى ط يرق‬
‫ال‬
‫علم ‪ ،‬إلى القلتـ الكيير والدي الع يرر‪.‬‬
‫ل‬ ‫ن‬
‫إلى من أرضعينى إلجتـ وإلجنان إلى رمر إلجتـ و لسم السقاء ‪،‬إلى القلتـ الناضع ناليناض والدبى إ جيييه‪.‬‬

‫إلى القلوبـ الطاهرة الرقيقه واليفوس الي بريه إلى رناحين حنابى أخوبى‪.‬‬

‫إلى‬
‫ل‬
‫أمى إ جيييه و أبى العالى‬

‫! الكلماب يفف حايرة أمامكم !!!! ودموع إلجب لا تطهر غلى الورق‬
‫جرأكم ألله عنى كل حير‪.‬‬

‫‪II‬‬
Abstract:
Traditionally, many calculations are used in the process of road design
such as the design of road cross section and intersections, vertical alignment
and horizontal alignment. Which takes time and effort. But with the huge
revolution that made by the information technology in the world there have
been many applications in the field of roads design. These applications
provide a flexible design for road and reduces the effort and wasted time in
the design process. However, these applications are usually complex and
expensive. The aim of this research is to develop an application that helps in
the design of roads geometry and provides drawings similar to the official
ones. This application was developed using C Sharp programming language
(C #). The application was used to redesign some roads and the results were
similar to the original results.

III
 ‫الخالصة ‪:‬‬
‫تقليديا‪ ،‬يتم اجراء العديد من الحسابات المستخدمة في التصميم الهندسي للطرق مما تأخذ وقتا وجهدا‪.‬‬
‫ولكن مع التطور الكبير والثورة الهائلة التي يمر بها العالم والتي احدثتها تكنولوجيا المعلومات ظهرت‬
‫العديد من التطبيقات في مجال التصميم الهندسي للطرق‪ .‬حيث تساعد في توفير تصميم مرن لهندسة‬
‫الطرق وتقلل من الجهد المبذول والزمن المهدر في عملية التصميم‪ .‬ومع ذلك هذه التطبيقات عادة ما‬
‫تكون معقدة ومكلفة‪ .‬يهدف هذا البحث إلى تطوير تطبيق الكتروني يساعد في عملية التصميم الهندسي‬
‫للطرق بطريقة مبسطة و يقوم بعمليات التصميم الهندسي من ادخال معلومات و تصميم العناصر‬
‫الهندسية للطرق و اخراج قطاعات و رسومات تماثل الخرط الرسمية‪ .‬تم تطوير التطبيق باستخدام لغة‬
‫البرمجة سي شارب (‪ . )C#‬تمت معايرة التطبيق باعادة تصميم بعد الطرق وكانت النتائج مقاربة‬
‫للنتائج االصلية للتصميم‪.‬‬

‫‪IV‬‬
 Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ______________________________________ I
Table of Contents ____________________________________________ V
List of Tables _____________________________________________ VIII
List of Figures _______________________________________________ IX
List of plates ________________________________________________ X
List of Abbreviations _________________________________________ XI
Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION ___________________________________ 1
1.1 Research Problems: _______________________________________ 2
1.2 Research Objectives:______________________________________ 2
1.3 Thesis Layout: __________________________________________ 2
Chapter 2 : LETRATURE REVIEW ______________________________ 4
2.1 Design control and criteria: _________________________________ 4
2.1.1 Design speed: ________________________________________ 4
2.1.2 Topography: _________________________________________ 5
2.1.3 Traffic volume: ______________________________________ 6
2.1.4 Driver Performance:___________________________________ 8
2.1.5 Design Vehicle and Vehicle Characteristics: ________________ 8
2.1.6 Environmental and other factors: ________________________ 13
2.2 Horizontal Alignment: ___________________________________ 13
2.2.1 Tangent Section: ____________________________________ 13
2.2.2 Circular Curves: _____________________________________ 13
2.2.3 Superelevation Rates:_________________________________ 15
2.2.4 Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curvature: ________________ 16
2.2.5 Transition Curve: ____________________________________ 17

V
 2.2.6 Sight Distances: _____________________________________ 17
2.3 Vertical Alignment: _____________________________________ 21
2.3.1 Grades: ____________________________________________ 21
2.3.2 Vertical curves: _____________________________________ 22
2.4 Cross section elements: ___________________________________ 25
2.4.1 Cross Slope: ________________________________________ 25
2.4.2 Lane width: ________________________________________ 26
2.4.3 Medians: __________________________________________ 27
2.4.4 Shoulder: __________________________________________ 28
2.4.5 Sidewalk: __________________________________________ 30
2.4.6 Horizontal clearance to obstructions (Clear Zone): __________ 30
2.5 Intersections: ___________________________________________ 31
2.5.1 Design Consideration: ________________________________ 31
2.5.2 Main type of intersection: _____________________________ 32
2.5.2.1 At Grade Intersections: ____________________________ 33
2.5.2.2 Grade Separated Intersections: ______________________ 37
2.6 Design Considerations ___________________________________ 38
2.6.1 Parking Lane: _______________________________________ 38
2.6.2 Emergency Lay-bys: _________________________________ 39
2.6.3 Service Roads: ______________________________________ 40
2.6.4 Pedestrians Crossings: ________________________________ 41
2.6.5 Road Lighting: ______________________________________ 43
2.6.6 Road Signing and Markings: ___________________________ 44
Chapter 3 : SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT _______________________ 46
3.1 Cross-section elements: __________________________________ 47
3.2 Intersections: ___________________________________________ 49
3.3 Vertical Alignment: _____________________________________ 52
3.4 Horizontal Alignment: ___________________________________ 54
Chapter 4 : CASE STUDY _____________________________________ 56
4.1 Vertical alignment (Al-Sinaat street / Rabak): _________________ 56
4.2 Horizontal Alignment (Al-Elafoon Road): ____________________ 59

VI
 4.3 Obaid Khatim street redesign:______________________________ 60
Chapter 5 : CONCLUSIONS ___________________________________ 62
5.1 Conclusions: ___________________________________________ 62
5.2 Recommendations for public authorities: _____________________ 62
5.3 Recommendations for research: ____________________________ 62
References: _________________________________________________ 64
Appendices: ________________________________________________ 65

VII
 List of Tables

Table 2-1: Design and Minimum speed values for different Roads classes. _ 5
Table 2-2: Recommended maximum highway grades for different terrain and
design speed. _________________________________________________ 6
Table 2-3: Road capacity for different design speed ___________________ 7
Table 2-4: Design vehicles ______________________________________ 9
Table 2-5: Vehicles characteristics _______________________________ 9
Table 2-6: Super elevation rates for Rural and Urban roads. ___________ 15
Table 2-7: Friction factors for different design speeds ________________ 16
Table 2-8: Horizontal curvature of urban streets with super elevation ____ 16
Table 2-9: Horizontal curvature of urban streets with normal crown _____ 17
Table 2-10: The design sight distances for urban streets ______________ 21
Table 2-11: Normal pavement cross slope. _________________________ 25
Table 2-12: Lane width. _______________________________________ 27
Table 2-13: Median width for Rural roads. _________________________ 28
Table 2-14: Median width for Urban roads. ________________________ 28
Table 2-15: Shoulder width for Rural roads ________________________ 29
Table 2-16: Shoulder width for Urban roads. _______________________ 29
Table 2-17: Length of sight Triangle Leg-Case A ___________________ 35
Table 2-18: Time gaps for intersections Control cases ________________ 37
Table 2-19: Guideline for type of crossing required. _________________ 41
Table 4-1: Ubaid Khatim Traffic volume __________________________ 60

