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 Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport
CONTENTS
Volume 87 Number S1 Supplement 2016

TEACHING GAMES FOR UNDERSTANDING CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT FROM THE GERMAN SPORT UNIVERSITY

PREFACE S1

OPENING PLENARY LECTURE

We Are What We Teach: TGfU as a Complex Ecological Situation S2
J. Butler
KEYNOTES
“Is TGfU a Model Only Test Pilots Can Fly?”: Teacher-Coach Development in Game-Centered Approaches S4
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D. Kirk
Using Technology to Evaluate Game Play for Beginners and Proficient Players That Encompasses Game-Play Evaluation S6
P. G. O’Donoghue
Teaching Games for Understanding and the Psychology of Intuition S8
H. Plessner
INVITED TALKS
Capturing the Complexity of Team Synergies to Provide a Better Practice S10
D. Araújo
Student Learning Outcome and Teachers’ Autonomy Support Toward Teaching Games for Understanding Through Adopting
Accessible Technology and Alternative Sport Equipment: An Asian Experience S12
A. S. Ha
Understanding Games for Teaching—Reflections on Empirical Approaches Toward Game Instruction S14
S. König
Building an Increased Evidence Base for Game-Centered Approaches in Professional Practice Settings S16
S. Harvey
Instructions in Sports From a Cognitive Information-Processing Perspective: Implications for Theory and Practice Within
Teaching and Learning in Sport Games S17
P. A. Furley
Analyzing Complex Dynamical Systems: Artificial Neural Networks Contribute New Insight Concerning Optimal Athletic
Techniques and Tactics S19
A. Schmidt
Using Modification to Generate Emergent Performance (and Learning?) in Sports S21
D. Farrow, T. Buszard, M. Reid, and R. Masters
Game-Centered Approaches: Different Perspectives, Same Goals—Working Together for Learning S23
D. Gutierrez
“Leveling the Playing Field” in Physical Education With Adaptation Games S25
K. Pagnano Richardson, D. Sheehy, and T. Hopper

THEMATIC SYMPOSIA
Developing a Conceptual Framework to Underpin the Practical Art of Making Games Accessible to Players S27
The Ecological Dynamics Approach to Sport Pedagogics and Tactical Analysis S29
Personality in Team Sport: A Coach and Athlete Perspective S31
Translating TGfU Theory Into Practice: How Can We Support Teachers’ and Coaches’ Learning When Implementing TGfU? S33
Session of the German Handball Association S36
 Democracy in Action Through Inventing Games S37
The Game Performance Assessment Instrument: Twenty Years and Counting! S39
Complexity and the Design of Learning Systems in TGfU S42
Learners as Complex Systems: Basic Moves, Modification-by-Adaptation, and Social Coordinated Mimicry S44
A Critical Evaluation of Limits and Prospects of the Simple Heuristic Approach, Ball-School Approach, Ecological Dynamics
Approach, and TGfU Explaining Decision Making in Sports S45
Dynamic Match Analysis S48
Sustained Collaborative Adventures in TGfU: Communities of Practice S50
Implicit Motor Learning: Applying Research Evidence to Real-World Contexts S52
Developing Young Talent Toward Elite Performers S54
An 18-Month Case Study of a Game-Centered Approach Coach Education and Development Program Within a Professional
Rugby Club S56
BIG Data in Sport Games S58
Learning to Teach TGfU: Pedagogical Ventures With Preservice Teachers S60
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PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Decision Making and Task Constraints S63
Current Trends in Performance Analysis S64
Small-Sided Team Games S66
New Theoretical Directions for TGfU S68
Psychophysical Factors Affect Team-Sports Performance S70
Team Tactics S72
TGfU in the Field S75
TGfU and Coaching S77
TGfU and Psychosocial Factors S80
Refereeing S81
Coaching S83
Sports Physiology and Training Science S86
Physical Education and Team Games S87
New Developments in Team Games Pedagogy S90
Psychosocial Factors Affecting Team Performance S92
Decision Making in Association Football S94
Training Science S95

PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS S97

SELECTED PRACTICAL WORKSHOPS S115
 TEACHING GAMES FOR UNDERSTANDING CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT FROM THE
GERMAN SPORT UNIVERSITY
Just Play It—“Innovative, International Approaches to Games”

6th International Teaching Games for Understanding Conference (TGfU) Meets the 10th
German Sports Games Symposium of the German Association of Sport Science (DVS)
July 25–27, 2016, at the German Sport University in Cologne
Organized by the Institute of Cognitive and Team/Racket Sport Research

Conference Chair
Daniel Memmert

Chair of the Scientific Program

Philip Furley
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Organizing Committee
Alexander Moraru
Dorothée Altmeier Benjamin Noel
Frowin Fasold Marco Rathschlag
Wolfgang Hillmann Robert Rein
Stefanie Hüttermann Karsten Schul
Matthias Kempe Sebastian Schwab
Jan Kilian Juliane Veit
Timo Klein-Soetebier Martin Vogelbein
Carina Kreitz

Assisting Staff

Yasmin Badaghlou Christiane Schellhorn

Michel Brinkschulte Mario Schünke
Raphael Harbecke Megan Sierz
Christian Hergott Bente Wegner
Felix Pawlak Hendrik Winkelmann
Cornelia Reese

Scientific Committee and Peer Review Panel

Len Almond, England Timo Klein-Soetebier, Germany

Duarte Araujo, Portugal Michael Kolb, Germany
Elkin Arias, Colombia Stefan König, Germany
Michael Ayres, England Koen Lemmink, The Netherlands
Arnold Baca, Austria Victoria Machota, Spain
Natalia Balague, Spain Steve Mitchell, United States
Heidi Bohler, United States Gabi Neumann, Germany
Dirk Büsch, Germany Bruce Nkala, Botswana
Joy Butler, Canada Ben Noel, Germany
Felipe Costa, Brazil Alan Ovens, Australia
Harjo de Poel, The Netherlands Kelly Ann Perry, United States
Eike Emrich, Germany Wendy Piltz, Australia
Philip Furley, Germany Robert Rein, Germany
Erin Gerlach, Germany Ian Renshaw, Australia
Carlos Goncalves, Portugal Ahmad Hashim Rodzli, Malaysia
Pablo Greco, Brazil Deborah Sheehy, United States
Steffen Greve, Germany Joanna Shepard, Canada
Linda Griffin, United States Dennis Slade, New Zealand
Norbert Hagemann, Germany Wayne Smith, Australia
Steve Harvey, United States Bernd Strauß, Germany
Oliver Höner, Germany Manfred Wegner, Germany
Tim Hopper, United States Karen Zentgraf, Germany
Robert Hristovski, Republic of Macedonia
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200401

PREFACE

Daniel Memmert
Conference Chair, German Sport University Cologne, Germany
(memmert@dshs-koeln.de)

The Institute of Cognitive and Team/Racket Sport By bringing together the national German sports game
Research team warmly welcomes the international sports community and an international scientific community in
games community to the 10th Sportspiel Symposium a joint conference held between the European Football
by the German Association for Sport Science (DVS) in Championship in France and the Summer Olympic
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combination with the 6th International Teaching Games Games in Brazil, we hope to foster the interdisciplinary
for Understanding (TGfU) Conference at the German discussion of team and racket sports in the fields of sport
Sport University Cologne (DSHS). pedagogy, sport didactics, sport psychology, computer
Together with the German Research Community, the science, human movement science, and training science.
Federal Institute of Sport Science, the North Rhine- The conference aims to cover the entire spectrum of
Westphalia (NRW) Ministry, and prominent national sports sciences through the Plenary Opening Lecture,
sports game federations (German Football Association three keynote speakers, nine invited talks, invited papers,
[DFB], German Handball Federation [DHaB], German practical workshops, coaching clinics, oral presentations,
Field-Hockey Federation [DHoB], German Basketball and poster presentations. We particularly want to thank
Federation [DBB], German Volleyball Association the scientific advisory board, with its 41 members from
[DVV], and German Table Tennis Association [DTTB]), all over the world, for helping to establish the overarching
we are very pleased to organize the TGfU Conference for conference themes and scrutinizing the quality of
the first time in Germany in the city of Cologne—after submitted contributions.
being held in New Hampshire (United States), Melbourne The conference theme “just play it—innovative,
(Australia), Hong Kong (China), Vancouver (British international approaches to games” is not only addressed
Columbia, Canada), and Loughborough (United King- to national and international scientists, but also explicitly
dom). Furthermore, it is a great honor to host the DVS to coaches, teachers, and practitioners. In this respect, the
Sportspiel Symposium, which was held here in 2004, for conference will provide an ideal opportunity to exchange
the second time at the DSHS. We would like to express information, expand existing cooperation, and inspire
our sincere gratitude for the trust of the TGfU Special future collaboration. We are delighted to offer a platform
Interest Group (SIG), to all members of the SIG Executive, for this international and interdisciplinary exchange,
and to the DVS Commission sports games. which unquestionably characterizes this conference.

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 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S2–S3
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200402

OPENING PLENARY LECTURE

We Are What We Teach: TGfU as a Complex Ecological Situation

J. Butler
University of British Columbia, Canada
(joy.butler@ubc.ca)

Simone de Beauvoir (1953, p. 66) has famously said that sustainable and serves the interests and needs of all
“the body is not a thing, it is a situation.” She thus these different bodies. When teachers situate themselves
contradicts the distinction drawn by Descartes between in this way, their entire pedagogy will tend to flow in a
the body and the mind—a division that has haunted the certain direction when it comes to such issues as
physical education curriculum for many years, as many authority, decision making, and knowledge sharing.
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physical educators have attempted to educate the body, They become part of a dynamic and sustainable system
rather than educate the human being through the body. of learning that aligns itself with other educational
In this presentation, I suggest that the space opened up initiatives that seek to accommodate and encourage new
by de Beauvoir’s distinction is the space in which democratic forms of participation (The New London
teaching games for understanding (TGfU) was born and Group, 1996).
still exists. It is a distinction that aligns our teaching, As I trace and discuss the history of TGfU during the
our philosophical stances, our research, and our last 30 years, I will also suggest that the orientation of
governance. ecological complexity has influenced and guided the
To see the body as a “thing or vessel” that exists for development of its etymology and governance, so that
and by itself implies that it can (and must be) “schooled” its organizational and political structures have emerged
through individualistic skills-based approaches to teach- looking somewhat different from the hierarchical
ing and learning. Traditionally, these approaches have governance structures more typical of traditional
involved students being taught skills through teacher- educational organizations. TGfU has always been and
directed side-by-side or serial drills. Along with many still is a grassroots organization (somewhat akin to social
other TGfU commentators and educators, I have drawn movements such as Occupy) as it has gained ground
attention to the dangers and limitations of these with practitioners and theorists alike through small
approaches, which ignore important components of conferences, town hall meetings, informal networks, and
learning, including transfer, tactical understanding, new media sites. Its activities have been organized
problem solving, and social and ethical learning. To see through flexible and adaptive communities of practice
the body as a “situation,” on the other hand, honors and such as the TGfU Task Force, the Association
explores the ways in which students connect to other Internationale des Écoles Supérieures d’Éducation
bodies and to the sociopolitical context in which they live Physique TGfU Special Interest Group, and its
and breathe, as it engages them in collective learning in International Advisory Board. It has also learned from
context. Thus, the intentions, beliefs, and actions of and emphasized local initiatives throughout the globe
teachers look very different as they implement the TGfU and drawn them together in a dynamic community of
approach within a worldview I have described as practice that has paid attention both to theoretical
ecological complexity. investigation and practical implementations. In this way,
As Parker Palmer (2007) suggested, this philosophi- TGfU has reflected new forms of decentralized
cal orientation determines who we are when we teach. organization, composed of individuals who may not be
When we facilitate TGfU learning experiences effec- from the same countries or institutions but nonetheless
tively, we naturally become focused on emergent come together as a virtual community.
learning and can be described as emergent learning- To survive and stay robust, such grassroots
focused teachers. Such educators understand that their decentralized communities must remain flexible and
work takes place in contexts and intersections that adaptive as they attend to changing circumstances. They
include the group, the team, the class, the school, and do so by reflecting the collective voice, responding to
the community. They are interested in learning that is accepting emergent ideas and new directions, and

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 OPENING PLENARY LECTURE S3

paying attention to the sociopolitical contexts in which References

learning occurs. de Beauvoir, S. (1953). The second sex. New York, NY: Knopf.
As TGfU advocates have espoused constructive Memmert, D., Almond, L., Bunker, D., Butler, J., Fasold, F.,
learning theories, so have they attempted to close the Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research questions
gap between practice and theory as the movement has related to teaching games for understanding. Research
reached out to practitioners and theorists alike. This kind Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 347 – 359.
of inclusivity bodes well for continued research alliances The New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies:
Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66,
between researchers and practitioners as TGfU continues 60 – 93.
to develop. Here I will draw upon Memmert et al.’s Palmer, P. J. (2007). The courage to teach: Exploring the inner
(2015) meta-analysis of current research and future landscape of a teacher’s life (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA:
research directions. Jossey-Bass.
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 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S4–S5
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200404

KEYNOTES

“Is TGfU a Model Only Test Pilots Can Fly?”: Teacher-Coach Development in
Game-Centered Approaches
D. Kirk1,2
1
University of Strathclyde, United Kingdom; 2University of Queensland, Australia
(David.Kirk@strath.ac.uk)

Alan Launder (2001) posed the question, “Is teaching In the second part of the talk, I build on my analysis
games for understanding (TGfU) a model only test pilots set out in the book Physical Education Futures (Kirk,
can fly?” in the first edition of his book Play Practice. His 2010a) to argue for a different explanation for the 30-
question, in part, reflected the widespread view that some odd-year conundrum of TGfU in physical education and
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20 years after the introduction of TGfU to the physical sport. The crux of my argument is that there are different
education teaching and sports coaching communities, explanations for the lack of progress of TGfU in physical
this approach to games was still regarded as something education teaching compared with sports coaching.
of a novelty, as a radical departure from so-called Although both activities are ostensibly pedagogical
“traditional” methods of teaching and learning in games. practices, it is a mistake to assume that they also share
The question also held a possible explanation for this the same explanation for the apparent preference for
situation, which was that TGfU is too complex and traditional pedagogies over TGfU.
demanding for “ordinary” teachers and coaches. The case of physical education teaching is the main
This explanation was one for which Launder himself focus of Physical Education Futures (PEF; Kirk, 2010a)
had some sympathy. and is possibly more complex. In the book, I use
As I will elaborate on in the first part of this talk, this Rovegno’s (1995) concepts of the molecularization of
explanation continues to be used by scholars puzzled by learning and the hegemony of biomechanics to reveal in
the apparent reluctance of teachers and coaches to fully detail the dominant form of physical education in
embrace TGfU. I will cite a range of studies published schools, which I call “physical education as sports
since 2001—for example, Butler (2005), Diaz-Cueto, techniques.” I revisit these concepts here to show what
Hernández-Álvarez, and Castejón (2010), Evans and the so-called traditional approach to physical education
Light (2007), Harvey, Cushion, and Sammon (2015), looks like in practice, which is the approach TGfU
Harvey and Jarrett (2014), and O’Leary (2015)—that ostensibly seeks to replace and is thus often portrayed in
report on a lack of progress with the use of TGfU among the literature as the antithesis of TGfU . . . This
preservice and experienced teachers and among partici- traditional practice is what TGfU is not. I point out
pation and professional sports coaches. These authors that many scholars in physical education have taken this
and others offer a range of explanations, in addition to sports technique-based approach seriously, as a valid (if
the complexity and demanding features of TGfU, for the flawed) pedagogical practice.
continuation of this situation for more than 30 years, I will argue here that this misconception has led to
despite its merits as an approach, which Butler (2005, lines of research that compare traditional sports
p. 226) claims with some exasperation “seem blindingly technique-based approaches to TGfU. I argued in a
obvious to its proponents.” keynote talk I gave to the first TGfU conference held in
I will show that many of these authors have important New Hampshire in 2001 (Kirk, 2001, 2005) that such
and helpful things to say about how teacher and coach comparative studies should cease because they sought to
development might progress within game-centered compare two approaches to games that had fundamen-
approaches. I will also argue, however, that few of these tally different purposes. In PEF, I explained in historical
studies identify the sources of the impediment to the detail why I made this call. The so-called traditional
more widespread use of TGfU and related approaches, approach to physical education is not practiced today
and as such, some of their valuable recommendations will because it is a valid and effective pedagogical practice.
be bound to fail because they cannot address and resolve In its own terms, it has been shown by any number of
the root causes of the problems in games teaching and empirical studies to be an ineffective pedagogy (e.g., Van
learning. Der Mars, 2006). The practice has survived nonetheless
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 KEYNOTES S5