VIII
 List of Figures

Figure 2-1: Speed vs Accessibility ________________________________ 5

Figure 2-2: Minimum turning path for passenger cars (P) _____________ 10
Figure 2-3: Minimum turning path for Single unit truck (SU-30) _______ 11
Figure 2-4: Minimum turning path for Intermediate Semi-Trailer (WB-50)]
__________________________________________________________ 12
Figure 2-5: Fundamentals of Horizontal circular curve. _______________ 14
Figure 2-6: Super elevation rate. _________________________________ 15
Figure 2-7: Circular curve with and without Transition curves _________ 17
Figure 2-8: Middle ordinate Distance _____________________________ 19
Figure 2-9: Passing Sight Distance. ______________________________ 20
Figure 2-10: Types of Vertical curves. ____________________________ 22
Figure 2-11: Stopping Sight distance ,Crest curve. ___________________ 23
Figure 2-12: Stopping Sight distance, Sag curve ____________________ 24
Figure 2-13: Roads sections for divided highway ____________________ 26
Figure 2-14: Clear zone _______________________________________ 30
Figure 2-15: Typical Road cross-section for Dual carriageway Roads. ___ 31
Figure 2-16: Typical Road cross-section for Single carriageway Roads. __ 31
Figure 2-17: Intersection maneuvers. _____________________________ 33
Figure 2-18: Approach and Departure sight Triangles ________________ 34
Figure 2-19: Typical Diamond and Cloverleaf interchanges ___________ 38
Figure 2-20: Parking Lane _____________________________________ 39
Figure 2-21: Emergency Lay-bys ________________________________ 40
Figure 2-22: Service Road _____________________________________ 41
Figure 2-23: Signalized level crossing ____________________________ 42
Figure 2-24: Overhead crossing _________________________________ 42
Figure 2-25: Typical Road lighting. ______________________________ 43
Figure 2-26: Staggered Lighting placement. ________________________ 44
Figure 2-27: Roads Markings ___________________________________ 44
Figure 2-28: Roads Signs placement _____________________________ 45

IX
 List of plates

Plate 3-1: Program splash screen ________________________________ 46

Plate 3-2: Cross-section main window.____________________________ 47
Plate 3-3: Cross-section Design Results. __________________________ 48
Plate 3-4: Selection of Intersection Type. __________________________ 49
Plate 3-5: Intersection Type ____________________________________ 50
Plate 3-6: Number of Intersection legs.____________________________ 50
Plate 3-7: Intersection control cases ______________________________ 50
Plate 3-8: Vehicle type and Turn lane width. _______________________ 51
Plate 3-9: Intersection Sight Distance _____________________________ 51
Plate 3-10: Separate grade interchange ____________________________ 52
Plate 3-11: Vertical alignments input data _________________________ 52
Plate 3-12: Vertical alignment __________________________________ 53
Plate 3-13: vertical curve settings ________________________________ 53
Plate 3-14: Vertical alignment Final Report. _______________________ 54
Plate 3-15: Horizontal curve fundamentals _________________________ 54
Plate 3-16: Horizontal alignment process. _________________________ 55
Plate 4-1: Vertical alignment 0+000 - 1+000. _______________________ 56
Plate 4-2: Vertical alignment 1+000 - 2+000. _______________________ 57
Plate 4-3: Vertical alignment 3+000 - 4+000. _______________________ 57
Plate 4-4: Curve points ________________________________________ 58
Plate 4-5: Horizontal curve fundamentals. _________________________ 59
Plate 4-6: Horizontal alignment data. _____________________________ 59
Plate 4-7: Horizontal Alignment drawing. _________________________ 60
Plate 4-8: Cross-section inputs and outputs. ________________________ 60
Plate 4-9: Intersection Data 1. ___________________________________ 61
Plate 4-10: Intersection Data 2. __________________________________ 61

X
List of Abbreviations

a Absolute value of the algebraic difference in

Grades.
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials.
ADT Average Daily Traffic.
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic.
a maximum radial Acceleration permitted.
BD Braking Distance.
BRD Brake Reaction Distance.
C The rate of Increase of centrifugal acceleration.
CAD Computer-Aided Design.
CL Centre Line.
CT End point of curvature at horizontal curve.
D The angle subtended by 100ft.arc.
DHV Design Hourly Volume.
e super Elevation rate.
E The External distance from point of intersection to
Centre of the arc.
f Coefficient of Friction.
ISD Intersection Sight Distance.
L Length of the curve.
LC Long Chord length.
Ls Transition curve length.
M The Middle ordinate.

XI
PI Point of intersection.
PSD Passing Sight Distance.
PVC Point of curvature for vertical curve.
PVT point of Vertical.
R Radius of curvature.
r Rate of change of grade.
SSD Stopping Sight Distance.
T Tangent distance.
TC Point of curvature at horizontal curve.
TG Time Gap for minor road.
V Vehicle speed.
X Horizontal distance from the first point at the
Curve.
Y The elevation of point the vertical curve.
𝑦0 Elevation of the beginning of the vertical curve.
∆ Central angle of the curve.

XII
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

XIII
 Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION

The Geometric design of roads is the branch of highway

engineering concerned with the positioning of the physical elements of the
roadway according to standards and constraints. Geometric design for
transportation and facilities includes the design of geometric sections,
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, intersections and various design
details. These basic elements are common to all linear facilities, such as
roadways, railways, and airport runways and taxiways. Although the details
of design standards vary with the mode and the class of facility, most of the
issues involved in geometric design are similar for all modes. In all cases, the
goals of geometric design are to maximize the comfort, safety, and economy
of facilities, while minimizing their environmental impact .
The design of these features is to a great extend influenced by driver
behavior and psychology, vehicle characteristics, traffic characteristics.
Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of accidents and their
severity.
Highway and transportation engineers must meet many safety, service,
and performance standards when designing highways for certain site
topography. Highway geometric design primarily refers to the visible
elements of the highways. Highway engineers who design the geometry of
highways must also consider environmental and social effects of the design
on the surrounding infrastructure. Usually, highway geometric design has the
following objectives:
1-Determine, within the allowance permitted by the design standard and right-
of-way, the routing of proposed highway.
2. Incorporate, within the design standard, various physical features of the
road alignment to ensure that drivers have sufficient view of the road (and
obstacles) ahead for them to adjust their speed of travel to maintain safety and
ride quality.
3. Provide a basis for the highway engineers to evaluate and plan for the
construction of a section of the proposed highway.

1
1.1 Research Problems:

Road engineering administrators in Sudan faces many

problems in the design of roads, poor design and construction are
one of the major problems they face in Sudan. Also the nature of soil
requires a lot of treatment. In order to be safe you need in depth
studies to find solution and appropriate treatment to facilitate access
to engineering design and construction using different method.
Most of projects in Sudan were designed using methods may
not be suitable for Sudan. A proper geometric design will consider
operated efficiency, comfort, safety, and cost wise for the users of
roads. Manual design of roads suffers from many complications and
requires a lot of work, so many designers went to the computerized
way for design due its easiness and it is faster than the manual
design.
This research aims to assist the civil engineering in designing
a better geometric design for roads using software program that is
easier and more simple to use than the existing programs.

1.2 Research Objectives:

 To Establish guidelines for Geometric Design that satisfy the design

conditions.
 To develop a simple software program for the design applicable in
Sudan.
 To apply the developed software program in existing or new roads
to check the validity of this guide.

1.3 Thesis Layout:

The Thesis contains five chapters each on focusing on a specific

subject as following:
 Chapter one provides a general introduction of Geometric design
and includes the Research Problems and objectives.

2
 Chapter two is about the geometric design elements and design
criteria.
 Chapter three is about the developing of the software program.
 Chapter four is considered the case studies of this research.
 Chapter five is the conclusion and recommendation of this
research.

3
 Chapter 2 : LETRATURE REVIEW

(Parameters affecting geometric design)

The intent of this chapter is to provide guidance to the designer by

referencing a recommended range of values for critical dimensions. Sufficient
flexibility is permitted to encourage independent designs tailored to particular
situations.

2.1 Design control and criteria:

The geometric design depends on serval design factors. The most

important factors are:
 Design speed.
 Topography.
 Traffic volume.
 Driver performance.
 Design Vehicle and Vehicle characteristics.
 Environmental and other factors

2.1.1 Design speed:

Design of almost every geometric design element of a road dependent
on the design speed, such as stopping sight distance and horizontal curvature.
Therefore, a design speed exception is an exception to all the various design
elements affected by it and should be justified on that basis.
The selection of a particular design speed is influenced by the
following:
• The functional classification of the highway
• The character of the terrain
• The density and character of adjacent land uses
• The traffic volumes expected to use the highway
• The economic and environmental considerations.
Typically, an arterial highway warrants a higher design speed than a
local road; a highway located in level terrain warrants a higher design speed
than one in mountainous terrain; a highway in a rural area warrants a higher
4
design speed than one in an urban area; and a high volume highway warrants
a higher design speed than one carrying low traffic volumes.

Figure 2-1: Speed vs Accessibility

Table 2-1: Design and Minimum speed values for different Roads classes.

Functional classification Design speed Min. speed

(km/Hr.) (Km/Hr.)
Expressway 120 80
Local 50 30
Collector 60 50
arterial 100 80

2.1.2 Topography:
The terrain conditions influence the geometric design of highways
significantly. The terrain is classified as Flat, rolling and mountainous.
(A) Flat: Any combination of grade, horizontal alignment and vertical
alignment that will allow heavy vehicles to maintain approximately
the same speeds as passenger cars.
(B) Rolling: Any combination of grade, horizontal alignment and
vertical alignment that will cause heavy vehicle speeds to be
reduced substantially below those of passenger cars, but will not
cause them to operate at crawl speeds for any significant length of
time.
(C) Mountainous: Any combination of grade, horizontal alignment
and vertical alignment that will cause heavy vehicles to operate at
crawl speeds for significant distances and/or at frequent intervals.

5
 Table 2-2: Recommended maximum highway grades for different terrain and design
speed.

Local (%) Collector (%) Arterial (%)

Type of Terrain Design speed Design speed Design speed
(km/h) (km/h) (km/h)
30 to 50 55 to 60 60 to 80 85 to 100 80 to 90 95 to 130
Flat 7 5 6 5 4 3
Rolling 8 6 7 6 5 4
Mountainous 9 8 9 8 6 5

2.1.3 Traffic volume:

Traffic volume is an important basis for determining what
improvements, if any, are required on a highway or street facility. Traffic
volumes may be expressed in terms of average daily traffic or design hourly
volumes. These volumes may be used to calculate the service flow rate, which
is typically used for evaluations of geometric design alternatives.
Average daily traffic (ADT):
The most basic measure of the traffic demand for highway is the
average daily traffic (ADT) volume. The ADT is defined as the total volume
during a given time period (days), greater than one day and less than one year,
divided by the number of days in that time period.
Design Hourly Volume (DHV):
The traffic flow keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during
off peak hours to the highest value during to the peak hour. It will
uneconomical to design for the peak traffic flow. Therefore, a reasonable value
of traffic volume is decided for the design and this is called the design hourly
volume, this value is to be determined from the data collected from extensive
traffic volume studies. The ratio of volume to capacity affects the level of
service of the road. The design hourly volume is usually the 30th highest
hourly volume for the design year.
The percent of ADT occurring in the design hour (K) may be used to
convert ADT to DHV as follows:
DHV = (ADT)(K) (2-1)

6
 The percentage of the design hourly volume that is in the predominant
direction of travel (D) and K are both considered in converting ADT to DDHV
as shown in the following equation:
DDHV = (ADT)(K)(D) (2-2)
Directional Distribution (D):
Traffic tends to be more equally divided by direction near the center of
an urban area or on loop facilities. For other facilities, D factors of 60 to 70 %
frequently occur.
K-Factor:
K is the percentage of ADT representing the 30th highest hourly volume
in the design year. For typical main rural highways, K-factors generally range
from 12 to 18 %. For urban facilities, K- factors are typically somewhat lower,
ranging from 8 to 12 %.
Capacity:
The road capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a
section of a highway under existing geometric and traffic conditions.
Capacity is a quantitative measure of design.
Congestion increases with increased traffic flow when there is a lack of
overtaking opportunity. The result is high journey times and vehicle operating
costs, often accompanied by more accidents as frustrated drivers take risks.
Table 2-3: Road capacity for different design speed

Design Speed Capacity

(Km/Hr.) (Vehicle/Hr.)
10 1389
20 1980
30 2206
40 2260
50 2232
60 2166
70 2083
80 1995
90 1907
100 1821
110 1741
120 1664
130 1593
7
2.1.4 Driver Performance:
Eye Height:
Research has indicated that 95 % of passenger car drivers have an eye
height at or above 1.05 m, and 95 % of truck drivers have an eye height of 1.8
m or more. An eye height of 1.22 m has accordingly been adopted for use in
this Manual.
Object Height:
The road should be designed such that a driver could be able to see an
object of 0.1 m high at a distance of 100 m away.
Reaction Time:
Driver reaction time consists of two components: perception time and
brake reaction time. Perception time is the time required for a driver to
perceive the hazard ahead and come to realization that the brake must be
applied. Break reaction time is a time taken by the driver to activate the brake.
Two reaction times may be used in state highway road design work and these
are:
a) 2.5 seconds: For normal use in all situations. It must be used when
design speeds are greater than 70 km/h because in these situations
drivers are likely to be travelling in free speed conditions and are
normally not so alert or prepared for the unexpected.
b) 2.0 seconds: An absolute minimum reaction time which caters
generally for older drivers. It may be used where design speeds are less
than or equal to 70 km/h, i.e. Urban areas and low speed rural areas
where drivers can be expected to be more alert and better prepared for
the unexpected.

2.1.5 Design Vehicle and Vehicle Characteristics:

Both the physical characteristics including turning capabilities of
vehicles and the proportions of variously sized vehicles using the road are
positive controls in geometric design. Therefore, it is necessary to examine all
vehicle types, select general class groupings, and establish representatively
sized vehicles within each class for design use. Vehicle characteristics
affecting design include power to weight ratio, minimum turning radius, and
travel path during a turn, vehicle height and width. The main road elements
affected are gradient, road widening in horizontal curves and junction design.

8
 Table 2-4: Design vehicles

(Source: Intersection Channelization Design Guide, NCHRP Report 279,

1985)
Road Function Design Vehicle
Urban Rural
Freeway WB-50 WB-50
Arterial WB-50 or WB-40 or B-40 WB-50 or WB-40
Collector B-40 or SU-30 SU-30
Local SU-30 or P SU-30

Table 2-5: Vehicles characteristics

(Source: SATCC code of practice for the Geometric Design of Trunk Roads)
Vehicle Type Dimensions (m)
Wheel Front Rear Width
Base overhang overhang
Passenger car (P) 3.1 0.7 1.0 1.8
Single unit Truck (SU-30) 6.1 1.2 1.8 2.5
Single unit Bus (B-40) 7.6 2.1 2.6 2.6
Semi-Trailer combination 6.5+9.4 0.9 0.6 2.5
large (WB-40)

9
Figure 2-2: Minimum turning path for passenger cars (P)

10
Figure 2-3: Minimum turning path for Single unit truck (SU-30)

11
Figure 2-4: Minimum turning path for Intermediate Semi-Trailer (WB-50)]

12
2.1.6 Environmental and other factors:
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution,
noise pollution, and other local conditions should be given due consideration
in the design on road geometric. Some of the arterial high speed highways and
uninterrupted flow of vehicles by providing grade separated intersections and
controlled access.

2.2 Horizontal Alignment:

Various design factors to be considered in the horizontal alignment are

design speed, radius of curves, type and length of transition curves, super
elevation and widening of pavement on curves.
The alignment should be enable consistent, safe, and smooth movement
at design speed.
Horizontal alignment for linear transportation facilities such as
highways and railways consists of tangents, circular curves, and possibly
transition curves. In the design of horizontal curves, it is necessary to establish
the proper, relation between the design speed and curvature and also their joint
relations with super elevation and side friction. From research and experience,
limiting values have been established for the super elevation (e), and the
coefficient of friction (f)

2.2.1 Tangent Section:

The tangent section is the straight section of the road before meeting
the curved sections until the End of the curved section. It is recommended that
the length of straights on a road should not exceed 2km (Figure 2-7).

2.2.2 Circular Curves:

Generally, circular curves should be used on most projects. The
fundamental properties of the circle, as utilized in highway engineering.
Horizontal curves are normally circular curves described by radius(R),
central angle ( - which is equal to the deflection angle between the tangents),
length (L), and semi tangent distance (T).