from its historical roots in a gymnastics-based form of physical education teachers: Rewards and barriers regarding
physical education because it is effective for single the changing model of teaching sport. Journal of Teaching in
teachers working with classes of up to 30 or more pupils Physical Education, 29, 378 – 398.
who have a wide range of abilities in and motivation for Evans, J. R., & Light, R. L. (2007). Coach development through
collaborative action research: A rugby coach’s implemen-
physical education. The so-called traditional approach is
tation of game sense pedagogy. Asian Journal of Exercise &
centrally concerned, as was its gymnastics/drilling and Sports Science, 4, 1– 7.
exercising predecessor, with the social regulation of Harvey, S., Cushion, C., & Sammon, P. (2015). Dilemmas faced
children’s bodies in time and space. In short, it is by pre-service teachers when learning about and implement-
primarily a practice of social control required by the ing a game-centred approach. European Physical Education
school as an institution—what Lawson (2009) dubbed Review, 21, 238– 256.
“the industrial-age school.” In the talk, I provide more Harvey, S., & Jarrett, K. (2014). A review of the game-centred
evidence for this claim and its consequences for the approaches to teaching and coaching literature since 2006.
professional development of teachers within TGfU. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 19, 278– 300.
Kirk, D. (2001, August). Future prospects and directions for
I propose that the institutional context for sports
TGfU. Keynote address at the International Conference on
coaching is quite different and swings around two axes of Teaching Games for Understanding, Waterville Valley, NH.
professional and participation coaches, and those who
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Kirk, D. (2005). Future prospects for teaching games for

have an adequate level of education as a coach and those understanding. In L. Griffin & J. Butler (Eds.), Teaching
who draw primarily on their own experience as former games for understanding: Theory, research and practice
players. Here the issue is about pedagogy, and the (pp. 213 –227). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
argument for retaining traditional practices that resemble Kirk, D. (2010a). Physical education futures. London, England:
molecularization have, in my view, no defense whatso- Routledge.
ever on pedagogical grounds (see Kirk, 2010b). In the Kirk, D. (2010b). Towards a socio-pedagogy of sports coaching.
In J. Lyle & C. Cushion (Eds.), Sport coaching: Professiona-
talk, I again elaborate on the evidence for this claim and
lisation and practice (pp. 165 – 176). Edinburgh, UK: Elsevier.
consequences for coach professional development in
Launder, A. (2001). Play practice. Champaign, IL: Human
TGfU. Kinetics.
I will argue, in summary, that it is not only test pilots Lawson, H. A. (2009). Paradigms, exemplars and social change.
who can fly TGfU. But “ordinary” teachers and coaches Sport, Education and Society, 14, 77– 100.
never will use TGfU in great numbers until we identify O’Leary, N. (2015). Learning informally to use the ‘full version’
and then tackle the different root sources that impede its of teaching games for understanding. European Physical
progress as a games pedagogy. Education Review, 22, 3 – 22.
Rovegno, I. (1995). Theoretical perspectives on knowledge
and learning and a student teacher’s pedagogical content
References knowledge of dividing and sequencing subject matter.
Butler, J. (2005). TGfU Petagogy: Old dogs, new tricks and Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 283– 304.
puppy school. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 3, Van Der Mars, H. (2006). Time and learning in physical
225 –240. education. In D. Kirk, D. Macdonald, & M. O’Sullivan (Eds.),
Diaz-Cueto, M., Hernández-Álvarez, J. L., & Castejón, F. J. Handbook of physical education (pp. 191– 213). London, UK:
(2010). Teaching games for understanding to in-service Sage.
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S6–S7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200405

Using Technology to Evaluate Game Play for Beginners and Proficient Players That
Encompasses Game-Play Evaluation
P. G. O’Donoghue
Cardiff Metropolitan University, Wales
(podonoghue@cardiffmet.ac.uk)

Teaching games for understanding (TGfU) is a learner- skills. These techniques are the same as those used within
centered approach involving problem solving, decision the area of notational analysis (Hughes & Franks, 1997),
making, and tactical development (Bunker & Thorpe, which has now grown into performance analysis of
1982; Thorpe, Bunker, & Almond, 1986). This approach sport and exploited advances in information technology
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promotes skill development in a realistic and enjoyable (Liebermann, McClements, Katz, Franks, & Hughes,
context that has benefits for motivation and sports 2002).
participation (Strean & Holt, 2000). A further benefit TGfU is a learner-centered approach with the flexibility
is that skill development progresses at a pace that is to address the needs of learners at differing stages of
manageable for the learners (Pill, 2006). There are a development in different game types who learn in different
number of variations of TGfU (Almond, 2015; Holt, ways. Therefore, the use of feedback technology within
Strean, & Bengoechea, 2002), but the general approach is TGfU must be optimal to allow for the benefits of sensory
recognized as a cycle of six main stages that address feedback through game play and augmented feedback
the game, game appreciation, tactical awareness, decision including knowledge of performance, outcome statistics,
making, skill execution, and performance. The purpose of and supporting video sequences. Kinematic motion
Holt et al.’s (2002) study was to consider the affective analysis systems can be used to monitor technique
domain within TGfU, which had already incorporated the development (Leser & Roemer, 2015). General-purpose
cognitive and psychomotor domains of learning. Research game analysis systems can be tailored to analyze relevant
into TGfU has considered instructional environments aspects of games and therefore allow for interactive video
and the tactical and technical development of learners sequence feedback as well as real-time feedback
(Memmert et al., 2015). However, Memmert et al. (2015) possibilities supported by wireless technology and
also recognized that the integration of state-of-the-art portable devices (O’Donoghue, 2015). The cost, port-
technology into game-play evaluation still needed to ability, and usability of technology are important factors in
be described. Therefore, the purpose of the current the selection of technology to use in TGfU. At elite levels of
presentation is to review feedback technologies that are sport, ubiquitous computing, voice input, and special
relevant to TGfU and to discuss their relevance within the purpose game systems have the potential to support
different feedback mechanisms utilized within TGfU. technique and tactical development (O’Donoghue, 2015).
Magill (1995) classified feedback in two broad classes: Performance profiles are an important tool for
sensory and augmented feedback. Within TGfU, learners identifying areas where learners need to improve
will receive sensory feedback through their participation (Almond, 2015). Profiles give content validity to
in games. Augmented feedback is provided within performance assessments and are collections of perform-
coaching processes and includes knowledge of results ance indicators that together represent all important
and knowledge of performance. There are examples of aspects of attacking and defending play.
augmented feedback used in the assessment of perfor- Whatever technologies are used within TGfU, they
mers in TGfU such as the Game Performance must be appropriate for the learners, teachers, and
Assessment Instrument (Mitchell, Oslin, & Griffin, training context, with motivational impact as well as
2003) and the Team Performance Assessment Procedure summative and formative feedback (Wiemeyer &
(Gréhaigne, Godbout, & Bouthier, 1997). The type of Mueller, 2015). The technologies that can enhance
data recorded includes tallies of events as well as learning include virtual reality, multimedia, simulation,
subjective judgements about quality of skill execution of and animation (Wiemeyer & Mueller, 2015).

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 KEYNOTES S7

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Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research questions
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Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark. Routledge.
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S8–S9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200407

Teaching Games for Understanding and the Psychology of Intuition

H. Plessner
University of Heidelberg, Germany
(henning.plessner@issw.uni-heidelberg.de)

One of the top research questions that have been options and in most cases do not pick any of the first
identified in relation to teaching games for understanding options generated.
(TGfU) pertains to possible contributions by scientific In contrast to the adaptive toolbox approach, so-called
psychology. In principle, this comprises knowledge multiple-cue approaches to judgment and decision making
about basic psychological concepts, such as perception, generally highlight people’s ability to make decisions by
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anticipation, learning, memory, motivation, and more assessing multiple features of the decision-making
complex processes, such as problem solving, self- situation. According to these approaches, the ability to
regulation, or group dynamics. The present keynote process multiple cues in a parallel fashion and to draw valid
will focus on aspects of judgment and decision making conclusions even under time pressure can be considered an
and the role of intuition in these processes, respectively. important factor of a decision makers’ expertise. Conse-
Expertise and creativity in decision making have been quently, the value of multiple-cue approaches for under-
acknowledged as core factors that separate the best game standing expert performance in sport has been recognized
performers from those who are behind. The psychology as well (e.g., Araújo, Davids, & Hristovski, 2006; Plessner,
of judgments and decision making in sport and exercise Schweizer, Brand, & O’Hare, 2009).
has been omnipresent in many current debates in sport Given the great variety of proposed processes that are
science disciplines, such as talent development and termed intuitive in the domain of judgment and decision
selection, but also in regard to refereeing, choices about making (for an overview, see Plessner, Betsch, & Betsch,
where to host events, how to respond to doping or match 2008), several authors have argued that this diversity
fixing, and many more areas, such as physical education should be acknowledged instead of focusing only on one
in general (e.g., Raab, 2007). process, such as single-cue heuristics, or generalizing
Due to the nature of most game sports, athletes’ across different approaches. For example, Betsch and Roth
decision making has to be carried out in a highly (in press) presented a categorization system for intuitive
dynamic, time-pressured environment. Therefore, it is processes that cross-tabulates the size of the information
not surprising that their decision making has been sample and the centrality of used information. This system
frequently associated with certain attributes, such as results in four feature combinations—describing four
automatic, implicit, affective, and nonanalytic, which types of intuitive judgment and decision-making pro-
many authors relate to the term intuition (cf. Evans & cesses. All can bear specific benefits under certain
Stanovich, 2013). circumstances. Consequently, Phillips, Fletcher, Marks,
So far, however, intuitive decision making in game and Hine (2015) argued that educators should carefully
sports has been mainly considered from the perspective consider both individual differences in the decision maker
of the so-called adaptive toolbox approach (Gigerenzer, and the nature of the decision task when advising a certain
Todd, & the ABC Research Group, 1999; Raab & decision style. This reasoning is in line with other
Gigerenzer, 2015). According to this approach, experts psychological approaches to game sports that emphasize
learn to rely on fast and frugal heuristics in an adaptive the fit between individual preferences and situational
way to make accurate decisions. For example, it has been constructions (e.g., activated via instruction) as a basis for
proposed that experienced players use a “take-the-first” top performance, such as regulatory focus theory
heuristic (i.e., when confronted with a tactical decision (Plessner, Unkelbach, Memmert, Baltes, & Kolb, 2009).
situation, such as where to pass the ball in handball, they The present talk concludes with a discussion of
tend to choose the first option that comes to mind, which the differentiation between several intuitive decision
is mostly better than any other option generated styles as a general framework for understanding the
subsequently; Johnson & Raab, 2003). On the other development of intuitive decision making in game sports
hand, less skillful players commonly generate more and as a basis for its improvement (cf. Hogarth, 2001).
q 2016 SHAPE America
 KEYNOTES S9

References Plessner, H., Betsch, C., & Betsch, T. (Eds.). (2008). Intuition
in judgment and decision making. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Araújo, D., Davids, K., & Hristovski, R. (2006). The ecological Erlbaum.
dynamics of decision making in sport. Psychology of Sport Plessner, H., Schweizer, G., Brand, R., & O’Hare, D. (2009).
and Exercise, 7, 653– 676.
A multiple-cue learning approach as the basis for under-
Betsch, T., & Roth, P. (in press). Intuitive thinking. In L. J. Ball
standing and improving soccer referees’ decision making.
& V. A. Thompson (Eds.), International handbook of
In M. Raab, J. Johnson, & H. Heekeren (Eds.), Progress in
thinking and reasoning. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
brain research: Mind and motion: The bidirectional link
Evans, J. T., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories
of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on between thought and action (pp. 151 – 158). Amsterdam,
Psychological Science, 8, 223– 241. The Netherlands: Elsevier.
Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P. M., & the ABC Research Group (Eds.). Plessner, H., Unkelbach, C., Memmert, D., Baltes, A., &
(1999). Simple heuristics that make us smart. New York, NY: Kolb, A. (2009). Regulatory fit as a determinant of sport
Oxford University Press. performance: How to succeed in a soccer penalty shooting.
Hogarth, R. (2001). Educating intuition. Chicago, IL: University Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 108 – 115.
of Chicago Press. Raab, M. (2007). Think SMART, not hard: A review of teaching
Johnson, J., & Raab, M. (2003). Take the first: Option decision making in sport from an ecological rationality
generation and resulting choices. Organizational Behavior perspective. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 12,
and Human Decision Processes, 91, 215– 229. 1 – 22.
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Phillips, W. J., Fletcher, J. M., Marks, A. D. G., & Hine, D. W. Raab, M., & Gigerenzer, G. (2015). The power of simplicity:
(2015). Thinking styles and decision making: A meta- A fast-and-frugal heuristics approach to performance
analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 142, 260 – 290. science. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1672.
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S10–S11
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200414

INVITED TALKS

Capturing the Complexity of Team Synergies to Provide a Better Practice

D. Araújo
University of Lisbon, Portugal
(daraujo@fmh.ulisboa.pt)

Performance of expert teams is distinguished from lower- environmental information to coordinate their actions
skill team performance by achievement of high levels of with others. This process enables players to act
task outcomes, with effective and adaptive interactions synergistically with respect to specific team task goals
between team members. Team performance analysis (Travassos, Araújo, Duarte, & McGarry, 2012). By means
has gained prominence in the last decade. One variant, of tracked positional data, recent studies have started to
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notational analysis, has been used to objectively audit the reveal how players and teams continuously interact during
behaviors of performers during different subphases of play competition. For example, Sampaio and Maçãs (2012)
and has provided additional information to practitioners found specific expertise effects. They argued that because
to improve future sports performance. Recently, there playing football demands that players constantly adjust
have been criticisms of these methods that have argued their positions on the pitch, according to the game ebb and
the need for a sound theoretical rationale to explain flow, a more effective team coordination was expressed by
performance behaviors rather than simply document the fact that the most powerful variable in distinguishing
outcomes (Vilar, Araújo, Davids, & Button, 2012). pretest and posttest conditions was the distance of players
In complex social neurobiological systems, self- from the team geometric center. As was expected,
organization is the fundamental principle acting to interplayer coordination in pretest seems to reflect
bring order among the parts (Davids, Button, Araújo, individual affordances, and not shared affordances
Renshaw, & Hristovski, 2006). Ecological dynamics among team players. However, posttest values showed
analyses of team sports have attempted to explain how that players became more coordinated with increased
the interaction between players and information from the expertise. The coordination patterns showed compensatory
performance environment constrains the emergence of behavior within the team, an essential characteristic of a
patterns of stability and variability and the transitions synergy (Riley, Richardson, Shockley, & Ramenzoni, 2011).
in organizational states of such systems—precisely what Specific constraints like the players’ individual
sport scientists and coaches need to understand in characteristics, strategy, and coaching may impact the
analysis of team game performance (Araújo, Silva, & functional and goal-directed synergies formed by players
Davids, 2015). during performance. These informational constraints
The emergent coordination patterns in team sports shape shared affordances available for players, which
are channeled by the surrounding constraints, as they are viewed as crucial for the assembly of synergies and
structure the state space of all possible configurations support the reduction in the number of independent
available to the team game as a complex system (Davids, degrees of freedom and enable fast, regulating actions.
Araújo, & Shuttleworth, 2005). The interaction between Another feature of a synergy is the ability of one of its
constraints of the performance environment and each components (e.g., a player) to lead changes in others (Riley
individual’s characteristics allows opportunities for action et al., 2011). Thus, the decisions and actions of the players
to emerge (Araújo et al., 2015). For example, an forming a synergy should not be viewed as independent.
opportunity to score a goal in football may emerge between Synergies’ properties can be used to inform the meaning of
the performer’s ability to shoot the ball (individual variables like team center, team dispersion, and the like.
constraints) and the distance to the goal or to the These team variables have revealed that effective teams
goalkeeper (task constraints). In this way, successful tend to be tightly synchronized in their movements when
performance in sport is grounded in the performer’s ability they are successful. Developments in methods of analysis
to attend to the relevant informational variables that are of expert team performance can benefit from a theoretical
needed to regulate their decisions and actions (Hristovski, approach that situates and traces relevant team processes.
Davids, Araújo, & Button, 2006). By perceiving opportu- Here we suggest ecological dynamics as an alternative to
nities for others to act, performers make use of more conventional operational methods of performance
q 2016 SHAPE America
 INVITED TALKS S11

analysis that merely document performance statistics. Davids, K., Button, C., Araújo, D., Renshaw, I., & Hristovski, R.
Then ecological dynamics can guide the design of (2006). Movement models from sports provide representa-
representative practice tasks where the evolution of the tive task constraints for studying adaptive behavior in human
movement systems. Adaptive Behavior, 14, 73 –95.
synergistic properties of team performance could be
Hristovski, R., Davids, K., Araújo, D., & Button, C. (2006).
monitored. How boxers decide to punch a target: Emergent behavior in
nonlinear dynamical movement systems. Journal of Sports
ORCID Science and Medicine, 5, 60 – 73.
Riley, M., Richardson, M., Shockley, K., & Ramenzoni, V.
D. Araújo http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7932-3192 (2011). Interpersonal synergies. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 38.
Sampaio, J., & Maçãs, V. (2012). Measuring tactical behaviour
in football. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 33,
References 395 – 401.
Araújo, D., Silva, P., & Davids, K. (2015). Capturing group Travassos, B., Araújo, D., Duarte, R., & McGarry, T. (2012).
tactical behaviors in expert team players. In J. Baker & Spatiotemporal coordination patterns in futsal (indoor
D. Farrow (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sport expertise (pp. football) are guided by informational game constraints.
209 –220). New York, NY: Routledge. Human Movement Science, 31, 932 – 945. doi:10.1016/j.
Davids, K., Araújo, D., & Shuttleworth, R. (2005). Applications humov.2011.10.004
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of dynamical systems theory to football. In T. Reilly, J. Cabri, Vilar, L., Araújo, D., Davids, K., & Button, C. (2012). The role
& D. Araújo (Eds.), Science and football V (pp. 547 – 560). of ecological dynamics in analysing performance in team
London, UK: Routledge. sports. Sports Medicine, 42, 1 – 10.
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S12–S13
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200415