13
 Figure 2-5: Fundamentals of Horizontal circular curve.

Where:
1. PI is the point of the intersection of the two tangents
2. T is tangent length.
∆
T=R tan (2-3)
2

3. Δ is the deflection angle formed by the intersection of the two tangents at

the PI.
4. L is the length of the arc (curve) between the PC and PT, D is the angle
subtended by a 100 ft. arc.
2R∆π 100∆
L= °
= (2-4)
360 𝐷
18000 5729.58
D= = (2-5)
𝑅𝜋 𝑅

5. C is the long chord length between the PC and the PT.

∆
C= 2R sin( ) (2-6)
2
6. E is the external distance from the PI to the center of the arc.
𝑅
𝐸= ∆ −𝑅 (2-7)
cos( )
2
7. M is the Middle ordinate, the distance from the middle of the arc to the
midpoint of the Long Chord.
∆
M=R-R (cos( )) (2-8)
2
8. TC is the Point of Curvature, and is the point where the tangent ends and
the curve begins.

TC = PI – T (2-9)
9. PT is the Point of Tangency, and is the point where the curve ends, and the
tangent starts.

14
10. R is the radius. It is the distance from the center of the circle (O) to any
point on the circumference.

2.2.3 Superelevation Rates:

In order to contract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the
tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is
raised with respect to the inner edge, thus providing a transverse slope
throughout the length of the horizontal curve. This transverse inclination to
the pavement surface is known as super elevation (e).
The maximum rates of super elevation usable are controlled by several
factors such as climatic conditions, terrain conditions and frequency of very
slow moving vehicles that would tie subjected to uncertain operation. While
it is acknowledged that a range of values should be used, for practical purposes
in establishing the design criteria for horizontal alignment, a maximum
superelevation rate of 0.10 is used for, roads in rural areas and 0.06 for roads
in urban areas.
The purpose of super elevation or banking of curves is to counteract the
centripetal acceleration produced as a vehicle rounds a curve.

Figure 2-6: Super elevation rate.

Table 2-6: Super elevation rates for Rural and Urban roads.

Superelevation rate
Rural Expressway 12%
Arterial 10%
Urban Collector 8%
Local 4%

15
2.2.4 Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curvature:
The values for horizontal curvature are derived from the design speed,
super elevation rate, and side friction factors. The basic equation is:
𝑉2
R= (2-11)
127(𝑓+𝑒)
Where:
R = minimum radius of the curve, (m)
V: Vehicle speed, (km/h)
e = super elevation rate
f = side friction factor (side friction force developed between the vehicle
tires and road pavement)

Table 2-7: Friction factors for different design speeds

(Source: Ugandan Geometric Design Manual.)

Design speed (Km/hr.) Limiting value of f
30 0.17
40 0.17
50 0.16
60 0.15
70 0.14
80 0.14
90 0.13
100 0.12
110 0.11
120 0.09

Table 2-8: Horizontal curvature of urban streets with super elevation

(Source: Geometric design criteria of urban streets by Dr. Magdi M. E. Zumrawi)

Design speed Min. Radius of Min. Radius of

(KM/H) curve(m) [ Based on curve(m) [ Based on
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6%] 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 8%]
70 250 220
80 320 290
90 520 470
100 720 650
110 930 830
120 1140 1000

16
 Table 2-9: Horizontal curvature of urban streets with normal crown

Design speed (KM/H) Min. Radius(M)

20 145
40 575
60 1100
80 1800
100 2685
120 3650

2.2.5 Transition Curve:

Transition curves are used to connect tangents to circular curves.
Horizontal curves are more comfortable and more aesthetically pleasing if the
change in roadway cross section and curvature is effected over a short
transitional segment.
The gradual change in curvature is produced by using a spiral curve. The
radius of the spiral curve starts at infinity and is gradually reduced to the radius
of the circular curve that you designed originally. Adding the spiral curve
causes the centripetal acceleration to build up gradually, which is more
comfortable for vehicle occupants. The min length of the spiral curve can be
determined from following equation:
𝑉3
𝐿𝑠 = (2-12)
46.65𝑅𝐶
Where:
V: speed in (km/h)
C: the rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration. (𝑚⁄𝑠 3 )
R: the circular curve radius in meters

Figure 2-7: Circular curve with and without Transition curves

2.2.6 Sight Distances:

Sight distance across the inside of curves must be considered. Sight
obstructions such as walls, cut slopes and buildings may limit sight distance
on curves. Where these obstructions can be removed, adjustment in the normal
17
cross section or a change in alignment may be required to provide adequate
sight distance.
Stopping Sight Distance:
Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the sum of two distances. The distance
traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object
necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied and the distance
required to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins
(SSD=BRD+BD).
SSD-Stopping Sight Distance (m).
BRD-Brake Reaction Distance (m).
BD-Braking Distance (m).
SSD is computed from the following formula:
𝑉2
SSD=0.278x (V) x (t) + (0.039x ) (2-13)
𝑎

Where:
SSD=Stopping sight distance (m)
V=Initial speed (Km/h).
a=Deceleration rate (3.4 𝑚/𝑠 2 ).
t =Reaction time (2.5 seconds).
Horizontal sight distance on the inside of a curve is limited by
obstructions such as buildings, hedges, wooded areas, walls, abutments, cut
slopes, headlights, vertical curvature, or other topographic features. A
comprehensive field survey should identify these obstructions on the critical
cross sections and on the base plans.
Safe sight distance must be provided on the inside of horizontal curves to
allow the driver sufficient brake reaction time to bring the vehicle to a stop.
Obstructions which interfere with the needed sight distance should be moved
or removed, if possible. If the obstruction cannot be removed, consideration
should be given to realigning the road (horizontal and/or vertical) or providing
appropriate warning signage.
On horizontal curves, a designer must provide a “middle ordinate
“between the center of the inside lane and the sight obstruction. The basic
equation is:

18
 28.65 𝑆
𝑀 = 𝑅(1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( )) (2-14)
𝑅

Figure 2-8: Middle ordinate Distance

Passing Sight Distance:

Passing sight distance (PSD) is the minimum sight distance required for
the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely and comfortably. PSD
is applicable only in the design of two-lane roadways. The PSD is the sum
four components, as follows:
𝑎𝑡1
𝑑1 = 0.278𝑡1 (𝑣 − 𝑚 + ) (2-16)
2

Where:
𝑡1 =Time of initial maneuver (sec)
a=Average acceleration (Km/hr./s)
v=Average speed of passing vehicle (km/hr.)
m=Difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle (km/hr.)
𝑑2 = 0.278𝑣𝑡2 (2-17)
Where:
𝑡2 =Time the passing vehicle occupies right lane (sec)
19
 𝑑3 =Safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the
maneuver.
2𝑑2
𝑑4 = (2-18)
3

𝑑4 =Distance travelled by opposing vehicle.

PSD = 𝑑1 +𝑑2 +𝑑3 +𝑑4 (2-19)

Figure 2-9: Passing Sight Distance.

Decision Sight Distance:

Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an
unexpected or otherwise difficult to perceive information source or condition
in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered, recognize the
condition or its potential threat, select an appropriate speed and path, and
initiate and complete the maneuver safely and efficiently. Decision sight
distance values are substantially greater than stopping sight distance.
Examples of critical locations where it is desirable to meet decision
sight distance criteria include interchanges and intersections where unusual or
unexpected maneuvers are required, changes in cross section such as lane
drops and areas of concentrated demand for the driver’s attention (urban
locations) such as roadway elements, high traffic volumes, traffic control
devices and advertising signs.

20
 Table 2-10: The design sight distances for urban streets

Design speed Stopping Sight Passing Sight Decision Sight

Distance SSD Distance PSD Distance DCD
(Km/h) (M) (M) (M)
30 35 200 75
40 50 270 115
50 65 345 155
60 85 410 195
70 105 485 235
80 130 540 280
90 160 615 325
100 185 670 370
110 220 730 420
120 250 775 470

2.3 Vertical Alignment:

The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the center line of road.
The two basic elements of vertical alignment are grades and vertical curves.

2.3.1 Grades:
Tangent grades are designated according to their slopes or grades.
Maximum grades vary, depending on the type of facility, and usually do not
constitute an absolute standard. The effect of a steep grade is to slow down the
heavier vehicles (which typically have the lowest power/weight ratios) and
increase operating costs. Furthermore, the extent to which any vehicle (with a
given power/weight ratio) is slowed depends on both the steepness and length
of the grade. The effect of the slowing of the heavier vehicles depends on the
situation, and is often more a matter of traffic analysis than simple geometric
design.

21
Grade Change Without Vertical Curves: Designing a sag or crest vertical
point of intersection without a vertical curve is generally acceptable where
the grade difference (A) is:

 1.0 percent or less for design speeds equal to or less than [70 km/h].
 0.5 percent or less for design speeds greater than [70 km/h].

When a grade change without vertical curve is specified, the

construction process typically results in a short vertical curve being built (i.e.,
the actual point of intersection is “smoothed” in the field). Conditions where
grade changes without vertical curves are not recommended include:
 Bridges (including bridge ends)
 Direct-traffic culverts
 Other locations requiring carefully detailed grades

2.3.2 Vertical curves:

Vertical tangents with different grades are joined by vertical curves.
Vertical curves are normally parabolas centered about the point of intersection
(P.I.) of the vertical tangents they join. Vertical curves are thus of the form:
𝑔 −𝑔
y = 𝑦0 + 𝑔1 𝑥 + 2 1 𝑥 2 (2-20)
2𝐿
Where:
y = elevation of a point on the curve
𝑦0 = elevation of the beginning of the vertical curve
x = horizontal distance from the PVC to the point on the curve
𝑔1 = grade just prior to the curve.
𝑔2 = the grade just beyond the end of the vertical curve.
L= the length of the curve.

Figure 2-10: Types of Vertical curves.

22
Vertical curve Length:
In most cases, sight distance or appearance standards will govern for
highways. The equations used to calculate minimum lengths of vertical curves
based on sight distance depend on whether the sight distance is greater than or
less than the vertical curve length. For crest vertical curves, the minimum
length depends on the sight distance, the height of the driver’s eye, and the
height of the object to be seen over the crest of the curve.

Figure 2-11: Stopping Sight distance ,Crest curve.

The minimum length is given by the formula:

 For Crest Vertical Curve:
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 =

200(√ℎ1 +√ℎ2 )2
2𝑆 − When S ≥ L (2-21)
𝐴

𝐴𝑆 2
When S ≤ L (2-22)
200(√ℎ1 +√ℎ2 )2

Where:
S: sight distance.
L: vertical curve length.
A: absolute value of the algebraic difference in grades, in percent, |g1 _ g2|.
ℎ1 : height of eye (AASHTO standard = 1.2 m).
ℎ2 : height of object (AASHTO standard = 0.1 m).

 For Sag Vertical Curve:

For sag vertical curves, stopping sight distance is based on the distance
illuminated by the headlights at night. Design standards are based on an
assumed headlight height of 0.600 m and an upward divergence of the
headlight beam of 1°. the formulas for minimum length of vertical curve
depend on whether the length of the curve is greater or less than the sight
distance. For sag vertical curves, the formula is:

23
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 =

𝐴𝑠 2
when L ≥ S (2-23)
200(ℎ+𝑠 tan 𝛽)2

200(ℎ+𝑠 tan 𝛽)2

2𝑆 − when L ≤ S (2-24)
𝐴
Where:
h = height of headlight above road surface = 0.6 m
β= inclined angle of headlight beam = 1 degree

Figure 2-12: Stopping Sight distance, Sag curve

In some cases, sag vertical curves with a small total grade change can
be sharp enough to cause discomfort without violating sight distance
standards. In this case, it is necessary to establish a comfort criterion of the
form:
𝑎
r≤ 2 (2-25)
𝑣
Where:
r: is the rate of change of grade
a: is the maximum radial acceleration permitted
v: is the speed

There is no general agreement as to the maximum value of radial

acceleration that can be tolerated without producing discomfort. AASHTO
suggests a value of 0.3 m/s2, and suggests the standard

𝐴𝑉 2
L≥ (2-26)
395

Where:
L = length of vertical curve, (m)
A = |𝑔1 − 𝑔2 | (%)
V = design speed, (km/h
24
 The curve length to satisfy this criterion is usually about half the length
that is needed to meet the stopping sight distance criteria.

2.4 Cross section elements:

The major cross section elements considered in the design of streets and
highways include the cross slope, lane widths, shoulders, curbs, sidewalks,
and medians.

2.4.1 Cross Slope:

Normal cross slope:
Cross slopes are an important element in the cross-section design and a
reasonably steep lateral slope is desirable to minimize water ponding on flat
sections of uncurbed pavements due to pavement failures or unequal
settlements.
Table 2-11: Normal pavement cross slope.

Surface type Cross Slope Rate (%)

High 1.5 - 2.0
Low 2.0 - 6.0
Because of the nature of the surfacing materials used and surface
irregularities, Low-type surfaces such as earth, gravel, or crushed stone need
an even greater cross slope on tangents to prevent the absorption of water into
the surface. Therefore, Cross slope greater than 2 percent may be used.
Undivided travelled ways on tangents, or on flat curves, have a crown
or high point in the middle and a cross slope downward toward both edges.
Unidirectional cross slope the total width of the travelled way may be
utilized. The downward cross slope may be a plane or rounded section or
combination. With plane cross slopes, there is a cross slope break at the crown
line and a uniform slope on each side. Rounded cross sections usually are
parabolic, with a slightly rounded surface at the crown line and increasing
cross slope toward the edge of the travelled way.
On divided highways each one-way travelled way may be crowned
separately as on two lane highways, or it may have a unidirectional cross slope
a cross the total width of the travelled way, which almost always downward
to the outer edge.

25
 Figure 2-13: Roads sections for divided highway

Cross slope with Super elevation:

Super elevation on curves is determined by speed curvature
relationship, but cross slope or crown on tangents or on long radius curves are
complicated by two contradictory controls. On one hand, a reasonably steep
lateral slope is desirable to minimize ponding of water on pavements.
On the other hand, steep cross slope is undesirable on tangents because
of the tendency of vehicle to drift toward the low edge of the travelled way.
This drifting because a major concern in areas where snow and ice are
common. Cross slope up to and including 2 percent are barely perceptible in
term of vehicle steering. However, cross slope more than 2 percent are
noticeable and require a conscious effort on steering.
Use of cross slopes steeper than 2 percent on high- speed high ways,
with a central crown line is not desirable. In areas of intense rainfall, a
somewhat steeper cross slope may be needed to facilitate roadway drainage.

2.4.2 Lane width:

The lane width of roadway greatly influences the safety and comfort of
driving. Lane width of 2.7 to 3.6m are generally used, with 3.6m lane
predominant on most high-type highways.
Lane widths also affect highway level of service. Narrow lanes force
drivers to operate their vehicles closer to each other laterally than they would
normally desire. Restricted clearances have much the same effect. In a
capacity sense the effective width of travelled way is reduced when adjacent
obstructions such as retaining walls, bridge or head walls, and parked cars
restrict the lateral clearance.

26
 Although lane width of 3.6 m is desirable on both rural and urban
facilities, there are circumstances where lanes less than 3.6m wide should be
used. In urban areas where pedestrian crossing, right of way, or existing
development become stringent controls, the use of 3.3m lanes is acceptable.
Lanes 3.0 m wide are acceptable on low-speed facilities, and lanes 2.7m
wide are appropriate on low volume roads in rural and residential areas.
In some instances, on multilane facilities in urban areas, narrower inside
lanes may be utilized to permit wider outside lanes for bicycle use. In this
situation, 3.0 m to 3.3 m lanes are common on inside lanes with 3.6m to 3.9m
lanes utilized on outside lanes.
Table 2-12: Lane width.

Design standard Lane width (m)

Expressway 3.50
Arterial 3.50
Collector 3.25
Local 3.00
Low volume traffic 2.75

2.4.3 Medians:
A median is a highly desirable element on all roads carrying four or
more lanes and should be provided wherever possible. The principal functions
of a median are to provide the desired freedom front the interference of
opposing traffic, to provide a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles, to
provide for speed changes and storage of right-turning and U-turning vehicles
and to provide for future lanes. For maximum efficiency a median should be
highly visible both night and day and in definite contrast to the through traffic
lanes.
Median Types and Width:
Medians may be depressed raised or flush with the pavement surface.
They should be as wide as feasible but of a dimension in balanced with other
components of the cross section. The general range of median width varies
from a minimum of 1.0 m in a Type III urban situation to a desirable width of
18m on a rural expressway. On wide medians, it is essential to have a
depressed center or sway to provide for drainage.