Student Learning Outcome and Teachers’ Autonomy Support Toward Teaching

Games for Understanding Through Adopting Accessible Technology and
Alternative Sport Equipment: An Asian Experience
A. S. Ha
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, China
(sauchingha@cuhk.edu.hk)

In Hong Kong, physical education (PE) is one of the format, students were shown videos of team games using
eight key learning areas of the Education Bureau (2013; iPads and were then asked to play these games.
Education Department, 2002). Accordingly, the PE Alternative equipment (e.g., balls, frisbees) made of soft
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curriculum and classes should be designed to motivate foam materials were also given as alternatives for their
students to participate in physical activity (PA) regularly, “real” counterparts. Students’ moderate-to-vigorous
and emphasize a student-centered constructivist physical activity (MVPA) during the pilot study was
approach. Nonetheless, the content-based, teacher- measured using ActiGraph wGT3X-BT accelerometers.
centered approach emphasizing skill learning and Students were also interviewed immediately after the end
improvement is still used predominantly in most Hong of the lesson to determine whether the TGfU-based
Kong schools. Ha and her colleagues (Ha, Macdonald, & games were considered interesting or enjoyable. The PE
Pang, 2010; Ha, Wang, & Collins, 2014; Ha, Wong, Sum, teachers of the two classes were also interviewed. They
& Chan, 2008; Wang & Ha, 2013) consistently observed were asked to provide feedback and reflections after using
that Hong Kong teachers are weak in terms of a TGfU-based approach, and also to provide comments in
acknowledging or adopting the learner’s point of view. terms of the feasibility of such teaching methods in Hong
Moreover, even when teachers’ beliefs slanted toward a Kong schools. Results of the pilot suggested that the
newer approach, these did not appear to translate into intervention did not negatively impact students' MVPA.
methods related to more student-centered learning Students also reported that they enjoyed the format of
approaches, such as teaching games for understanding the lesson. The teachers, however, noted potential gender
(TGfU) in PE. Therefore, research evidence concerning differences in terms of the acceptance and support
the effectiveness of TGfU-based interventions (Butler required.
& Griffin, 2010; Memmert et al., 2015) designed to The results of the pilot study suggested that TGfU-
enhance the competence of in-service teachers in based teaching methods could be applied to Hong Kong
nurturing the students’ positive learning experience in schools and may increase students' activity levels and
PE is lacking. To address this void in research, I enjoyment in PE. Nonetheless, a change toward a
designed and piloted a school-based intervention using student-centered approach may provide challenges to
TGfU, and also adopting accessible technology and both teachers and students, and therefore cultural
alternative sport equipment. adaptations may be required. Theory-driven professional
According to tenets of self-determination theory (SDT; development for in-service teachers should be applied.
Ryan & Deci, 2002), students are more likely to engage Vigorous experimental research designs, such as
and persist in activities that (a) are fun and enjoyable and/ randomized controlled trials, should also be used to
or (b) provide outcomes that are valued by the individual. evaluate TGfU-based interventions in the future.
Therefore, the intervention was designed with the aims of
(a) facilitating the development of technical skills through References
available technology, (b) assessing the tactical knowledge
transfer across games using alternative sport equipment, Butler, J. I., & Griffin, L. L. (2010). More teaching games
for understanding: Moving globally. Champaign, IL: Human
and (c) enhancing fun and enjoyment through game play
Kinetics.
and the provision of meaningful choices. Two classes of Education Bureau. (2013). An overview of the learning topics in
students (one boys’ class and one girls’ class) took part in the six strands: Physical education key learning area. Hong
the pilot study. Instead of using a traditional teacher-led Kong, China: Government Logistics Department.

q 2016 SHAPE America

 INVITED TALKS S13

Education Department. (2002). Physical education: Key for teacher development. Sport, Education and Society,
learning area curriculum guide. Hong Kong, China: 13, 77 – 96.
Government Printing Department. Memmert, D., Almond, L., Bunker, D., Butler, J., Fasold, F.,
Ha, A. S., Macdonald, D., & Pang, B. (2010). Physical activity in Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research questions
the lives of Hong Kong Chinese children. Sport, Education related to teaching games for understanding. Research
and Society, 15, 331 – 346. Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 347 – 359.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-
Ha, A. S., Wang, C. L., & Collins, J. (2014). Perceptions of
determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective.
Hong Kong physical education teachers on teaching
In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-
games for understanding: Implications for continuing determination research (pp. 3– 33). Rochester, NY: Univer-
professional development. Educational Research Journal, sity of Rochester Press.
29, 91 – 110. Wang, C. L., & Ha, A. S. (2013). Three groups of teachers’
Ha, A. S., Wong, A. C., Sum, R. K., & Chan, D. W. (2008). views, learning experiences and understanding of teaching
Understanding teachers’ will and capacity to accomplish games for understanding. Physical Education and Sport
physical education curriculum reform: The implications Pedagogy, 18, 336 – 350.
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 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S14–S15
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200416

Understanding Games for Teaching—Reflections on Empirical Approaches Toward

Game Instruction
S. König
University of Education Weingarten, Germany
(koenig@ph-weingarten.de)

Physical education (PE) must include a lot of complex in physical education (RT-PE) has become a fruitful
phenomena, such as game ability, fitness, or self-concept, branch of research focusing on the teaching and learning
which are indeed challenges for both instruction and process by analyzing the “processes, social dynamics and
scientific analyses. Either might become aggravated outcomes (motor skill, attitude, knowledge and fitness)
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because in some countries, PE follows the idea of a of physical education” (Silverman & Skonie, 1997,
physically educated person (i.e., the pedagogical aspiration p. 301); this branch of research includes inquiry into
to integrate qualification and personal development within the preactive (planning), active (execution), and post-
PE—a didactical position that requires a concurrent active (reflection) phases of instruction (Silverman, 1991,
consideration of both aspects in teaching and researching). p. 352). As a consequence, RT-PE works with different
This issue seems to apply in particular to team sports, approaches from the social and behavioral sciences
because students need to be qualified to take part in the ranging from experimental quantitative studies to “pure”
game and they need responsible personal and social qualitative studies but still mainly follows an “either-or”
behavior as well as an understanding and respect for strategy (e.g., Hemphill, Richards, Templin, & Blanken-
differences among people to master the endeavors of ship, 2012; Marttinen, Novak, & Silverman, 2014).
competition and association. This talk follows the idea that the aforementioned
In contrast to individual sport disciplines, a further issues in PE can be understood at more profound levels
dimension is added to individual learning or exercising: with the use of mixed-methods approaches (Greene,
one’s own and an opposing team’s dimension that forms a 2015, p. 608). Nevertheless, a thorough observation of
framework for individual behavior—a fact that has been research in both sports science, in general, and RT-PE,
considered thoroughly in training science (Hohmann & in particular, only shows a gradual adoption of this
Brack, 1983) but has been neglected to a certain extent paradigmatic discussion. The discussion also seems to
within sport pedagogy. This leads to learning and teaching take place in emerging subdisciplines of sports science
problems, because either individuals cannot please their rather than in its social and behavioral core disciplines
needs and expectations of PE or teachers fail to consider such as sport pedagogy—a reverse development com-
such discontent in an adequate manner. As a consequence, pared with other scientific fields (e.g., Tashakkori &
instructional research must analyze game instruction to Teddlie, 2003).
provide appropriate teaching tools for PE instructors, which
in turn imposes requirements on instructional theory and
its research methodology (Memmert et al., 2015). As a Outline of the presentation
consequence, this lecture deals with reflections on In view of these facts, this presentation will deal with the
methodological approaches toward games; thus, it focuses potentials and limitations of mixed-methods research
on several conference themes—in particular, teacher (MMR) in game instruction by building on an approach
development and understanding games for learning. by Memmert and König (2007) that analyzed teaching-
games-for-understanding programs at elementary
schools from different perspectives in a multistrand
Instructional theory and its research profile
study. Therefore, it first approaches research streams and
Instructional theory represents the empirical branch methods of RT-PE by analyzing some milestone papers
of sport pedagogy and is contrasted to a normative to illustrate the state of the art. Second, two examples
orientated approach, describing educational aims on the of mixed-methods designs from the field of RT-PE
basis of philosophical and educational aspects (Prohl, are presented to show the added value of MMR for
2010). Within instructional theory, research on teaching different epistemological interests of game instruction
q 2016 SHAPE America
 INVITED TALKS S15

(König, 2016): Example 1 focuses RT-PE’s interest on the Hemphill, M. A., Richards, K. A. R., Templin, T. J., &
effects of specific syllabi and thus regularly uses Blankenship, B. T. (2012). A content analysis of qualitative
experimental designs based on analysis of covariance research in the journal of teaching in physical education from
1998 to 2008. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 31,
approaches. However, this approach fails to address
279 – 287.
the interests, needs, and premises of both partners of Hohmann, A., & Brack, R. (1983). Theoretische aspekte der
interaction (i.e., teachers and students), which might add leistungsdiagnostik im sportspiel. [Theoretical aspects of
further complexity to the matter. Thus, this talk will show performance analysis in sport games]. Leistungssport, 13,
how experimental mixed-methods designs might 5 – 10.
enhance the results of monomethod approaches. König, S. (2016). A plea for mixed methods approaches in
Example 2 describes a second point of interest in RT- research on teaching in physical education. Sportwissenschaft
PE: students’ motor development, which requires an [German Journal of Sports Science]. Advance online
publication. doi:10.1007/s12662-016-0403-6
analysis of change over time by analyzing measurements
Marttinen, R., Novak, D., & Silverman, S. (2014). A review of
of individuals’ data at different points of time via research on teaching in physical education pedagogy 2012 –
multilevel regression analysis. Nevertheless, it does not 2013. International Journal of Physical Education, 1/2014,
help to understand explanations “behind” and “between” 2 – 11.
the predictors—problems that might only be solved by Memmert, D., Almond, L., Bunker, D., Butler, J., Fasold, F.,
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using additional qualitative methods (Onwuegbuzie & Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research questions
Hitchcock, 2015, p. 289) giving answers to questions related to teaching games for understanding. Research
arising from quantitative results. Third, some key Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 347 – 359.
Memmert, D., & König, S. (2007). Teaching games in
elements of MMR (e.g., timing, weighting, etc., Creswell,
elementary schools. International Journal of Physical
2014) are examined with the aim of integrating this Education, 44, 54– 66.
approach more fully into RT-PE. In a fourth step, this Onwuegbuzie, A., & Hitchcock, J. (2015). Advanced mixed
presentation will show how “understanding games for analysis approaches. In S. N. Hesse-Biber & R. B. Johnson
learner and cultural development” (Conference Theme 5) (Eds.), Oxford handbook of multimethod and mixed methods
can be improved by explaining how different strands of research inquiry (pp. 275 – 295). New York, NY: Oxford
research pursue the purpose of better teaching. University Press.
Prohl, R. (2010). Grundriss der sportpädagogik [An outline of
sports pedagogy]. Wiebelsheim, Germany: Limpert.
References Silverman, S. (1991). Research on teaching in physical
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitat- education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62,
ive, and mixed methods approaches. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. 352 – 364.
Greene, J. C. (2015). Preserving distinctions within the Silverman, S., & Skonie, R. (1997). Research on teaching in
multimethod and mixed methods research merger. physical education: An analysis of published research.
In S. N. Hesse-Biber & R. B. Johnson (Eds.), Oxford Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 16, 300– 311.
handbook of multimethod and mixed methods research Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2003). Handbook of mixed
inquiry (pp. 606 – 615). New York, NY: Oxford University methods in social and behavioral research. Thousand Oaks,
Press. CA: Sage.
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S16
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200417

Building an Increased Evidence Base for Game-Centered Approaches

in Professional Practice Settings
S. Harvey
West Virginia University, United States
(Stephen.Harvey@mail.wvu.edu)

Since the inception of the teaching-games-for-under- practitioners) to provide evidence for enhancing the
standing model 35 years ago, there has been increased efficacy of GCAs. In summary, the intention of this
advocacy for game-centered approaches (GCAs) for the presentation is to not simply repeat messages in the three
teaching of games within physical education and recent reviews of GCAs or the recent publication of
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coaching academic programs worldwide (Harvey & Pill, Memmert et al. (2015), but provide ways for determining
2016). Despite this increase, research evidence of its the efficacy of GCAs in professional practice settings and
efficacy in physical education and coaching professional provide a stimulus for practitioners’ ongoing professional
practice settings remains equivocal (Harvey & Pill, 2016). development.
Consequently, in this presentation, I will investigate
the ambivalent nature of GCA research and endeavor to
explain the specific ways in which researchers can References
operationalize GCAs by addressing potential gaps in the
Harvey, S., & Jarrett, K. (2014). A review of the game-centered
GCA research literature. After providing a brief summary
approaches to teaching and coaching literature since 2006.
of the three recent reviews of GCAs (Harvey & Jarrett, Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 19, 278– 300.
2014; Miller, 2015; Stolz & Pill, 2014) and the article “Top Harvey, S., & Pill, S. A. (2016). Comparisons of researchers’ and
10 Research Questions Related to Teaching Games for teachers’ perspectives on the utilization of the tactical games
Understanding” (Memmert et al., 2015), I will overview model. Manuscript submitted for publication.
the notion of evidence-based practice. Evidence-based Memmert, D., Almond, L., Bunker, D., Butler, J., Fasold, F.,
Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research questions
practice is a foundational concept for any instruction or related to teaching games for understanding. Research
pedagogical model used to determine the efficacy of a Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 347 – 359.
program to enhance its utilization. Next, I will explore in Miller, A. (2015). Games centered approaches in teaching
more detail what evidence we need to know more about children & adolescents: Systematic review of associated
and will provide concrete and specific examples on how student outcomes. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education,
34, 36 – 58.
researchers may go about conducting research to provide
Stolz, S., & Pill, S. (2014). Teaching games and sport for
a more robust evidence base and theoretical foundation understanding: Exploring and reconsidering its relevance in
for GCAs. For example, I will consider research methods physical education. European Physical Education Review,
and designs that can be used by researchers (and 20, 36 – 71.