27
 Table 2-13: Median width for Rural roads.

Design standard Median min. width (m)

Terrain
Flat Rolling Mountainous
Expressway 6.0 5.0 4.0
Arterial 4.0 3.5 3.0
Collector 3.0 2.5 2.0

Table 2-14: Median width for Urban roads.

Design standard Median min. width

Area type
I II III
Expressway 4.0 3.5 3.0
Arterial 3.0 2.5 2.0
Collector 2.5 2.0 1.5
Local 2.0 1.5 1.0
Note:
Type I - relatively free in road location with very. little problems as
regards land acquisition, affected buildings or other socially sensitive areas.
Type II - Intermediate between I and III.
Type III - Very restrictive in road location with problems as regards
land acquisition, affected buildings and other sensitive areas

2.4.4 Shoulder:
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway continuous with the travelled
way for accommodation of stopped vehicle, for emergency use and for Lateral
support of the pavement. Their main functions are:
(a) Space is provided for emergency stopping free of the traffic lane.
(b) Space is provided for the occasional motorist who desires to stop for
various reasons.
(c) Space is provided to escape potential accidents or reduce their severity.
(d) The sense of openness created by shoulders of adequate width on tributes
to driving ease and comfort.
(e) Sight distances is improved in cut sections, thereby improving safety.

28
(f) Highway capacity is improved and uniform speed is encouraged.
(g) Lateral clearance is provided for signs and guardrails.
(h) Structural support is given to the pavement.
Width of Shoulder:
The normal usable shoulder width that should be provided along high
type facilities is 3m. However, in difficult terrain and on lout volume roads,
usable shoulders of this width may not be feasible. A minimum usable
shoulder width of 0 .6m should be considered in such cases.
Table 2-15: Shoulder width for Rural roads

Design standard Terrain

Flat Rolling Mountainous
Expressway 3.00 3.00 2.50
Arterial 3.00 3.00 2.50
Collector 3.00 3.00 2.00
Local 2.50 2.50 1.5
Low volume traffic 2.00 2.00 1.5

Table 2-16: Shoulder width for Urban roads.

Design standard Terrain

I II III
Expressway 3.00 3.00 2.50
Arterial 3.00 3.00 2.50
Collector 3.00 2.50 2.00
Local 2.50 2.00 1.50
Low volume 2.00 1.50 1.50
traffic
Shoulder Cross Slope:
All shoulders should, be sloped adequately to rapidly drain surface
water but not to the extent that vehicular use would be hazardous.
Bituminous and concrete surfaced shoulders should be sloped from 2, to
6 percent, gravel or crushed rock shoulders from 4 to 6 percent and turf
shoulders 6 percent.

29
2.4.5 Sidewalk:
Sidewalks are accepted as integral parts of urban roads and should be
provided except on Urban Expressways or Major Arterials where the presence
of pedestrians are minimal. However, the need for sidewalks in many rural
parts is great because of the high speed and general lack of adequate lighting
and due consideration must be given for it especially at points of community
development such as schools, local business and industrial plants that results
in high pedestrian concentrations. While there are no geometric warrants, the
justification for a sidewalk depends on the vehicle-pedestrian hazard which is
governed by the volumes of pedestrian and vehicular. Traffic, their relative
timing and the speed of the vehicular traffic.
A strip of a minimum width of 1.0m must be provided between the
sidewalk and the travelled way to allow for planting of trees or safety barriers.
In rural areas, sidewalks must be placed well away from the travelled way and
separated from the shoulder by at least 1.0m.
A desirable minimum width of 2.0m is to be provided for all sidewalks.
Where there are restrictions on right of way, a minimum of 1.25m can be
considered. When provided, sidewalks must have all weather surfaces.

2.4.6 Horizontal clearance to obstructions (Clear Zone):

The term “clear zone” is used to designate the unobstructed, relatively
flat area provided beyond the edge of the travelled way for recovery of errant
vehicles. The clear zone includes any shoulders or auxiliary lanes. For rural
low speed rural collectors and local roads minimum width 3.0 m. For urban
arterials, collectors and local roads minimum width 500 mm.

Figure 2-14: Clear zone

30
 Figure 2-15: Typical Road cross-section for Dual carriageway Roads.

Figure 2-16: Typical Road cross-section for Single carriageway Roads.

2.5 Intersections:

An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more

highways join or cross, including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic
movements within the area. Each highway radiating from an intersection and
forming part of it an intersection leg. The most common intersection has four
legs.
Intersections are an important part of highway facility because, a great
extent, the efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity of the
facility depends on their design. Each intersection involves turning
movements between these highways, such movements may be facilitated by
various geometric design and traffic control, depending on the type of
intersection.

2.5.1 Design Consideration:

Five basic elements should be considered in intersection design:
 Human factors:
Driving habits, Ability of drivers to make decisions, Driver
expectancy, Decision and reaction time, Conformance to natural paths
of movement, Pedestrian use and habits, Bicycle traffic use and habits.
31
  Traffic Consideration:
Design and actual capacities, Design hour turning movements,
Size and opening characteristics of vehicle, Variety of movements,
Vehicle speeds, Bicycle movement, Pedestrian movement.
 Physical Elements:
Character and use of abutting property, Vertical alignments at the
intersection, Sight distance, Angle of the intersection, Bicycle traffic,
Cross walk, Lighting equipment, Environmental factors
 Economic factors:
Cost of improvements, Effects of controlling or limiting rights-of-way
on abutting residential or commercial properties where channelization
restricts or prohibits vehicular movements, Energy consumption
 Functional Intersection Area.

2.5.2 Main type of intersection:

1- At-grade intersection: An intersection where all roadways cross at the
same level.
2- Grade separated intersection: An intersection layout which permits
crossing maneuvers at different levels.
Grade-separated intersections generally are more expensive initially are
justified in certain situation. These are:
1. On high type highways such as express-way, freeways and motorways.
2. Certain at-grade intersection which have reached the maximum capacity
and where it is not possible to improve the capacity further.
3. At certain locations which have a proven record of bad accident history
when functioning as at-grade junctions.
4. At junctions where the traffic volume is heavy and the delays and loss
caused justify economically the provision of grade separation.
5. At a certain specific topographical situation where it is logical to provide a
grade-separated structure rather than an at grade intersection, which may
involve considerable earthwork or acquisition of land.

The choice between an at-grade and grade-separated intersection

depends upon various factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics,
delay etc.
The basic types of intersections are the three-leg or T, the four-leg, and
the multi leg. At each particular location, the intersection type is

32
 determined primarily by the number of intersecting legs, the topography,
the character of the intersecting highways, the traffic volumes, patterns,
and speeds, and the desired type of operation.

2.5.2.1 At Grade Intersections:

Basic types of intersections:
Three-leg: This type of intersection is generally suitable for junctions of minor
or local roads and junctions of minor roads with more important highways
where the angle of intersection is not generally more than 30 degrees from
perpendicular (i.e., from approximately 60 to 120 degrees). In suburban or
urban areas, it may be satisfactory for higher volumes and for multilane roads.
Four-leg: Many of the three-leg intersection design considerations (islands,
auxiliary lanes, channelization, etc.) may also be applied to four-leg
intersections.
Multi-leg: Intersection designs with multiple legs (5 or more) should not be
used unless there is no other viable alternative. If multi-legs must be used, a
common paved area where all legs intersect may be desirable for light traffic
volumes and stop control.
Selection of Intersection Type:
Variables for determining the type of intersection to be used at a
location include:
• Topography
• Traffic characteristics
• Number of legs
• Type of operation
• Roadway character

Intersection Maneuvers:
Three basic movements or maneuvers occur at intersections, namely
merging, cutting and diverging. These movements are illustrated below.

Figure 2-17: Intersection maneuvers.

33
Intersection Sight Distance:
One of the most important design feature at the intersection is the
amount of sight distance. Two types of clear sight distance are considered in
intersection design, approach sight triangles, and departure sight triangles.
 Approach Sight Triangle:
The approach sight triangle allows vehicle approaching the
intersection sufficient time to slow or stop before colliding within the
intersection.
 Departure Sight Triangle:
A second type of clear sight triangle provides sight distance sufficient
for a stopped driver on a minor-road approach to depart from the intersection
and enter or cross the major road. The departure sight triangle is needed at
each location where departure is controlled by stop, yield or signal control
(for example, if the road is a four-way stop, departure sight triangle is
checked for each quadrangle of the intersection).