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2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S17–S18
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200419

Instructions in Sports From a Cognitive Information-Processing Perspective:

Implications for Theory and Practice Within Teaching and Learning in Sport Games
P. A. Furley
German Sport University Cologne, Germany
(p.furley@dshs-koeln.de)

Within recent years, sport game learning and teaching has processing by controlling an athlete’s attentional focus
mainly been considered within the theoretical framework and thereby influencing decision making (Furley &
of nonlinear pedagogy, or more specifically, complexity Memmert, 2012). In a series of studies, we provide
thinking (e.g., Memmert et al., 2015). More traditional evidence showing that the contents of working memory
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information-processing accounts of human behavior have bias the allocation of attention in sport decision-making
become less popular within this field as they have been contexts, especially in more complex scenarios (Furley &
criticized for not adequately accounting for the complex Memmert, 2013). In a further series of studies, we show
dynamic nature of sport games. Within this talk, I draw on that verbal instructions from coaches will access the
Ulric Neisser’s work (e.g., 1976), in which he advocated working memory of athletes and in turn influence their
the combination of ecological approaches and infor- behavior. Importantly, certain instructions that were
mation-processing approaches of human behavior. intended to facilitate the decision-making behavior of
Neisser recognized that the goal of understanding and athletes had the ironic effect of actually harming their
predicting human behavior in everyday contexts can only decision making as the instructions presumably led to an
be achieved by pitting the conscious person against the attentional narrowing effect causing open teammates to
deterministic situation (see also Mischel, 1997). In this be overseen (Furley, Memmert, & Heller, 2010; Memmert
respect, I will follow the call of Neisser by adopting dual- & Furley, 2007). In this respect, tactical instructions can
process theories of human behavior and will attempt to harm the creativity of game players as their attentional
address one of the overarching themes of the conference of focus will narrow. This theorizing was confirmed in a
how scientific approaches from different disciplines—in 6-month training study by Memmert (2007) who showed
this case, cognitive psychology—can be used to enhance that training in tactical decision making benefits from
game play for beginners and proficient players. More inducing a broad breadth of attention by giving fewer
specifically, the talk will focus on the cognitive interplay instructions and not rigidly practicing offensive routines.
of memory and attention within sport games and thereby Based on these research findings from our lab, I will
will critically assess how one of the integral components of describe a practical framework of how to teach tactical
the teaching-games-for-understanding model (i.e., creativity (Memmert, 2015), which we have incorporated
instructions) can be shaped for promoting decision into our university’s curriculum for sports teachers and
making, anticipation, attention, and perception within coaches. Within this practical framework, the “six Ds”
games-based learning to develop creative and intelligent (diversification, deliberate play, one-dimension games,
performers (e.g., Memmert et al., 2015). deliberate coaching, deliberate motivation, and deliberate
First, I will discuss recent developments in dual- practice) will be proposed as a practical guide for assisting
process theories in sports (in particular, the default- coaches and teachers in enhancing (creative) tactical
interventionist model; Furley, Schweizer, & Bertrams, behavior within team and racket sports.
2015) and will argue that athletes’ behavior is guided by
two qualitatively different modes of information proces-
sing: first, an autonomous/automatic mode in which References
the behavioral response of an athlete is triggered by the Furley, P., & Memmert, D. (2012). Working memory capacity
environmental stimulus configuration; and second, a as controlled attention in tactical decision making. Journal of
controlled mode of behavior in which the individual Sport and Exercise Psychology, 34, 322– 344.
Furley, P., & Memmert, D. (2013). ‘Whom should I pass to?’
deliberately controls behavior. I will review evidence The more options the more attentional guidance from
from our lab showing that an athlete’s working memory working memory. PLoS One, 8, e62278. doi:10.1371/journal.
plays an important role in this controlled mode of pone.0062278
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Furley, P., Memmert, D., & Heller, C. (2010). The dark side of Memmert, D., Almond, L., Bunker, D., Butler, J., Fasold, F.,
visual awareness in sport: Inattentional blindness in a real- Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research questions
world basketball task. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics, related to teaching games for understanding. Research
72, 1327– 1337. Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 347 – 359.
Furley, P., Schweizer, G., & Bertrams, A. (2015). The two modes Memmert, D., & Furley, P. (2007). ‘I spy with my little eye!’
of an athlete: Dual-process theories in the field of sport. Breadth of attention, inattentional blindness, and tactical
International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, decision making in team sports. Journal of Sport & Exercise
8, 106– 124. Psychology, 29, 365 – 381.
Memmert, D. (2007). Can creativity be improved by an Mischel, W. (1997). Was the cognitive revolution just a detour
attention-broadening training program? An exploratory on the road to behaviorism? On the need to reconcile
study focusing on team sports. Creativity Research Journal, situational control and personal control. In R. S. Wyer, Jr.
19, 281 –292. (Ed.), The automaticity of everyday life (pp. 181– 186).
Memmert, D. (2015). Teaching tactical creativity in team and Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
racket sports: Research and practice. Abingdon, UK: Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality. San Francisco, CA:
Routledge. Freeman.
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2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S19–S20
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200420

Analyzing Complex Dynamical Systems: Artificial Neural Networks Contribute

New Insight Concerning Optimal Athletic Techniques and Tactics
A. Schmidt
University of Osnabrueck, Germany
(andrea.schmidt@uni-osnabrueck.de)

A sports game with its players or a single athlete as a It can thus be reasonable to discount the perfect use of
biological system might be seen (and therefore modeled) mechanical laws in favor of personal viability, while
as a complex dynamical system (Memmert et al., 2015). deviating slightly from a certain optimal parameter such
It is quite difficult to discover cause-and-effect relations as reaching the highest possible point in the air at the
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in complex dynamical systems. This difficulty applies to moment of throwing a basketball free-throw (Schmidt,
success and failure of technical and tactical behavior in 2012).
sports-related games, too. Technical models are often incongruent even in
Current sports game researchers incorporate artificial professional literature (e.g., free-throw in basketball
neural networks (ANNs) to recognize, analyze, and [Schmidt, 2010] or round-off [Büscher, 2014] and front
evaluate group- and team-based tactics, as well as handspring [Lingl, 2015] in gymnastics). They are based
individual activities and interaction (Grunz, Memmert, in large part on the argument of biomechanical laws,
& Perl, 2009; Perl, Grunz, & Memmert, 2013; Perl & yet details often vary depending on the experience of
Memmert, 2011). With ANNs, it is possible to distinguish successful coaches and athletes.
inherent patterns within highly complex environments Most techniques in competitive sports must first and
(statistical series; Perl, 2004), and ANN-based pattern foremost be effective in a confrontation with an opponent
recognition methods ultimately enable research of even and his or her techniques and tactics. Techniques
the final mysteries in the functionality of tactical patterns; therefore have to be situationally appropriate and remain
also, these methods can be successfully applied in the adaptable to various “task” and “environmental con-
field of motor analysis. straints.” One cannot, however, avoid making these
Athletes, coaches, sports educators, and (movement) variations usable by the executing athlete above all else.
scientists strive to optimize athletic techniques: What is The process of analyzing the concrete individual
the optimal movement execution for the shot on goal execution of a technique should accordingly focus less on
in football, the basketball free-throw, or other athletic comparisons to the technical model and more on any
techniques? Thoughts like these demand an ideal remaining dysfunctionalities in the realized movement.
technical model that all athletes should endeavor to This means that the goal is to find movement executions
master, as it promises comprehensive success. that are suited to and realizable by oneself.
Nevertheless, only a personalized technique, making How can modern procedures support the movement
advantageous use of the executing athlete’s constitution, analysis in finding the best individual technical variation?
motor skills, and psychological capacity, can ever be Through the use of movement pattern recognition
recognized as “optimal” in the best case; an optimal methods, it is possible to gain insight into the workings
technique is therefore always individual. Certain of human movement that would be unattainable with
biomechanical regularities do of course play a crucial conventional statistical methods (e.g., Lamb, Bartlett, &
role in the process; however, they must be applied and Robins, 2011; Schmidt, 2012; Witte, Schobesberger, &
molded specifically to the constraints of the executing Peham, 2009; Zart, 2012).
athlete. With his “constraints theory,” Newell (1986, The process of movement pattern recognition via
1991) explained the realization of a coordinated ANN—dynamically controlled networks (see Perl, 2004),
purposeful movement as a combination of “organismic,” in particular—can capture, identify, and group partici-
“environmental,” and “task constraints,” where “orga- pants’ realized movement patterns (Baca & Kornfeind,
nismic constraints” are the individual attributes of the 2012; Schmidt, 2012; Schmidt, Meseck, & Perl, 2015;
executing athlete—genetic, constitutional, conditional, Witte, Emmermacher, Langenbeck, & Perl, 2012).
emotional, and intellectual. This process requires data, usually biomechanical
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(e.g., kinematic) and representing the basic structure of Motor skill acquisition in children: Aspects of coordination
movements. The analysis then allows us, among other and control (pp. 341– 360). Amsterdam, The Netherlands:
things, to illustrate individual phases of movement, their Martinus Nijhoff.
Newell, K. M. (1991). Motor skill acquisition. Annual Review of
variability and stability, as well as “action units” and
Psychology, 42, 213 – 237.
“functional variability” (Schmidt, 2010). Perl, J. (2004). A neural network approach to movement
The variation within a specific part of a full-body pattern analysis. Human Movement Science, 23, 605– 620.
movement impacts the whole. To this effect, Handford Perl, J., Grunz, A., & Memmert, D. (2013). Tactics analysis in
(2006) showed that movements such as the overhand soccer: An advanced approach. International Journal of
serve in volleyball are made up of so-called “action units,” Computer Science in Sport, 12, 33 – 44.
which are destroyed in segmented practice as they no Perl, J., & Memmert, D. (2011). Net-based game analysis by
longer depict the adequate part. means of the software tool SOCCER. International Journal of
Computer Science in Sport, 10, 77 – 84.
These “action units” can be distributed individually
Schmidt, A. (2010). Bewegungsmustererkennung anhand des
throughout the entire kinematic chain of a full-body Basketball Freiwurfes. Eine empirische Untersuchung aus
movement. There is a good case to believe that this systemdynamischer Perspektive [Movement pattern recog-
also applies to compensatory variability. The analysis of nition by the means of the basketball free-throw.
sport-motoric movements must therefore refer to the An empirical research from a system dynamics perspective].
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entire kinematic chain (Schmidt, 2010; Schmidt, Schriften der Deutschen Vereinigung für Sportwissenschaft,
Memmert, & Perl, 2011; Schmidt et al., 2015). Band 199, Unterreihe Forum Sportwissenschaft, Bd. 19
[Writings of the German Society of Sports Science, Volume
199]. Hamburg, Germany: Czwalina.
References Schmidt, A. (2012). Movement pattern recognition in basket-
Baca, A., & Kornfeind, P. (2012). Stability analysis of motion ball free-throw shooting. Human Movement Science, 31,
patterns in biathlon shooting. Human Movement Science, 360 – 382.
31, 295 –302. Schmidt, A., Memmert, D., & Perl, J. (2011). Fertigkeitsanalyse
Büscher, L. (2014). Ist die Lehrbuchtechnik die optimale durch Mustererkennung mittels Künstlicher Neuronaler
Bewegungsausführung? [Does the textbook technique rep- Netze [Skill analysis with pattern recognition by means of
resent optimal movement execution?] (Unpublished bache- artificial neural networks]. In D. Link & J. Wiemeyer (Eds.),
lor’s thesis). University of Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Sportinformatik trifft Sporttechnologie (Schriften der
Germany. Deutschen Vereinigung für Sportwissenschaft, Bd. 217,
Grunz, A., Memmert, D., & Perl, J. (2009). Analysis and pp. 116– 120. Hamburg, Germany: Czwalina.
simulation of actions in games by means of special self- Schmidt, A., Meseck, U., & Perl, J. (2015). Human experts
organizing maps. International Journal of Computer Science versus artificial neural networks. In A. Baca & M. Stöckl
in Sport, 8, 22 – 37. (Eds.), Sportinformatik X (Schriften der Deutschen Vereini-
Handford, C. (2006). Serving up variability and stability. gung für Sportwissenschaft, 244, pp. 136 – 141). Hamburg,
In K. Davids, S. Bennett, & K. Newell (Eds.), Movement Germany: Czwalina.
system variability (pp. 73 –83). Champaign, IL: Human Witte, K., Emmermacher, P., Langenbeck, N., & Perl, J. (2012).
Kinetics. Visualized movement patterns and their analysis to classify
Lamb, P., Bartlett, R., & Robins, A. (2011). Assessing similarities—demonstrated by the karate kick Mae-Geri.
coordination stability by means of a second SOM. Kinesiology, 44, 155 – 165.
In D. Link & J. Wiemeyer (Eds.), Sportinformatik trifft
Witte, K., Schobesberger, H., & Peham, C. (2009). Motion
Sporttechnologie (pp. 65 – 69). Hamburg, Germany: Czwalina.
pattern analysis of gait in horseback riding by means of
Lingl, A. (2015). Analyse individueller Ausführungen des
principal component analysis. Human Movement Science,
Handstützüberschlages [Analysis of individual front hand-
spring executions] (Unpublished bachelor’s thesis). Univer- 28, 394 – 405.
sity of Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Germany. Zart, S. (2012). Prozessorientierte kinematische Analyse von
Memmert, D., Almond, L., Bunker, D., Butler, J., Fasold, F., Bewegungsmustern am Beispiel der Strafstoßsituation im
Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research questions Fußball [Process-based kinematic analysis of movement
related to teaching games for understanding. Research patterns using the example of penalty kicks in football]
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 347 –359. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiser-
Newell, K. M. (1986). Constraints on the development of slautern, Germany). Retrieved from https://kluedo.ub.uni-kl.
coordination. In M. G. Wade & H. T. A. Whiting (Eds.), de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/3285
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
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Using Modification to Generate Emergent Performance (and Learning?) in Sports

D. Farrow,1,2 T. Buszard,1,3 M. Reid,3 and R. Masters4
1
Victoria University, Australia; 2Australian Institute of Sport, Australia; 3Tennis Australia, Australia; 4University of Waikato, New Zealand
(damian.farrow@vu.edu.au)

The emergent performance and learning of sports skills is (or improving) hitting accuracy (Larson & Guggenhei-
usually a combination of hands-off coaching approaches mer, 2013). Although scaling the racquet size (reducing
such as indirect coach instruction and the skillful length) is also useful and further enhances hitting
manipulation of game constraints. One method that can performance, its influence is not as significant as that of
be used to purposefully create game conditions that lead ball compression.
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to emergent tactical understanding and skill development When the scaled equipment constraints are integrated
is sports modification. In particular, modified junior into practice and game play, enhanced skill-learning
sport programs, which purport to be easy to learn, opportunities are afforded to the performer. For instance,
engaging, and accessible have been a visible part of the a combination of low-compression balls and smaller
sports landscape for a long time and are central to the court size increases the volume of practice that is able
participation strategies of many international sporting to be completed in a given time frame (Farrow & Reid,
organizations. 2010). Additionally, more representative performance
To date, the optimal manner in which to modify or is observed during match-play conditions. For skilled
scale sports, be it the equipment used or the space in children, low-compression balls relative to standard balls
which the game is played, has largely relied on anecdote result in match play that more closely resembles a
or expert comment (Memmert et al., 2015). Decisions professional adult match (Kachel et al., 2014). Further,
such as what to scale, what not to scale, by how much, when the net height is lowered, it has a positive influence
for what ages, and until what age are made arbitrarily, on match-play performance as children hit more shots
and the approach adopted continues to vary drastically with qualities representative of high-performance game
between, and sometimes within, sports. For example, in play (Timmerman et al., 2015).
Australia, children younger than the age of 10 years shoot A range of perceptual-motor skills and psychological
at a 2.4-m-high goal in the sport of netball, while 11-year- and biomechanical factors clearly interact when scaled
olds shoot at a 3.05-m-high/adult-sized goal. However, equipment is used in an effort to optimize the learning
the rationale for this 25% increase in height is unclear environment and create emergent learning for the
and is not calibrated to any commensurate physical participants. A particularly interesting discussion point
development by 11-year-olds. is that the cognitive processes underpinning learning by
Surprisingly, there is relatively little evidence to children in a modified setting may be different from those
substantiate the link between modified junior sport and a employed when using regulation equipment and task
range of implied positive outcomes, including increased demands (Buszard, Farrow, Reid, & Masters, 2014b;
participation due to increased enjoyment and age- Buszard et al., 2016).
appropriate tactical and skill development (see Buszard,
Reid, Masters, & Farrow, 2016, for a review). This
presentation will review an emerging body of research References
that demonstrates the value of equipment scaling and its
Buszard, T., Farrow, D., Reid, M., & Masters, R. S. W. (2014a).
influence on technical and tactical skill development. Modifying equipment in early skill development: A tennis
The sport of tennis is used to highlight a possible perspective. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,
sequence of scaling events that ultimately may lead to 85, 218 – 225.
more effective skill acquisition. First, lower-compression Buszard, T., Farrow, D., Reid, M., & Masters, R. S. W. (2014b).
Scaling sporting equipment for children promotes implicit
balls allow children to strike the ball with greater ease
processes during performance. Consciousness and Cognition,
in better hitting locations (Buszard, Farrow, Reid, & 85, 218 – 225.
Masters, 2014a; Kachel, Buszard, & Reid, 2014). In turn, Buszard, T., Reid, M., Masters, R., & Farrow, D. (2016). Scaling
children generate greater ball velocity while maintaining the equipment and play area in children’s sport to improve
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motor skill acquisition: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, ance of children. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine,
46, 829 –843. doi:10.1007/s40279-015-0452-2 12, 323 – 331.
Farrow, D., & Reid, M. (2010). The effect of equipment scaling Memmert, D., Almond, L., Bunker, D., Butler, J., Fasold,
on the skill acquisition of beginning tennis players. Journal of F., Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research
Sports Sciences, 28, 723 – 732. questions related to teaching games for understanding.
Kachel, K., Buszard, T., & Reid, M. (2014). The effect of ball Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 347 – 359.
compression on the match-play characteristics of elite junior Timmerman, E., de Water, J., Kachel, K., Reid, M., Farrow,
tennis players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 33, 320– 326. D., & Savelsbergh, G. (2015). The effect of equipment scaling
Larson, E., & Guggenheimer, J. (2013). The effects of scaling on children’s sport performance: The case for tennis. Journal
tennis equipment on the forehand groundstroke perform- of Sports Sciences, 33, 1093 –1100.
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 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
2016, VOL. 87, NO. S1, S23–S24
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200422

Game-Centered Approaches: Different Perspectives, Same Goals—Working

Together for Learning
D. Gutierrez
University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
(david.gutierrez@uclm.es)

Since the publication of the teaching games for under- (3) Learning-game designing: TGfU (Bunker &
standing (TGfU) model in the early 1980s, there has been Thorpe, 1982; Thorpe, Bunker, & Almond, 1986)
a clear evolution of the original model as well as the and play practice (PP; Launder & Piltz, 2013) provide
promotion of different versions and approaches based on pedagogical principles for designing games that address
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analogous ideas. The clustering of these approaches has specific tactical problems (TGfU, representation/exag-
received different explanatory denominations (Memmert geration; PP, simplification/shaping), while game sense
et al., 2015), such as game-based approaches, alternative (GS; Den Duyn, 1997; Light, 2012) provides indications
models, TGfU approaches, constructivist approaches, for the design of more open learning environments.
tactical models, and probably the most widely accepted, (4) Teaching in the game: The necessary modifications
game-centered approaches (GCAs). during the actual game, depending on their development
Almond (2015) described the current situation as and attention to diversity, are well addressed by the
a wealth of ideas but expressed at the same time principles of focusing (PP) and adaptation (Hopper,
concern about that this number of quarters divides the 2011). Promoting learning through questioning is a
community of practitioners and researchers, thereby central issue in GCAs and is especially addressed by
preventing new thinking. To minimize the negative GS and the tactical decision learning model (Grehaigne,
consequences and take advantage of the positive, we Wallian, & Godbout, 2005) as they provide a component
think that two actions should be done. Firstly, find a of social learning. The development of motivation as a
shared agreement about the essential features of GCAs, source of learning can be achieved from the principle of
so that the search for an identity does not involve the loss enhancing (PP), which includes strategies like fantasy
of the essence. And secondly, review and analyze the games. Also, creativity can be promoted by strategies such
foundations and history of the different GCAs, while as those proposed by Memmert (2010) and by applying
extracting their strengths and main contributions, and in strategies used in student-designed games (Hastie, 2010).
doing so, offering to teachers and coaches a “set of tools” Regarding the evaluation, as an essential component
in addition to (or rather than) whole approaches. This in the learning process, the TGM with the Game
second action is the purpose of this work. To achieve Performance Assessment Instrument is the most used
it, the main GCAs, besides close pedagogical proposals, assessment instrument, both in research and teaching.
have been reviewed. The main contributions of each (5) Context adaptation: The PP and especially GS have
approach have been structured around six categories. a significant presence in coaching that is not achieved
Examples are presented in the following: by other approaches. In this sense, the intentional GS
(1) Foundations: The simple and generic playful design for coaching is remarkable as it simplifies TGfU
situation-oriented forms proposed in Ball School (Kröger elements, so it is less structured and prescriptive and
& Roth, 2003; Memmert & Roth, 2007) are appropriate relies on the deeper content knowledge possessed by
for the first experiences of very young children and build coaches (in comparison with teachers). In the same way
quite early the foundations for tactically complex that designing games depends on whom the games are
categories like invasion games. targeted toward, Playsport, TopPlay, and Sense Game
(2) Structure: The tactical game model (TGM; Mitchell, cards are good examples of materials that could be used
Oslin, & Griffin, 2003) offers a structured progression by instructors with little experience in games teaching
through levels and a clear relationship between skill and (e.g., volunteer parents).
tactics. The invasion-game competence model (Tallir, (6) Expansion: Finally, in relation to the expansion of
Lenoir, Valcke, & Musch, 2007) also provides a GCAs, we must highlight the rise of GCAs in Asia in the
progression based on chained basic game forms. last decade, with the most remarkable example of the
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rapid and extensive introduction of the game concept Launder, A., & Piltz, W. (2013). Play practice: Engaging and
approach (GConA; McNeill, Fry, Wright, Tan, & Rossi, developing skilled players. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
2008) in Singapore. GConA is a good example of how Light, R. (2012). Game sense: Pedagogy for performance,
research and training should influence education policy. participation and enjoyment. London, UK: Routledge.
The expansion and influence of the TGM is also an McNeill, M. C., Fry, J. M., Wright, S. C., Tan, C. W. K., &
Rossi, T. (2008). Structuring time and questioning to achieve
example that a good way to increase the use of a model is
tactical awareness in games lessons. Physical Education &
to provide simple and complete curricular materials that
Sport Pedagogy, 13, 231 – 249.
are research-based. Memmert, D. (2010). Development of creativity in the scope
of the TGfU approach. In J. Butler & L. Griffin (Eds.), More
References teaching games for understanding: Moving globally
(pp. 231 –244). Leeds, UK: Human Kinetics.
Almond, L. (2015). Rethinking teaching games for under- Memmert, D., Almond, L., Bunker, D., Butler, J., Fasold, F.,
standing. Agora para la Educación Física y el Deporte,
Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research questions
17, 15 –25.
related to teaching games for understanding. Research
Bunker, D., & Thorpe, R. (1982). Model for the teaching of
games in secondary schools. Bulletin of Physical Education, Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 347 – 359.
18, 5 –8. Memmert, D., & Roth, K. (2007). The effects of non-specific
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Den Duyn, N. (1997). Coaching children: Game sense—It’s and specific concepts on tactical creativity in team ball sports.
time to play! Sports Coach, 19, 9 – 11. Journal of Sport Science, 25, 1423 –1432.
Grehaigne, J., Wallian, N., & Godbout, P. (2005). Tactical- Mitchell, S. A., Oslin, J. L., & Griffin, L. L. (2003). Sport
decision learning model and students’ practices. Physical foundations for elementary physical education. A tactical
Education & Sport Pedagogy, 10, 255 –269. games approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Hastie, P. (2010). Student-designed games: Strategies for Tallir, I. B., Lenoir, M., Valcke, M., & Musch, E. (2007).
promoting creativity, cooperation, and skill development. Do alternative instructional approaches result in different
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
game performance learning outcomes? Authentic assessment
Hopper, T. (2011). Game-as-teacher: Modification by adap-
in varying game conditions. International Journal of Sport
tation in learning through game-play. Asia-Pacific Journal of
Health, Sport and Physical Education, 2, 3 – 21. Psychology, 38, 263 – 282.
Kröger, C., & Roth, K. (2003). Escuela de balón: guía para Thorpe, R., Bunker, D., & Almond, L. (1986). Rethinking games
principiantes [Ball school: A guide for beginners]. Schondorf, teaching. Loughborough, UK: Department of Physical
Germany: Editorial Paidotribo. Education and Sports Science, University of Technology.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1200434

“Leveling the Playing Field” in Physical Education With Adaptation Games

K. Pagnano Richardson,1 D. Sheehy,1 and T. Hopper2
1
Bridgewater State University, United States; 2University of Victoria, Canada
(karen.richardson@bridgew.edu)

A problem that has plagued physical education teachers student who does not win then increases the opponent’s
for years is how to get all students, even the resistant ones, play space or decreases their own space and then the
involved in meaningful games and physical activity. The students play again. Adaptation allows students even with
next generation of physical education teachers needs to disparities in skill to engage in meaningful yet
transform games teaching to create games in which unpredictable game play (Hopper, 2011). Preservice
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21st-century learners want to engage, if games are to be a teachers noted that adaptation games served to equalize
relevant aspect of the physical education curriculum. power among opponents and provided a catalyst for
Almost three decades ago, an approach known as learning (Pagnano Richardson et al., 2013). They
teaching games for understanding (TGfU) was concep- identified that the student who did not win had the
tualized as an alternative way to teach games (for a power to make decisions about the constraints of the next
review, see Memmert et al., 2015). Educators were game, which served to equalize the power dynamic
concerned that children were not experiencing the thrill between the winner and loser. Further, the decentralized
associated with games and that they and adults had control of game play was evident in the theme of “teacher
little understanding of games (Almond, 2010). Thorpe, takes a back seat,” whereby the teacher initially sets the
Bunker, and Almond (1986) proposed two ways to broad constraints of the game, yet preservice teachers
modify games that form a fundamental cornerstone play the game independently and make decisions based
to TGfU thinking—representation and exaggeration—to on the interactions between the players involved.
help students become better game players. In this Pagnano Richardson et al. (2013) identified three
presentation, I will share a new principle of game qualities of a complex system: Adaptation, self-organiz-
modification we call “modification by adaptation or ing, and emergence formed critical elements that allowed
adaptation games,” which adds another dimension to learning in games to occur in a nonlinear process. For
these pedagogical principles (Pagnano Richardson, this to happen in adaptation games, the conditions in the
Sheehy, & Hopper, 2013) and connects this work to environment needed to offer enabling constraints that
complexity thinking (Davis & Sumara, 2006, 2010). As limited what the system could do to prevent it from being
described Hopper, Sanford, and Clarke (2009), modifi- overwhelmed, but at the same time, it offered an
cation by adaptation connects to a concept in video openness to possibilities of which the complex system
game play that Gee (2003) calls “game-as-teacher.” In could take advantage. In adaptation games, the role of the
adaptation games, the outcome of the game leads to the teacher was to provide the enabling constraints (i.e., game
game structure adapting to the player. The game is designer) as guidelines for emergent engagement by
modified to increase the challenge to a successful player students. Rather than being prescriptive, the enabling
based on the outcome of the previous game (e.g., changes constraints oriented the learner to what might happen
to space, scoring, rules conditioning play or number of in the game, rather than what must happen (Davis &
players). The conditions of play are triggered as a result of Sumara, 2010). Adaptation games created the opportu-
a winning outcome to the game, so that the winner is nity for students to engage in and with each other in
faced with an increased challenge. Multiple game meaningful game play while matched to their own level of
outcomes allow the game to adapt to the ability of the competency, where the flow of the game play engulfed
players. An example is provided by a volleyball-like game the players. Physical educators should consider adopting
called “Space Adapt,” played in a quarter of a badminton a “game as teacher” approach if they value creating
court. After one student scores 2 points, the other student delightful games that engage learners of all abilities,
increases the opponent’s play area by changing the backgrounds, and experience levels. To be an effective
boundaries and increasing space by adding on a quadrant game designer, physical education teachers need to
of the badminton court. The students play again. The examine their own social positions, biases, and
q 2016 SHAPE America
 S26 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

experiences to better understand how to create equitable Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about
and engaging games for all students. Consider the learning and literacy. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
following questions as you focus on game design for your Hopper, T. (2011). Game-as-teacher: Modification by adap-
students: What aspects of my social identity influence my tation in learning through game-play. Asia-Pacific Journal of
conception of competition or a good game? How might Health, Sport and Physical Education, 2, 18– 22.
my past experiences as an athlete who may have derived Hopper, T. F., Sanford, K., & Clarke, K. (2009). Game-as-
a sense of power or had been empowered from success teacher and game-play: Complex learning in TGfU and
videogames. In T. Hopper, J. Butler, & B. Storey (Eds.),
in sport influence how I design games in physical
TGfU . . . Simply good pedagogy: Understanding a complex
education?
challenge (p. 246). Ottawa, Canada: Physical Health
Education (Canada).
References Memmert, D., Almond, L., Bunker, D., Butler, J., Fasold, F.,
Almond, L. (2010). Forward: Revisiting the TGfU Brand. Griffin, L., . . . Furley, P. (2015). Top 10 research questions
In J. Butler & L. Griffin (Eds.), More teaching games for related to teaching games for understanding. Research
understanding: Moving globally (pp. vii – x). Windsor, Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 347 – 359.
Ontario, Canada: Human Kinetics. Pagnano Richardson,, K., Sheehy, D., & Hopper, T. (2013).
Davis, B., & Sumara, D. (2006). Complexity and education:
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Modification by adaptation: Proposing another pedagogical

Inquiries into learning, teaching and research. London, UK: principle for TGfU. In A. Ovens, T. Hopper, & J. Butler
Lawrence Erlbaum. (Eds.), Complexity thinking in physical education: Reframing
Davis, B., & Sumara, D. (2010). Enabling constraints: Using
curriculum, pedagogy and research (pp. 181 – 193). New York,
complexity research to structure collective learning.
In J. Butler & L. Griffin (Eds.), Teaching games for NY: Routledge.
understanding: Moving globally (pp. 105– 120). Champaign, Thorpe, R., Bunker, D., & Almond, L. (1986). Rethinking games
IL: Human Kinetics. teaching. Loughborough, UK: University of Technology.
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA

Symposium: In this symposium, we use principles of “good digital

Developing a Conceptual Framework game design” (Gee, 2013) to propose a conceptual
to Underpin the Practical Art of Making Games framework for understanding the practical design of
Accessible to Players games. We consider similarities between a teacher
and coach and a digital game designer using the notion
Chair: L. Almond that “good game designers are practical theoreticians
St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom of learning” (Gee, 2013, p. 21). The symposium will
(almonds@me.com) acknowledge that the rationale for TGfU and rationale for
digital video games are similar—to attract and sustain
Introduction: This symposium will be the third phase of participation and performance through challenging and
an investigation into the complexities of translating a enjoyable practice.
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complex game into meaningful game forms that enable The symposium will promote ways in which complex
players to understand games, learn to love playing them, games can be learned and mastered through practical
and become intelligent performers. There is a great deal of application of game design. The symposium will
research in the field of teaching or coaching games, but specifically interpret TGfU’s 4 pedagogical principles
there appears to be very little on the practical art of and will merge with Gee’s (2013) features of good game
making games accessible to players. This gap needs to be design, which are considered to enhance learning and
addressed. performance. Further discussions will build upon
To support this work, our ongoing investigation strives Almond’s foreword in Butler and Griffin (2010) to use
to explore what a coherent conceptual framework to game design for developing a whole mind set for game
underpin the teaching/coaching of games could look like. sense, with a specific focus on how video game play can
It will address the problems that teachers and coaches simulate the human mind and its learning capabilities in
experience in translating a complex game into meaningful today’s digital age.
units and finally how we can support teachers and coaches.
The aims of this symposium are: (a) to outline a
Translating Formal Game Into Manageable Game
conceptual framework that underpins the practical art of
Forms: The Case of Volleyball
making games accessible to players, (b) to illustrate what it
means in practice, and (c) to explore some issues associated
with creating game forms. J. Afonso C. Bessa, R. Aroújo, P. Coutinho, and
I. Mesquita
University of Porto, Portugal
Conceptual Framework for Understanding Digital (jafonsovolei@hotmail.com)
Video Game Design and Its Relationship to Teaching
Games for Understanding Introduction: We address 2 main questions: how to
develop better teachers and coaches and how to best
A. Price bridge research findings and daily practice in real-life
St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom settings, therefore bringing about meaningful guidance
(amy.price@stmarys.ac.uk) for practitioners. Specifically, we will advance concrete
proposals for transforming formal game into manageable
In recent years, the game-centered approach (GCA) arena game forms to instigate the players to truly love the game
for academic research has been well populated with by discovering the remarkable combination of fun and
evidence-based studies that enhance the theoretical competition. In this vein, we will engage from our own
underpinnings of teaching and coaching of games. embedded experience as teachers, coaches, and research-
Nevertheless, there has been limited attention paid to ers of volleyball.
how GCA models such as teaching games for under- Principles we stand for: First and foremost, we would
standing (TGfU) can be merged with alternative fields of like to advance the concept that, by definition, all
game studies, outside of physical education and sport, to pedagogy is nonlinear. Each coach/teacher, each athlete/
make games accessible for young people. student, each learning environment, and each team

q 2016 SHAPE America

 S28 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

represent a unique reality. Therefore, one-size-fits-all mechanisms through which handball may be delivered—
types of approaches are rendered to failure. From this true to TGfU principles.
starting point, we outline 5 basic principles in our The presentation considers how we might make sense
approach: (a) Recognize that learning is an active of handball and the need to do so (Richards & Collins,
concept. (b) Understand that each learning moment is 2012). Further, the presentation proposes ways in which
distinctive and special, and therefore, coaches and teachers and coaches might create the tactical problems,
teachers should make use of a manifold of different which are national governing body-stated principles of
philosophies and methods instead of relying on play (England Handball, 2015). Handball-specific
preestablished recipes. This includes being faithful to examples of how these puzzles can be represented,
each coach’s and teacher’s idiosyncrasies, as honesty and exaggerated, and modified are suggested. In addition, we
genuineness define who you are and remain paramount consider how this sits within a wider planning and
in any learning-related process. (c) In line with the reflective practice framework for coaching, where
previous points, appreciate that learning environments practice design is aligned with coach behavior, learner
should focus on the student but also bring ecological task engagement, and outcomes (Muir, 2012).
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and environmental control to nuclear roles. (d) Amid

such considerations, avoid a narrow practice supposedly
based on tradition (even tradition is an evolving concept The Thinking Behind a Conceptual Framework for
after all!) and replace it with a constant (re)analysis and Teaching/Coaching Games
permanent critical thinking, while fully embracing the
present instead of relying on the past. And (e) finally, L. Almond
comprehend that the tactical and technical dimensions St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom
are hardly separable. (almonds@me.com)