Figure 2-18: Approach and Departure sight Triangles

34
Intersection control:
Procedures to determine sight distances at intersections are presented
below according to different types of traffic control, as follows:
Case A – intersections with no control:
For intersections not controlled by yield signs, stop signs, or traffic
signals. The driver of a vehicle approaching an intersection should be able to
see potentially conflicting vehicles in sufficient time to stop before reaching
the intersection.
Table 2-17: Length of sight Triangle Leg-Case A

Design speed (km/hr.) Length of leg ( ISD ) (m)

20 20
30 25
40 35
50 45
60 55
70 65
80 75
90 90
100 105
110 120

Case – B intersections with stop control on the minor road:

Departure sight triangles for intersections with stop control on the minor
road should be considered for three situations:
Case B1 – left turns from the minor road.
Case B2 – Right turns from the minor road, and.
Case B3 – crossing the major road from a minor - road approach.
In most cases the distances provided by left and right turns is sufficient for
crossing. The only situations where crossing sight distance must be checked
are:
 where turns are not permitted
 where the crossing distance is more than 6 lanes
 where heavy trucks cross on steep grade

35
 The decision point of the departure sight triangle on the minor road
should be 4.4 m from the edge of the major-road traveled way. Plus, the 1/2
lane width for vehicles approaching from the left (1 and 1/2 lane width for
vehicles approaching from right). The distance of 4.4 m represents the position
of the driver's eye relative to the edge of the road (assuming that the vehicle
stops 2.4 m from the road edge.
Case C – Intersection with yield control on the minor road:
Drivers approaching the yield signs are permitted to enter or cross the
major road without stopping, if there are no potentially conflicting vehicle on
the major road.
Case D – Intersection with Traffic signal control.
Case F – Left turns from the major road.
All locations along a major highway from which vehicles are permitted
to turn left a cross apposing traffic, including intersections and driveways,
should have sufficient sight distance to accommodate the left-turn maneuver.
Left-turning drivers need sufficient sight distance to decide when it is safe to
turn left a cross the lane(s) used by opposing traffic. Sight distance design
should be based on a left turn by a stopped vehicle, since a vehicle that turns
left without stopping would need less sight distance. The sight distance along
the major road to accommodate left turns is the distance traversed at the design
speed of the major-road in the travel time for the design vehicle.

Intersection Sight Distance Calculations:

The Equation is as follows:
ISD = 0.278 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑔 (2-28)
Where:
ISD = intersection sight distance (m).
V major = design speed on major road (km/h).
𝑇𝑔 = time gap for minor road vehicle to enter major road (s).

36
 Table 2-18: Time gaps for intersections Control cases

Design Time Gap (sec)

vehicle Case B1 Case B2 Case B3 Case F
and B3
WB-50 11.5 10.5 7.5 7.5
SU-30 9.5 8.5 6.5 6.5
P 7.5 6.5 5.5 5.5

2.5.2.2 Grade Separated Intersections:

Urban Streets: Grade separation to be provided if the estimated traffic
volumes within the next 5 years are in excess of the capacity of the
intersection; when traffic projections show that volumes within the next 20
years will exceed the capacity of an at-grade intersection, the need for a grade
separated facility should be kept in view for future construction.
Rural highways: Grade separation should be provided at intersections
of divided rural highways if the ADT (fast vehicles only) on the cross road
within the next 5 years exceeds 5000. Where this figure will be reached within
the next 20 years, the need for such facilities should be kept in view.
Four Leg Interchanges: Four-leg interchanges can take a wide variety
of forms. The choice of interchange type is generally established after careful
consideration of dominant traffic patterns and volumes and system
considerations. The two primary types of four-leg interchanges are as follows:
 Diamond Interchanges.
 Cloverleaf Interchanges.

37
 Figure 2-19: Typical Diamond and Cloverleaf interchanges

2.6 Design Considerations

2.6.1 Parking Lane:

Usually, parking on expressway or arterial highways should be
prohibited because on-street parking reductions through capacity, delays
traffic flow, and increases accident potential.
When on-street parking is allowed on a roadway, parallel parking is the
preferred method. Under certain circumstances, angled parking is allowed.
38
 The type of on-street parking selected should depend on the specific
function and width of the street, the adjacent land use and traffic volume, as
well as existing and anticipated traffic operations. Angled parking presents
sight distance problems due to the varying length of vehicles, such as vans and
recreational vehicles. The extra length of these vehicles may also interfere
with the travelled way.

Figure 2-20: Parking Lane

2.6.2 Emergency Lay-bys:

The purpose of a lay-by is to provide a convenient area for short period
stops so the road user can undertake tasks which would otherwise be
considered unsafe whilst driving or pulled up on the side of the road.
When the width of shoulders is not more than two meters, the available
space is not sufficient to warrant emergency parking and therefore in such
circumstances, emergency lay-bys should be provided. In rural areas, the
desirable frequency is for lay-bys to be provided at intervals of about 5 km. A
minimum parking length (L2) of 30 m is recommended to accommodate at
least two long vehicles.

39
 Figure 2-21: Emergency Lay-bys

2.6.3 Service Roads:

Service roads are generally found in urban areas and they can have
many functions, depending on the type of road they serve and the character of
the surrounding area. They may be used to control access or function ‘as a
street facility serving adjoining property.
They segregate local traffic from the higher speed through traffic and
intercept driveways of residences and commercial establishments along the
road. Service roads also not only provide more favorable access for
commercial and residential development than the faster moving arterials but
also helps to preserve the safety and capacity of the latter.

40
 Figure 2-22: Service Road

2.6.4 Pedestrians Crossings:

General Considerations Pedestrian crossings (whether level, overpass
or underpass) should be only if where pedestrian volumes, traffic volumes,
intersection capacity and other conditions favor their use. They may be
warranted in areas of heavy peak pedestrian movements such as factories,
schools, athletic fields or control business districts or where abnormal hazards
or inconveniences to pedestrians would otherwise result.
The table gives the general guidelines for determining the type of
crossing that is required. Where the pedestrian and vehicle volumes does not
fit into any of the category shown, judgement is needed in the assessment of
the type of crossing required.
Table 2-19: Guideline for type of crossing required.

Pedestrian Volume at Traffic Volume Type of Crossing

peak hour (1way)
at peak hour
<50 <1000 Ordinary level crossing

50-100 1000-2000 Signalized level crossing

100 >2000 Overhead crossing /

underpass

41
Figure 2-23: Signalized level crossing

Figure 2-24: Overhead crossing

42
2.6.5 Road Lighting:
Lighting may improve the safety of a road and the ease and comfort of
operation there on. Lighting of rural highways may be desirable but the need
is much less than on roads in urban areas. They are seldom justified except on
critical portions such as interchanges, intersections, and railroad grade
crossings, long bridges, tunnels and areas where roadside interference is a
factor.
Where lighting is being considered for future installation, considerable
savings can be effected through design. And installation of necessary conduits
under the pavements and kerbs as part of the initial construction and should
be considered.
Lighting columns (poles) should be placed behind kerbs whenever
practical. The appropriate distance is 0.5 m behind the kerb for roads with a
design speed of 50 km/h or less, and 1.2 m or greater for roads with a design
speed of 80 km/h or greater.
On dual carriageways, lighting may be located either in the median or
on the other side of each carriageway. However, with median installation, the
cost is generally lower and illumination is higher on the high-speed outer
lanes.

Figure 2-25: Typical Road lighting.

43
 Figure 2-26: Staggered Lighting placement.

2.6.6 Road Signing and Markings:

Signing and marking are directly related to the design of the road and
are features of traffic control and operation that the engineer must consider in
the geometric layout of such a facility, the signing and marking should be
designed concurrently with the geometrics as an integral part, arid this will
reduce significantly the possibility of future operational problems. The signing
and marking should follow the standards that have been established.

Figure 2-27: Roads Markings

44
Figure 2-28: Roads Signs placement

45
 Chapter 3 : SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT

The primary objective of this research is to develop a Software program

for Geometric design using C# program language. C# was developed by
Microsoft within its .NET initiative and later approved as a standard by ECMA
(European Computer Manufacturers Association). C# is one of the
programming languages designed for the Common Language Infrastructure.
The language is intended to be a simple, modern, object-oriented
programming language. C# is intended to be suitable for writing applications
that are intended to be economical with regard to memory and processing
power requirements. The design goal of such languages is to allow
programmers to use the most suitable programming style and associated
language constructs for a given job, considering that no single model solves
all problems in the easiest or most efficient way. Thus the C# Language was
selected for the development of this program.
The program is used to design the following Sections of geometric
design:
-Cross-section Elements.
-Vertical Alignment.
-Horizontal Alignment.
-Intersections.