This presentation will be divided into 3 parts to illustrate

Making Sense of Handball the key principles underpinning the creation of a
conceptual framework. In our analysis of current practice,
L. McCarthy we believe that there is a need to focus more precisely on
St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom what we want to achieve in the teaching and coaching of
(liam.mccarthy@stmarys.ac.uk) games. This symposium will address how we can generate
a new sense of direction.
Teaching games for understanding (TGfU) is a (1) Complex games can be translated into meaningful
pedagogical model that has gained widespread popularity game forms to develop an understanding of the game
among teachers and coaches in recent years (Bunker & and an understanding in the game leading to intelligent
Thorpe, 1982; Thorpe & Bunker, 1989; Thorpe, Bunker, performance.
& Almond, 1984). Based on constructivist principles, In recent times, the conceptualization of a complex
TGfU implores practitioners to account for 3 funda- game has been a neglected aspect of the representation
mental principles in their game design: representation, process for teaching a game to beginners. There is also
modification, and exaggeration. In doing so, the puzzles good evidence that similar neglect is taking place with
presented by well-designed games can afford the learners experienced players. This neglect needs to be addressed,
opportunities to develop an understanding both of the so examples will be provided.
game and within the game. (2) Coaches and teachers need to know how to
Nevertheless, Casey (2013) contended that the extent integrate practices so that they can shape them in forms
to which practitioners are able to operationalize games compatible with players’ needs. This requires an under-
that embody the principles of TGfU is questionable. standing of: (a) meaningful modification of game forms;
Further, Laudner (2001) likened TGfU in the hands of (b) creation of enabling environments to support learning
teachers to jumbo jets in the hands of test pilots; it is in game forms; (c) creation of developmentally appro-
clear that much work is yet to be done to enable coaches priate game scenarios that simulate the realities of games;
and teachers to effectively use this model-based (d) recognition of learning factors (playful learning,
approach. Answering Casey’s (2013) call to aid teachers meaningful learning, and learning load); (e) scaffolding
and coaches in making a conceptual shift in their the learning process and fading of support; and (f)
practice, this presentation aims to provide some explicit developing an enabling attitude of the teacher/coach.
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S29

(3) A new concept will be introduced that goes beyond Symposium:

the traditional perspective of teaching games for under- The Ecological Dynamics Approach to Sport
standing in the form of skills and tactics that we are Pedagogics and Tactical Analysis
calling a game capability. A game capability is the
integration of player attributes and the quality of their Chairs: D. Araujo,1 K. Davids,2 and I. Renshaw3
experiences in learning to play a game that enables players 1
University of Lisbon, Portugal; 2Sheffield Hallam
to “make sense of games” so that they can understand University, United Kingdom; 3Queensland University of
what they can do and have intelligent performances in a Technology, Australia
game. (daraujo@fmh.ulisboa.pt)

This symposium includes presentations focused on 2 levels

Perspectives of Rugby Coaches in Understanding
of analysis: (a) sport pedagogy and (b) capturing tactical
Teaching Games for Understanding
behaviors of players in games. These complementary levels
of analysis are embraced by the same theoretical approach:
J. Lambden
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ecological dynamics. Therefore, the performance and

St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom practice ecology and the dynamics of pedagogy and tactics
(almonds@me.com)
are addressed in a principled and coherent framework to
enhance understanding of how the methodology of training
In this presentation, 3 problem scenarios will be explored.
and practice can be improved. On tactics, Passos and Silva
Coaches encounter major problems in translating a
discuss how players’ actions create opportunities for others
complex game into meaningful units that enable rugby
to achieve team goals; Travassos et al. show how the
players to learn the game and become intelligent
manipulation of a task constraint, such as the properties of
performers. What is its relevance for beginners,
goalposts in field invasion games, can dramatically shape the
experienced players, talented performers, and pro-
dynamics of match play. On coaching, Connor et al.
fessional players? How do they address relevance?
compare the effectiveness of traditional versus constraint-
Concepts like the game-centered approach, modification
led methodologies to develop the batting skills of talent-
principles, affordances, scaffolding, and cognitive load, to
pathway cricketers during an 8-week off-season program.
name just a few. In addition, at conferences, they hear
Moy identifies difficulties encountered by undergraduate
about nonlinear pedagogy and complexity theory.
trainee teachers on practicum when implementing a
Grasping the key concepts underpinning teaching
nonlinear pedagogy in schools. Renshaw and Clancy,
games for understanding (TGfU) has proved difficult for
following a similar path, discuss how nonlinear pedagogy
many coaches from a traditional background because
can be implemented and help to evaluate teacher–
they challenge their practices and require a great deal of
environment interactions.
rethinking and relearning. Most coaches gather an
understanding of TGfU from 2nd-, 3rd-, and often 4th-
hand accounts of what it means and how it can be Implementing a Nonlinear Physical Education
applied. As a result, very different variants emerge with Pedagogy in an Australian Secondary School
strange practices that have little connection with the
original ideas. B. Moy
The culture of games at a local level appears to frown Queensland University of Technology, Australia
upon developing a shared understanding of these ideas (daraujo@fmh.ulisboa.pt)
and then sharing with others what individual coaches
have experimented with and want to develop. They are The multiple, less predictable learner responses that
quite happy to pick and choose ideas from books or emerge as a consequence of the complex nature of learning
demonstrations and simply graft them into their within a nonlinear pedagogy (NLP) can present significant
repertoire. Reflection and taking stock appear to be rare. challenges for novice practitioners. The purpose of this
Finally, my experiences of translating rugby into study was to explore 2 physical education teacher
progressive game forms have generated a kind of “map education (PETE) students’ experiences associated with
and compass” of the terrain, and these experiences will this learning process when implementing an NLP using the
be shared with delegates. methodology of the constraints-led approach (CLA) with
 S30 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

physical education students in a school setting. Data were challenge of designing representative tasks, manipulating
collected using participant and primary researcher written task constraints, promoting variability in learning, indivi-
reflections and semistructured interviews. The results dualizing learning, and nonlinearity in progress. The
demonstrated major challenges facing PETE students collaborative review process provided a framework for
when implementing an NLP. Participants experienced evaluating the teacher – environment interaction and
difficulty detecting the less predictable pupil responses that enabled enhanced delivery of nonlinear pedagogically
emerged from the game structures they created. They also based practice through CLA and TGfU.
had difficulty manipulating constraints to allow problem-
solving behavior to emerge through the natural, explora-
Evaluating a 12-Week Games-Based Training Program
tory learning processes underpinning the CLA. These
to Improve Cricket Batting Skill
study findings can be used to inform and improve the
design and delivery of PETE programs in supporting
students to effectively implement an NLP. J. D. Connor,1,2 I. Renshaw,3 D. Farrow,2,4 and
B. Abernethy5
1
National Cricket Centre, Aust2ralia; 2Victoria University,
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Reflecting on Practice: An Exploration of NLP in Australia; 3Queensland University of Technology,

Games Teaching Australia; 4Australian Institute of Sport, Australia;
5
University of Queensland, Australia
I. Renshaw1 and J. Clancy2 (i.renshaw@qut.edu.au)
1
Queensland University of Technology, Australia;
2
Brisbane Grammar School, Australia Although a constraints-led approach (CLA) to skill
(i.renshaw@qut.edu.au) acquisition is different from teaching games for under-
standing (Renshaw et al., 2015), the theoretical under-
Despite the popularity of “alternative” pedagogical pinnings of CLA can be utilized when designing games-based
methodologies such as teaching games for understanding training approaches. This study examined whether a games-
(TGfU) and the constraint-led approach (CLA) in based training design, underpinned by CLA, was more
academia, there is still limited take-up by practitioners effective at developing cricket batting skill than a more
(Almond, 2010). Additionally, when they do try to adopt traditional technically focused coaching approach.
new methodologies, there are question marks regarding the Sixteen under-15 skilled cricket batters participated in a
capability of teachers to faithfully adopt the key principles in 12-week intervention study and were randomly allocated
their practice (Butler, 2014). One reason for this challenge to a traditional or experimental training group. The
may be a disconnect between learning about new experimental group participated in activities with
methodologies in a sterile lecture theatre and delivering manipulated rules, equipment, and outcome goals, while
them in complex environments like schools. To address the traditional group focused on optimizing technical
these challenges, it has been suggested that researchers and batting skill processes. Both groups completed two 2-hr
practitioners need to work closely together. One idea is for sessions per week, bookended by a preintervention and
researchers to provide tools to support delivery in practice. post-intervention batting skills test. This test involved
One useful tool could be a lesson self-checklist based on the facing 18 balls delivered by bowlers, with the number of
theoretical framework underpinning the methodology. successful scoring shots, total runs scored, attacking
To that end, this study aimed to examine the pedagogy of an strokes played, and quality of bat– ball contact recorded.
experienced physical education teacher in an 8-week An analysis of variance was used to examine between-
volleyball unit delivered to a Year 11 group. The lead and within-group differences over time. The experimental
researcher observed all sessions live or video-recorded and group (CLA) demonstrated an increased number of
took field notes in real time. For each lesson, the teacher successful scoring shots (3.88 vs. 6.63), and increased
completed the Nonlinear Pedagogy Lesson Reflection Tool number of runs scored (11.63 vs. 20.7), and an
(Chow et al., 2015). Weekly postlesson meetings were held improvement in the quality of bat– ball contact (1.26 vs.
to review findings and plan upcoming sessions. Reflections 1.52) after intervention, while there was no change in the
revealed that the teacher based his learning design on the number of attacking strokes played (72.37% vs. 74.63%).
methodological principles of CLA and TGfU. Key findings These numbers were significantly greater than those for
centered on time as a constraint for learning, the use of the traditional group, which revealed no changes in the
reflective questioning and instructional constraints, the number of successful scoring shots played (4.62 vs. 3.75),
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S31

the number of runs scored (10.25 vs. 10.00), the quality of effect of regulation size in comparison with 7-a-side and 5-
bat– ball contact (1.26 vs. 1.29), or attacking strokes a-side goal sizes. Whereas official goal target size afforded a
played (77.78% vs. 78.87%). higher number of shots from different field locations, 7-a-
Skilled U15 players significantly improved facets of side and 5-a-side goal target size induced a greater
their batting using a games-based training approach, frequency of shots from central subareas of the field
while a more traditional training approach did not lead to requiring a greater buildup of play to shoot at goal.
improvements. Training using a systematic approach to
manipulating constraints is suggested to benefit the Players’ Relative Position to Characterize the
overall development of a batter. Affordances Landscape in Football

Manipulating Goal Posts Significantly Impacts Tactical P. Passos and R. Silva

Behaviors in Small-Sided Football Games University of Lisbon, Portugal
(ppassos@fmh.ulisboa.pt)
B. Travassos,1,2 P. Silva,3,4 R. Duarte,5 L. Vilar,6 and
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P. T. Esteves2,7 In football, just like in most team sports, one of the ball
1
University of Beira Interior, Portugal; 2Research Centre carrier’s tasks is to seek and seize opportunities to make the
in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human ball get closer to the opposing goal by means of in-depth (i.e.,
Development, Portugal; 3FC Zenit, Russia; 4University of toward the end line of the opposing team) passes to a support
Porto, Portugal; 5University of Lisbon, Portugal; player located “within” the opposing defense. And it is the
6
European University, Portugal; 7Guarda Polytechnic players’ (e.g., teammates and opponents) dynamics, in the
Institute, Portugal
continuous adaptation to the behavior of others demanded
(bfrt@ubi.pt)
in such competitive environments, that lead to such
opportunities. In this study, we aim to describe the ball
In team sports, goal target manipulation is 1 of the key task
carrier landscape of in-depth passing affordances that
constraints promoted by coaches. However, a clear
emerge for each attacking phase. This landscape was built
understanding of the effect of such manipulations on
upon a geometric Figure (similar to a diamond shape), which
team-adaptive behaviors is needed. Here we synthesize
is defined by the ball carrier, the passing target, and the 2
how the number and size of goal targets and players’ ages
nearest defenders’ relative positions and is updated in a 1-Hz
impact collective measures of tactical behaviors in football.
rate. For this purpose, the players and ball x and y coordinates
Tactical behaviors were measured by considering the
were captured with an automatic video-tracking system.
spatial-temporal relations between players in effective
It was also hypothesized that the width of this diamond shape
contexts of performance. Results revealed that the
can point out in-depth passing opportunities with high
manipulation of the number of goal targets (from 1 goal
success probability. Additionally, the integration of both
þ goalkeeper to 3 minigoals) increased the distance
defenders and ball estimated positions in the next second
between the geometrical center of each team and decreased
may lead to a more accurate indicator. Results identify pitch
the relative stretch index between teams. Interestingly, an
areas where the in-depth pass opportunities occur more
increase in the number of goalposts positioned over the
often. It is by overlaying such pitch areas that the ball carrier
end line was associated with longer periods of time played
in-depth pass affordances landscape is characterized.
in defensive sectors and lateral channels than when only 1
goal þ goalkeeper was used. Also, lack of goalposts
promoted higher variability in teams’ spatial distribution Symposium:
than when 2 lateral mini-goalposts or 1 goalpost þ Personality in Team Sport: A Coach and Athlete
goalkeeper were used. Worthy of note is that players’ age Perspective
modulated the effects of manipulating the number of
goalposts used in practice. A significant interaction Chair: J. Kleinert
between number of goal targets and age was observed in German Sport University Cologne, Germany
the ratio between the width of attacking/defending teams. (kleinert@dshs-koeln.de)
Performance of older players expressed a higher width
ratio between teams when playing with a higher number of Personality plays a substantial role in team sport,
goal targets compared with the youngsters. Also, particularly when considering the perspectives of
manipulation of goal target size disclosed a differential coaches and athletes and the overall coach – athlete
 S32 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

relationship. Given the wide range of personality factors, (b ¼ .39, p ¼ .001) and circle of friends (b ¼ .35, p ¼ .002).
there are many psychological constructs and processes of For nonathletes, the analysis revealed only satisfaction with
relevance when considering the personality of coaches and progression in circle of friends (b ¼ .24, p ¼ .023) as a
athletes. In terms of the coach perspective, this workshop significant predictor. Implications from these findings are
specifically addresses emotional intelligence and burnout, that, at least in this age group, elite players do not suffer from
as both aspects are strongly related to the quality of problems with DTs. However, if satisfaction with their own
coaching and are, therefore, relevant to the performance progression in certain DTs is low, well-being will also be
and well-being of team members. The theoretical link reduced. Longitudinal studies will have to show what
between the coach’s personality and team processes is happens if players fail to achieve the DTs when reaching
identified in leadership and motivational processes. adulthood.
Additionally, recovery is recognized as a protective factor
against the development of personality disorders. Finally, Burnout, Stress, and Recovery in German Coaches
from the athletes’ perspective, it is important to discuss
personality as an aspect of human development that is P. Schaffran,1 S. Altfeld,1 C. Zepp,2 J. Kleinert,1,2,3 and
Downloaded by [Deutsche Sporthochschule Koeln] at 02:21 20 July 2016

particularly relevant in youth team sport. All contributions M. Kellmann1,3

in the present workshop demonstrate the need to find the 1
Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany; 2German Sport
optimal conditions under which personality development University Cologne, Germany; 3The University of
of both coaches and athletes in team sport is optimized. Queensland, Australia
(paul.schaffran@rub.de)

Personality Development in Team Sport Players Coaches have to deal with emotional and physical stress that
can influence their well-being and, in turn, potentially
J. Ohlert and J. Kleinert impact athletes’ performance (Mallett, 2010). To perform at
German Sport University Cologne, Germany their optimal level, coaches have to manage their own
(j.ohlert@dshs-koeln.de) physical and emotional state using self-regulation strategies
and personal recovery. A growing imbalance of stress and
The adolescent years are the most important years for recovery of the coach could lead to emotional exhaustion,
personality development. Young elite athletes have to which is widely accepted as the key symptom of burnout
solve the same developmental tasks (DTs) as nonathletes (Frey, 2007; Raedeke, 2004). Thus, the aim of the current
even though they spend a lot of time playing sports and study was twofold: first, to examine the prevalence of
also have to solve certain sports-related DTs in addition burnout in German sport coaches; and second, to investigate
(Ohlert & Kleinert, 2014). Therefore, the aim of our study the impact of stress and recovery on burnout.
was to find out if this situation leads to a shortfall in Two hundred and thirty-three coaches of various sports
certain DTs and furthermore to reduced well-being and levels responded to an online survey. Burnout was
especially in adolescent team-sport players. measured by the coach-specific German adaptation of the
In total, 75 elite adolescent handball players and 134 Maslach Burnout Inventory (Altfeld & Kellmann, 2014).
soccer players participated in the survey together with Recovery and stress were measured using the Recovery–
166 nonathletes. Participants were aged 16 to 19 years old; Stress Questionnaire for Coaches (Kellmann, Kallus, &
the majority of the participants were female (69%). Altfeld, 2016).
They answered questions regarding the relevance of different The research results showed mean scores of 1.38
DTs, their actual progression, satisfaction with their actual (SD ¼ 0.79) for emotional exhaustion, suggesting low-to-
progression, and the World Health Organization Well- medium levels of burnout. However, according to the
Being Index (WHO–5) measure for well-being. standard values of Maslach and Jackson (1996), 12.9% of
Results showed that compared with the nonathletes, the coaches indicated high levels of emotional exhaustion.
players reported a different relevance for some DTs, Overall stress (b ¼ .29, p , .001), overall recovery
especially for the DTs of circle of friends and independence (b ¼ 2 .15, p , .05), coach-specific stress (b ¼ .31,
from parents. No significant differences between the 2 p , .001), and age (b ¼ 2.14, p , .05) demonstrated a
groups could be found in progression or satisfaction with significant impact on emotional exhaustion within multiple
progression. The stepwise multiple regression resulted in regression analysis.
only 2 significant predictors for well-being in athletes: the Unlike previous research that focused on individual and
satisfaction with progression in the DTs of to find oneself situational factors, this study revealed the important role of
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S33

recovery and stress regarding emotional exhaustion. Thus, The Link Between Emotional Intelligence and
monitoring the recovery–stress balance of sport coaches Leadership in Soccer Coaches
during the course of a competitive season could help identify
coaches’ burnout risk. B. Lobinger and S. Heisler
German Sport University Cologne, Germany
The Relationship Between Coaches’ Emotional Intelligence (b.lobinger@dshs-koeln.de)
and Their Perception of Player Need Satisfaction
Social competences like emotional intelligence are
essential for coaches’ leadership behavior (Laborde,
M. Watson and J. Kleinert Dosseville, & Allen, 2015). The present study examined
German Sport University Cologne, Germany
the extent to which the emotional intelligence of
(m.watson@dshs-koeln.de)
soccer coaches is systematically associated with
Introduction: Leaders with higher emotional intelligence different components of leadership—for example,
(EI) exhibit behaviors more congruent with group members’ social support or democratic behavior. The sample of
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feelings. Based on basic needs theory, a micro theory of self- 198 soccer coaches from the lower leagues up to the
determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000), this study first German League (all male, Mage ¼ 39.41 years)
aimed to test the hypothesis that coaches with higher EI are completed an online questionnaire comprising the Trait
better able to accurately perceive their players’ need Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue; Freu-
satisfaction levels than are coaches with lower EI. denthaler et al., 2008) and the Leadership Scale
Method: Coaches (N ¼ 12; Mage ¼ 30.17 ^ 9.20 years; for Sports (LSS; Würth, Saborowski, & Alfermann,
75% male) and players (N ¼ 127; Mage ¼ 15.33 ^ 1.35 1999).
years; 63% male) were recruited from German sports teams Analyses showed positive correlations between the LSS
(basketball, 25%; handball, 25%; football, 41.7%; volleyball, score (operationalized as social support, positive feed-
8.3%). Players completed questionnaires assessing their back, democratic or autocratic behavior) and the TEIQue
level of need satisfaction for a typical training session global score (comprising well-being, emotionality, self-
(Contextual Basic Need Satisfaction Scale), while coaches control, and social competence; r ¼ .382, p , .001). The
completed the same questionnaire from the perspective of democratic behavior of coaches was positively linked to
their team, along with a measure of their EI (Trait Emotional their age (r ¼ .166, p ¼ .021) and coaching experience
Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form). Coaches were (r ¼ .174, p ¼ .015). Age was also associated with self-
median split into relatively high and relatively low groups control (r ¼ .192, p , .001) and global LSS score
for global EI and individual EI factors. (r ¼ .149, p ¼ .038).
Results: Responses from relatively high-EI, emotionality, The results show an empirical relationship between
self-control, and sociability coaches, respectively, were self-reported trait emotional intelligence and the way
significantly different (i.e., lower; p , .05) from players’ soccer coaches describe their leadership styles. Practical
responses regarding players’ levels of relatedness satisfac- implications for coach education and “coach the coach”
tion. Responses from relatively low emotionality coaches are discussed. Further research should combine self-
were significantly different (i.e., higher) from those of players evaluation of coaches and athletes’ descriptions of
regarding players’ levels of competence satisfaction, and vice coaching behavior.
versa. All coaches’ responses were significantly different (i.e.,
higher) from those of players regarding players’ levels of Symposium:
autonomy satisfaction. Coaches with relatively high EI Translating TGfU Theory Into Practice: How Can We
scored players’ levels of relatedness satisfaction significantly Support Teachers’ and Coaches’ Learning When
lower than relatively low-EI coaches. Implementing TGfU?
Discussion: Higher-EI coaches appear to underestimate
their players’ levels of competence and relatedness. This Chair: K. A. Parry
finding could suggest that high-EI coaches are not satisfied University of Wollongong, Australia
with their current provision of needs support, thereby (kellyannparry@me.com)
reflecting the higher motivation efficacy (i.e., the confidence
to influence the psychological states and skills of athletes, a Despite the perceived benefits of game-based pedagogies
component of coaching efficacy) found in higher-EI coaches. such as teaching games for understanding (TGfU),
 S34 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

research has shown that their implementation in practice matic. Research has shown the conceptual and pedagogical
can be problematic, particularly because game-based difficulties along with the feelings of insecurity, apprehen-
pedagogy relies on the “craft of the teacher” (Butler & sion, and confusion experienced by teachers when trying to
Griffin, 2005). Employing game-centered practices places implement game-based pedagogy. Little has been revealed
great pedagogical and conceptual demands on the about how best to support teachers to explore what these
teacher/coach. The literature has revealed much about approaches may look like in their own practice. The purpose
the dilemmas faced by teachers/coaches, along with the of this research was to address this gap in the literature by
feelings of insecurity, apprehension, and confusion they examining the professional development (PD) required to
experience when trying to implement game-based support teachers in their implementation of game-based
pedagogies such as TGfU. There is an evident pedagogy. In doing so, this research proposes an effective
“epistemological gap” (Light, 2008) or “cognitive model of PD to support the implementation of GCAs.
dissonance” (Butler, 2005) between teachers’ and coaches’ To achieve this aim, this study was conducted using action
understanding of game-based pedagogies and their actual research in 4 phases: needs assessment, planning,
professional practice. This gap is reflected in the struggle implementation, and evaluation. Multiple methods of data
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teachers and coaches experience in adopting game-based collection were employed across all phases of the research
pedagogy when teaching games. including interviews, focus groups, observations, and
The literature recognizes that teachers and coaches need document analysis. Data were analyzed using triangulation,
to be provided with effective support (Nash, 2009; Wang & thematic coding, and constant comparison. Results revealed
Ha, 2012; Wright, McNeill, & Fry, 2009) and effective that limited teacher knowledge and the professional
professional endorsement (Memmert et al., 2015) to learning culture including the prioritization of time, teacher
develop the knowledge and skills to implement game- accountability, and student response impact teachers’
based pedagogies such as TGfU into practice. However, professional learning when implementing GCAs.
research has revealed little about how best to support
teachers/coaches in developing the required knowledge and Utilizing Real-Time GPS (Adidas MiCoach System V2.0)
skills to effectively implement game-based pedagogies in to Enhance Soccer Coaches’ Ability to Reflect in Action
their own practice. Furthermore, Memmert et al. (2015) When Engaging in a GCA
argued that researchers have failed to provide teachers/
coaches with an up-to-date picture of how their work can
inform practice. As such, research into game-based M. Ayres and T. Howard
St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom
pedagogies needs to be made more accessible for teachers/
(michael.ayres@stmarys.ac.uk)
coaches. They need help translating the theory into practice
and bridging this “epistemological gap” (Light, 2008). The growth and advancement of technology during the
In this symposium, we consider how TGfU-related last decade has transformed the way we communicate and
approaches can be implemented with the goal of facilitating interact and has the potential to change the way we learn
preservice and in-service teachers’ and coaches’ learning (Narayan & Herrington, 2014). This change is apparent in
with the aim to teach and foster their professional professional sport where the use of global positioning
development from novices to experienced practitioners. system (GPS) monitoring tools has increased significantly
during the last 5 years. Current research has largely
Supporting Teachers to Implement Game-Centered focused on outputs such as physical load and the impact
Approaches: Toward an Effective Model of Professional of specific coaching practices and games (small-sided
Development games) on the physical demands of players involved (Ric
et al., 2016). To the authors’ knowledge, no studies have
K. A. Parry specifically examined the impact of innovative technol-
University of Wollongong, Australia ogies on the coaches’ behavior and pedagogical
(kellyannparry@me.com) approaches. The purpose of this research was to examine
the impact of real-time GPS and physical data (Adidas
Game-centered approaches (GCAs) have become increas- MiCoach V2.0) on a coach’s game-centered approach
ingly popular among physical educators because of their (GCA) sessions. The case study followed 4 coaches of an
potential to enhance educational outcomes. Yet the English Premier League Football Club academy for 24
literature shows that implementing GCAs can be proble- weeks. A range of data collection methods was employed,
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S35

including session plan analysis, coach behavior analysis, social media coach analysis website (www.coachlogic.com)
semistructured interviews, concurrent verbalization, and and session plans were collected throughout the 12 weeks.
field notes. Data were analyzed using systematic thematic A variety of systematic coding analysis was utilized to
coding analysis. Findings suggest the accessibility to the analyze the data captured throughout the study. A key factor
real-time GPS had a positive impact on the coach’s ability in the students’ learning was the accessibility of technology
to reflect “in action” (Schon, 1989), specifically around 2 (body cameras, Go-Pro V4, and mobile coding software)
out of the 4 teaching-games-for-understanding pedago- and the enhanced learning experience they gained from
gical principles—namely, exaggeration and tactical engaging with these technologies. In addition, the students
complexity. Additionally, coaches reported feeling more reported deeper and more “deliberate practice” of self-
comfortable and justified using silence and individual reflection.
learning objectives within the context of small-sided
games. This presentation proposes an extension of Implementing Game-Centered Approaches:
Memmert et al.’s (2015) Research Question 2 to include An Alternative Vision for Coach Education
teachers and coaches as well as game players to expand on
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the limited research on the impact of state-of-the-art

technology in facilitating and supporting pedagogical C. Cushion1 and S. Harvey2
1
Loughborough University, United Kingdom;
change for coaches wishing to engage more effectively in a 2
West Virginia University, United States
GCA. (c.cushion@lboro.ac.uk)

Using a Heutagogical Approach to Develop an Operationalizing game-centered approaches (GCAs)

Undergraduate GCA Module: Developing GCA V2 requires a host of knowledge, understanding, practices,
strategies, coherent arguments, and critical thinking, all of
M. Ayres, A. Proce, A. Monk, and L. McCarthy which are conspicuously absent from utilitarian, techno-
St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom cratic, and idealized coach education and the rhetoric of
(michael.ayres@stmarys.ac.uk) coach development. Knowledge of GCA, even its applied
principles, is insufficient, and implementation involves
Learning and education are still widely regarded as a more than simply providing coaches with a “toolbox” of
pedagogic relationship between the teacher and the learner skills. Currently, guidance about GCA is compelling
with the teacher or coach owning the learning process and rhetoric and too idealized, as it provides prescriptive lists,
deciding what the learner should learn (Hase & Kenyon, principles, and decontextualized examples that do not
2001). Learning is still entrenched in these traditional engage with issues around learning. This presentation
pedagogical principles and, as such, fails to recognize the argues for an alternative vision of coach education
potential impact and affordances that current and future specifically to develop the implementation of GCA. Such a
technology can have on learning. As such, researchers have vision addresses giving coaches an awareness of their own
proposed that there is a need to look beyond both pedagogy beliefs and assumptions about coaching, developing an
and andragogy. Heutagogy is the focus on self-directed understanding of learning, and addressing the social,
learning by the learner (Hase, 2001). Such an approach goes cultural, and political complexities of coaching practice.
beyond e-learning and embraces self-directed study through Strategies discussed include: utilizing case history
the use of technology and where learning is socially examples and stories from coaches illustrating the lived
constructed and decontextualized (Moravec, 2008). This experiences of those who have attempted to change
presentation will explore the impact of a game-centered practice and culture; (correctly) modeling context-specific
approach (GCA) undergraduate module designed using GCA in practice, with support in understanding
heutagogical principles and framework. A grounded theory differences between coaches’ existing practice, attempts
approach design was utilized for this study. Thirty-four at GCA, and authentic GCA through the use of
final-year undergraduate students participated in the study. scaffolding (Vygotsky, 1978), which enables the coach
Data were captured using the following approaches: GCA to recognize the distance between existing practice and
coaching sessions were captured before, during, and after understanding and practice when assisted by, or
the 12-week study using a body camera (Go-Pro V4). These collaborating with, more experienced people; and creating
sessions largely consisted of coached invasion games. opportunities for coaches to speak with others through
In addition, commentaries captured via the use of a mobile partnerships and coalitions to create a critical mass within
 S36 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

a community to advance ideas and thinking. Coach experiences in games and sports contexts using the full
education needs to provide an environment where range of teaching approaches.
practice and the practice of others can be interrogated
and assumptions are made explicit. Therefore, this Symposium German Handball Association (DHB)
presentation proposes coach learning way beyond existing Forum:
conceptions of coach education, which is additive Session of the German Handball Association
(grafting new “skills”/knowledge onto an existing
repertoire), and an approach that is critically transforma-
Chairs: S. König1 and S. Greve2
tive (deconstructing taken-for-granted beliefs, assump- 1
University of Education Weingarten, Germany;
tions, knowledge, and habits and rebuilding practice). 2
University of Hamburg, Germany
(koenig@ph-weingarten.de)
Moving Forward in a Game-Centered Context:
Note: Only English abstracts included.
A New Stage in Games and Sports Education
Teaching Games in Secondary Schools—TGfU or
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G. Forrest Something Else?