Plate 3-1: Program splash screen

46
3.1 Cross-section elements:

Plate 3-2: Cross-section main window.

Input Data:
The basic data for cross-section design must be entered to Determine
the Results are:
Roads Type.

Road Classification.

Type of carriageway.

Traffic volume.
47
Outputs:
Cross-section Design data:
Number of lanes/carriageway.
Cross Slope.
Shoulder width
Median width
Clear zone.
Capacity.
Other data are shown in plate (3-3).

Plate 3-3: Cross-section

Design Results.

Process:
Lane width:
The Min. lane width is determined from table (2-12).
Shoulder width:
The min. Shoulder width from table (2-15) and (2-16).
Design speed:
The min. design speed from table (2-1).
Median width:
the min median width from table (2-13) and (2-14).
The Right of way (R/W) = the sum. of all the lanes widths.
The clear zone = The Road boundary - R/W.
The cross slopes to be used on both sides of the crown line is 2%.
Capacity from table (2-3)
No. of lanes:

48
 𝐷𝐻𝑉
Number of lanes per carriageway = (4-1)
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

DHV is computed from the Future Annual average daily Traffic.

𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇𝑓 = 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇𝑝 (1 + r)n (4-2)
Where:
r ≡ Growth rate, we used r = 5 %.
n ≡ Design life, we used n = 15 years.
Then we used DHV value with K value = 8 % for urban roads and 12
% for rural roads.

3.2 Intersections:

The major factor in the design of Intersection is the intersection design speed
and the Traffic volume of major and minor roads (the crossing roads).
1. Intersection Type:
Input Data:
Major road design speed.
Major and Minor Roads Traffic volume.
Outputs:
The intersection Type.
Process:
From the figure below the intersection type is determined according to its
limiting values.

Plate 3-4: Selection of Intersection Type.

49
 Plate 3-5: Intersection Type

2. At grade intersection Design:

Process:
Enter the number of legs for the intersection.

Plate 3-6: Number of Intersection legs.

Then, the applicable control cases of the intersection for the design.

Plate 3-7: Intersection control cases

50
The design vehicle is selected to determine the Time gap from table (2-18)
And the Turn lane width.

Plate 3-8: Vehicle type and Turn lane width.

The Intersection Sight distance is computed for each selected control case
from equation (2-24)

Plate 3-9: Intersection Sight Distance

3. Separate Grade Intersection:

Typical Layouts for 3 and 4 legs separated grade intersections are
presented in the program as shown below.

51
 Plate 3-10: Separate grade interchange

3.3 Vertical Alignment:

Input:
Vertical curves design speed.
Alignment Data (Chainages and Levels).

Plate 3-11: Vertical alignments input data

52
Outputs:
The drawn Ground level from the data.

Plate 3-12: Vertical alignment

Process:
From the selected Vertical data, the Ground level is set in the chart (the
Drawing scale can be changed), then the user Select points in the Line to form
the Formation level of the Road.
The Grade for each line is calculated and presented in table.
The curve point is selected from the graph, then the Length of the curve is
calculated from equations (2-21) (2-22) (2-23) (2-24) if the calculated length
is less than the minimum one then we use the minimum curve length.
The special points coordinates are calculated and their coordinated are written
on the graph.

Plate 3-13: vertical curve settings

53
The Data is shown in a final report after the alignment process is done.

Plate 3-14: Vertical alignment Final Report.

3.4 Horizontal Alignment:

1-Horizontal curve characteristics:

Inputs:
The design speed for circular curves, the central angle between tangents and
the super elevation rate.
Outputs:
The fundamentals of Horizontal circular curves.

Plate 3-15: Horizontal curve fundamentals

54
Process:
The values are calculated from equation: (2-3), (2-4), (2-5), (2-7), (2-8), (2-
11).
2- The Horizontal Alignment Drawing:
From the Easting and Northing Survey Data the Road center line and the
Road boundaries are drawn.

Plate 3-16: Horizontal alignment process.

55
 Chapter 4 : CASE STUDY

(Validation of the Software)

4.1 Vertical alignment (Al-Sinaat street / Rabak):

The road segment from chainage 0+000 to chainage 4+000 of Al Sinaat road
in Rabak will be designed.
Design speed of this segment is 60 Km/Hr.
The data obtained from Al-Dar Consultant company.
Chainage 0+000 to 1+000:

Plate 4-1: Vertical alignment 0+000 - 1+000.

56
Chainage 1+000 to 2+000:

Plate 4-2: Vertical alignment 1+000 - 2+000.

Chainage 2+000-3+000:

Plate 4-3: Vertical alignment 3+000 - 4+000.

There is a Curve at chainage 2+200 and 2+300.

57
Curve points settings:

Plate 4-4: Curve points

58
4.2 Horizontal Alignment (Al-Elafoon Road):

The data used for horizontal alignment from Alealfoon road found in the east
of Khartoum that connects Khartoum with the Ealafoon area. The road
segment from Kilo 1 - 22.
Alealfoon Road is a Rural express road with design speed of 90Km/Hr.

Plate 4-5: Horizontal curve fundamentals.

Horizontal alignment data :

Plate 4-6: Horizontal Alignment data.

59
 Plate 4-7: Horizontal Alignment drawing.

4.3 Obaid Khatim street redesign:

Obaid khatim is an urban collector road found in the middle of Khartoum

with 8.5km length.
The traffic Data of the street shown below
Table 4-1: Ubaid Khatim Traffic volume

Time Shargi Omak

east west east west
8-9am 1581 795 2230 2460
15-16pm 1220 1315 2491 2184
The Maximum AADT for the design =10560 vehicle/day.

Plate 4-8: Cross-section inputs and outputs.

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Intersections:
 Juba, Omak and Al-Ferdos street intersection

Plate 4-9: Intersection Data 1.

 El-Mashtal, Macca and El-Shargi street Intersections

Plate 4-10: Intersection Data 2.

For Road Furniture Typical Details see Appendix A.

61
 Chapter 5 : CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Conclusions:

This program based on C# language, we use this language after some

recommendations from previous research.
The basic objective of this program is the geometric design of roads,
the elements covered in this research are:
• Design control and criteria.
• Horizontal Alignment.
• Vertical Alignment.
• Cross section elements.
• Intersections.
The program matches the data entered and then select the proper
values from tables or calculate them from equation that were predefined in
its code.
The Case studies to validate this research were the Alealfoon, Al-Sinaat
and Ubaid Khatam roads redesign, this program is simple and easy and it can
save time and efforts and reduces human errors. The results of this program
are more accurate from the manual design. This program obtains road profile
and horizontal alignment and all other elements with drawing sheets.

5.2 Recommendations for public authorities:

Manual design is very difficult and the Probability of human errors

will increase. We need to compare between different programs to reach to
the best combinations to develop a new software with high accuracy.

5.3 Recommendations for research:

We recommend to try a different library for the drawing of curves or to try

another programming language because, C# language graph controls are very

62
complicated. More researches should be done in the analysis of curves and in
the limiting values of the design.

63
References:

1- A policy on geometric design of highways and streets (AASHTO) Fifth

edition 2004.
2- A Guide on Geometric design of Roads by Jalan Sultan Salahuddin.
3- Road geometric design manual, ministry of works, Tanzania 2011
edition.
4- R.L Cheu “Highway Geometric design” (The Hand book of highway
Engineering ED. T.W. Fwa 2005.
5- Austroads Guide to traffic engineering Practice-Part 2: Roadway
capacity and the highway capacity manual (TRB 1985).
6- Roadway Design Manual 2-4 TxDOT 05/2010, Chapter 2 — Basic
Design Criteria Section 2 — Traffic Characteristics.
7- Roadway Design Manual by Rene Garcia, P.E

64
Appendices:

A:(Typical Program Layouts):

65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
Appendix B:
Vertical and Horizontal Alignment Drawings.

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75
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