University of Wollongong, Australia
(gforrest@uow.edu.au) S. König
University of Education Weingarten, Germany
Game-centered approaches (GCAs) have been the focus of (koenig@ph-weingarten.de)
physical education teacher education (PETE) for the last
30 years. Research has demonstrated that if GCAs are used Although there has been an intensive discussion on
appropriately, educators have the capacity to enhance the conceptions for teaching team sports in physical education
learning, engagement, and motivation levels of learners (PE) for more than 40 years, it must be stated that the
in game environments. However, despite these apparent teaching games for understanding (TGfU) approach has
positive benefits, inconsistent uptake of GCAs as a both been scarcely adopted in German-speaking countries
teaching method has hindered pedagogical development and hardly undergone empirical research there. This is
in educational settings. There have been a number of problematic, particularly with reference to secondary
suggested reasons for this hindrance, including the schools, because this age group needs specific instructional
tradition of the more technical approach in games and settings. As a consequence, this presentation focuses on the
sports, strong teacher and student resistance based on issue described and aims to analyze the TGfU approach in
philosophical and practical beliefs, and difficulties in GCA PE for 11- to 16-year-old adolescents.
implementation and use. However, when one views GCA In a multistrand and quasiexperimental field, research
issues from a different perspective—one based on the time effects of different teaching methods (TGfU, teacher
needed to gain expertise in games and sports and the centered approach, skill orientation) were evaluated in
ability to transfer this learning into GCA practice—it could football, team handball, and volleyball (N ¼ 244). The
be argued that addressing these 2 areas could be central to composition of the TGfU programs was realized on the
the implementation of GCAs in educational settings. basis of Mitchell et al. (2006). While quantitative effects
This presentation outlines an approach developed and were validated by means of expert rating and prevailing
used by the author in PETE undergraduate games and statistical procedures (analysis of covariance, generalized
sports courses and games and sports projects in linear model), the qualitative strand focused on teachers’
educational settings. The approach posits that GCAs assessments via guideline-based interviews and students’
have already identified 3 key concepts of content attitudes with questionnaires.
knowledge that are transferable across ALL games and Initial results showed effects for all methods, F(2,
sports and adds communication and concentration as the 241) ¼ 77,57, p , .001, h2 ¼ .247, but the highest effect
4th key concept. Developing a deep understanding of size was found for the TGfU group (d ¼ 0.51).
these concepts and how they interact together provides Additionally, this finding could also be verified for all
the opportunity to (a) address problematic issues related TGfU subgroups. Further results based on hierarchical
to developing expertise in games and sports in the time linear modeling pledge additional interesting findings
available and (b) give PETE undergraduates the capacity regarding nested data structure, which will be explained
to transfer this understanding into creating significant by qualitative data analysis (Schoonenboom, 2016).
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S37

‘Freiwurf Hamburg’: Qualitative Evaluation of an approximately 90 8th-grade students and 90 4th-grade

Inclusive Sports Project students. We investigated how Inventing Games (IG)—a
physical education program where groups of students create
S. Greve their own games—might support the development of
University of Hamburg, Germany principles of ethical actions in students as they learn
(steffengreve@aol.com) collaboratively. IG is an extension of the teaching games for
understanding (TGfU) curriculum model, which moves
Introduction: Freiwurf Hamburg is an association of 7 physical education pedagogy further into democratized
handball teams within a league structure in which teams learning while sharing TGfU’s constructivist epistemology.
are formed of able and disabled players. The league This study moved our thinking about the value of IG further,
endeavors to act inclusively in line with its mission as we examined cocreation and coactive engagement and
statement: All participants are supposed to experience considered the potential of the model to promote student
“freedom of movement” to take part in the game and to understanding of democracy and ethical action. An emergent
enjoy their time together. Players are therefore not seen as outcome of the research is the coining of the term “democracy
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impaired, but as handball players with specific needs. This in action” to describe these educational processes.
fundamental principle of inclusion is in line with the The team will first introduce the study and its context
position required in the current sports education-based and then offer 5 sections that report findings on the
discussion. Here diversity is recognized and valued as a processes, dynamics, and insights of students and teachers
quality that enriches life (Tiemann, 2013). and, in particular, interactive structures as they arose
Method: Based on the question of how participants during engagement in IG and democracy in action: (a)
perceive Freiwurf, a utilization-focused evaluation Sheppard reports on how teachers most effectively
(Patton, 2008) of the project is being conducted designed the learning environment for IG; (b) Berning
momentarily. The 1st step in the ongoing process was gives insights on survey data from her 8th-grade students
to reconstruct stakeholder perspectives by interviewing through both the inventing invasion games unit and the
able and disabled players, their parents, and their trainers 2nd unit of soccer/basketball, with emphasis on knowl-
and by interpreting these interviews using the methods of edge and skill transfer; (c) Erin McGinley reports on a 9-
grounded theory (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). step pedagogical process for helping teachers consider
In a 2nd step, a workshop with the participants of moments of aporia and/or difficulty in communications;
Freiwurf will be conducted in July 2016 where the results (d) Steve McGinley reports on pedagogical changes noted
of the interviews will be addressed and discussed. by the teachers during the course of the 4-year process; (e)
Additionally, the next steps for the Freiwurf movement Finally, we conclude by asking presenters the following
will be contrived. question: Who are you when you teach?
Discussion: Intermediate results of the qualitative
evaluation will be presented during the talk at the Introduction to the Symposium Democracy in Action
conference by tying data to a theoretical approach to Through Inventing Games
inclusion. Additionally, I will provide insight into the
specific use and significance of terms such as “attitude,”
“performance,” and “behavior within the group” within J. Butler
University of British Columbia, Canada
the community of Freiwurf players.
(joy.butler@ubc.ca)

Symposium: It was critical that our participating teachers understood

Democracy in Action Through Inventing Games the emphases and structures of Inventing Games (IG) as
well as the principles and conditions of complex
Chair: J. Butler emergence that are used to frame this research. To this
University of British Columbia, Canada end, the 1st year was organized around 4-day-long
(joy.butler@ubc.ca) research sessions—scheduled bimonthly from October
2010 through June 2011—in which the investigators, Joy
This symposium reports on findings from a 3-year Social Butler, Tim Hopper, and all 6 teacher participants
Sciences Humanities Research Council of Canada-funded coinvestigated the relevance and utility of principles of
research project involving 6 physical educators and complex emergence though their collective involvement
 S38 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

in IG. The 2nd year was organized around 3-day-long through the 6 completed TPIs were discussed with each
research sessions involving the exploration of unit individual teacher during the 2nd interviews in 2014.
planning combining IG with situated ethics. The 3rd Major changes in teaching perspectives and key points
year involved data collection as teachers taught units in IG made by teachers are reported. The final interview, 2 years
and subsequent units in institutionalized games. Inves- after the completion of the study, examines if any changes
tigators observed and video-recorded 3 lessons by each reported have been sustainable. The overall foci will be
teacher in both units, with the focus being on the students. directed by the question, “Who are you when you teach?”
During the IG unit, these lessons occurred during (a) This presentation includes fresh teacher perspectives on
game construction, (b) game showcasing, and (c) how democracy in action has changed their practice, how
development of strategies in game play. During the they have seen the learning process change, and how IG
institutionalized games unit following the IG units, the fits into their worldview as global citizens.
observations occurred at the beginning, middle, and end
of the units. Following each of these lessons, the students Democracy in Action Through Inventing Games:
were asked to consider their decisions and actions to Exploring Moments of Aporia (or Communications
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reexamine the antecedents of their decision making. Difficulties) as Opportunities for Learning
Surveys and interviews captured these responses to the
IG and democracy-in-action processes. Students’ initial
views of games were compared to whether or not they E. McGinley
Moscrop Secondary School, Canada
considered the IG teaching and learning environment and
(erin.mcginley@sd41.bc.ca)
their expectations of the experiences changed and in what
ways. Data gathered from classrooms were analyzed During the course of 3 years, participating teachers
through member-checking procedures for students’ level worked closely to develop a 9-step pedagogical process in
of probing, depth of engagement, social skills in action, identifying, approaching, and reflecting on moments of
and collective productivity. “aporia” and difficulties in communications during an
Inventing Games unit. Participating teachers discovered,
Democracy in Action Through Inventing Games: “rather than seeing these moments of aporia as an
Teachers’ Views About Teaching and Learning educational failure, teachers who are focused upon
emergent learning see them as opportunities for learning”
S. McGinley (Butler, personal correspondence). By developing peda-
University of British Columbia, Canada gogical content for decision making, participating
(steve.mcginley@ubc.ca) teachers began to note changes in their own teaching
practice. Rather than “reacting” to unexpected events,
This presentation reports on changes in teachers’ teachers were able to “respond,” and therefore, their role
educational beliefs in a series of 3 interviews over 4 within the classroom shifted from facilitator to guide.
years. The preliminary interview took place at the start of A “shift” also occurred within their students, as they
the research study in 2010. The 2nd interview occurred at began to discuss games in the context of being “fair,”
the end of the 4-year research study in 2014. The final “fun,” “flowing,” “safe,” and “inclusive.” The teacher both
interview took place more recently in March 2016, 2 years explicitly and inexplicitly taught students democratic
after the research study. language to use to communicate when a student or group
As a means to examine teacher beliefs as a result of the encounters difficulty or aporia. Collectively, both the
Inventing Games (IG) initiative during the 4 years, teacher and students opened up possibilities for
teachers completed a Teaching Perspectives Inventory communication, and in turn, this communication allowed
(TPI) at 6-month intervals. This inventory includes 45 for higher-level thinking about the democratic processes
questions online (Pratt, 2001, 2002). Initially, we used the that are present during game play. Teacher participants
TPI to construct baselines of the teachers’ beliefs and reflected deeply about their own pedagogy. Similar to the
values about learning and teaching games. The TPI cliché “You are what you eat,” participating teachers
identified, through reflection and dialogue, teachers’ (a) began to reflect on the idea of “You are what you teach.”
biases in actions (how we teach), (b) intentions (what we As educators, our pedagogy is as important as the
are trying to accomplish), and (c) beliefs (why we consider curriculum we teach; how we approach learning impacts
them important or justified). The changes monitored the most important people in our classroom, the learners.
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S39

As educators, we experience disruptions every day in our Democracy in Action Through Inventing Games:
classrooms; whether we approach those disruptions is a Setting the Environment
choice. Yes, “teaching situated ethics makes many more
demands on the teacher than running drills, refereeing J. Sheppard
dodgeball, or coaching. However, there are clear steps that University of the Fraser Valley, Canada
can be applied when a group encounters a moment of (joanna.sheppard@ufv.ca)
aporia or difficulty” (Butler, personal correspondence).
This section summarizes what the teachers found in their
Democracy in Action Through Inventing Games: planning and teaching to be most helpful in setting up a
Student Responses learning environment for the Inventing Games (IG) unit.
We found that IG units create classroom conditions that
nurture self-determination by allowing students to make
A. Berning choices, demonstrate competency in a range of roles, and
Burnaby North Secondary School, Canada
participate in supportive peer relationships. As students
(berninga@yahoo.de)
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learned through fluid, dynamic game play, they became

This contribution will follow a coeducational group of engaged and activated by its intrinsic delights. Such things
Grade 8 students in their learning throughout a 10-class as effort, improvement, and mastery were perceived as
Inventing Games (IG) unit and a 10-class soccer/Ultimate natural outcomes of creative play, rather than chores to
Frisbee unit, which both were part of the 3-year study on be dutifully accomplished. We also noted that students
democracy in action through IG. Students were given needed to be able to communicate effectively to make
questionnaires before and after each unit. shared decisions in the IG process. Developing a new game
In the IG unit, students were asked to create a game requires trial and error: Students must be patient with both
that was fair and fun and flowed nicely. The 1st themselves and others as they learn to communicate
questionnaire inquired about what expectation they had and negotiate. Open dialogue and an emotionally safe
in a games unit, what their general understanding of environment became crucial. One teacher found it helpful
democratic decision making in a group was, and how it to link to a unit on adventure-type activities where students
might apply in playing games in PE. The 2nd had to solve problems through group decisions. These
questionnaire asked similar questions immediately after skills then transferred easily to IG. Modifications to rules
the IG unit and further included questions about their and equipment created a can-do environment in which
game understanding and about how a game becomes fun, learners believed that they could achieve their desired
fair, and “flowing.” outcomes. Self-efficacious students such as these recover
The focus of the 2nd unit was to learn basic skills and quickly from setbacks; they are also more motivated and
strategies of the institutionalized sports of soccer and more likely to challenge themselves. As they work with
Ultimate Frisbee. Students had to review their games and observe others, they develop tolerance for difference,
and develop and compare strategies as a team. While the sensitivity, and empathy. When they invent games,
questionnaires before and after this unit still inquired students take ownership and become self-regulating as
about democratic processes, they also included questions they make up and test their own rules and evaluate their
about students’ understanding of the games and how effectiveness. They make choices and discover how they
they were able to develop strategy and apply it to both work out.
games.
This presentation will show how different athletic Symposium:
abilities, gender, and interest levels as well as the IG unit The Game Performance Assessment Instrument:
influenced students’ understanding of teamwork and Twenty Years and Counting!
game play. For example, what was the high-level soccer
player able to learn when working with students whose Chair: S. Mitchell
abilities and understanding were much lower than his? Kent State University, United States
What was the experience of students who were not used (smitchel@kent.edu)
to team sport and who were taught by a nonspecialist as
they created a game with flow and strategy together with This symposium describes the Game Performance
advanced and confident athletes? Assessment Instrument (GPAI) and its use as a research
 S40 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

tool and live observation instrument. The GPAI is an a research tool to a live observation instrument is
authentic form of game performance assessment because described. The GPAI was originally developed as a
it: (a) provides a more complete definition of game research tool for studies investigating the impact of
performance than traditional assessments in games; (b) teaching-games-for-understanding instruction in inva-
gives credit for ALL facets of performance, which benefits sion and net/wall games (Oslin, Mitchell, & Griffin,
the lower-skilled performer; (c) is flexible in that teachers, 1998). However, over time, many teachers began to use
coaches, and/or researchers can select the components it for live assessment of game performance, thereby
of performance to assess; and (d) assesses selected prompting a rethink on scoring systems due to the
components and performance criteria based on what has time limitations imposed by assessing under live
been taught. conditions (i.e., not from video recording). Examples
Presentations will include: (a) examples of how the of different GPAI scoring systems are provided,
GPAI has been implemented as a coaching language for specifically a tally scoring system and a rubric-based
faster performance assessments and players’ adjustment scoring system. To conclude this introduction to the
in practices and matches; (b) the use of technology in GPAI, the instrument is explained as an authentic form
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collecting GPAI data and subsequent data analysis and of game performance assessment because: (a) The
reflection; (c) the use of GPAI components to foster a GPAI provides a more complete definition of game
deeper analysis of game performance in the Game performance than traditional assessments in games; (b)
Performance Evaluation Tool (García-López, González, the range of GPAI categories enables teachers to give
Gutiérrez, & Serra, 2014), which is focused on the credit for all facets of performance, which is to the
assessment of tactical awareness (the ability to identify benefit of the lower-skilled performer; (c) the GPAI is
problems that arise while a game is in progress and to flexible in that teachers, coaches, and/or researchers
select the skills necessary to solve these problems; can select the components of performance to assess;
Mitchell, Griffin, & Oslin, 1994); and (d) the use of GPAI and (d) teachers can assess the selected components
components to develop game performance rubrics, and performance criteria based on what has been
which are based on facets of the GPAI. Their aim is taught.
twofold: to offer teachers a basis for teaching content in
physical education and sport and for providing feedback Enhancing Performance Using the GPAI as a Coaching
to learners and to offer teachers a means of formally and Language in Practice and Matches Administration
formatively assessing students’ progress in becoming
more skillful players throughout the learning process.
A final presentation will include (e) a focus on 3 A. De Souza
Louisiana Tech University, United States
summary areas of GPAI utility: (1) assessment
(adriano@latech.edu)
perspective, (2) strategies for using the GPAI process,
and (3) the benefits of the GPAI process in relation to The Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI)
student learning. approach was developed to assess individual game
performance and serve as feedback to the performer
Introduction to the GPAI after performance had already happened. This approach
has kept the performer out of the immediate assessment
S. Mitchell and creative process. The GPAI has been demonstrated to
Kent State University, United States be able to encompass the game and the performer as a
(smitchel@kent.edu) whole and creates opportunities for the performer to
learn about efficiency after the games have ended.
This presentation will introduce the Game Performance In competitive sports settings, the most efficient players
Assessment Instrument (GPAI) and describe the and the most efficient teams have shown to be the ones
transition of its use from a research tool to a live who can adjust to game needs and create offensive and
observation instrument. First, differences between the defensive solutions during play and not after play, before
GPAI and traditional forms of game performance the coaches have to ask for time-outs and not after. These
assessment are explained. Second, components of the actions keep the game unpredictable, when the players
GPAI are defined in terms of their observable create. This presentation will share how the GPAI has
characteristics. Third, the transition of the GPAI from been implemented as a coaching language for faster
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S41

performance assessments by the players and players’ assistance of their professor and created the tool on their
adjustment in practices and matches. The GPAI language iPads. Teacher candidates were required to collect
has helped players to become more aware of the baseline GPAI data on the 1st day of instruction, to share
effectiveness of their on-and-off-the-ball, tactical, and the data with students on subsequent days, and to collect
strategic choices in the game, and it has provided them final GPAI data. With the use of an iPad and a teaching
with opportunities to become more creative and partner, teacher candidates are able to collect GPAI data
independent, while developing their game intelligence and calculate selected indexes with ease throughout the
and performance efficacy. The game components of the unit. The process of collecting, analyzing, and sharing
GPAI are used in coaching language in practice to bring data with students allowed teacher candidates to better
awareness to the players of what can create game efficacy. focus on student learning as they engaged in modified
Players are encouraged to look into specific game game play.
components depending on what type of goals are being
trained in practices and what strategies and tactics are Development of GPAI Components Through GPET
being followed or created in matches. The content of the Game Context Adaptation
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GPAI coaching language is guided by “frequency

questions and goal statements” regarding frequency and
efficiency of on-and-off-the-ball skill execution and D. Gutierrez and L. M. Garcia-Lopez
University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
tactical goals.
(david.gutierrez@uclm.es)

Reflecting on Student Learning: Using the iPad to Decision-making can be assessed at 2 levels. The 1st level
Collect GPAI Data involves “what is done,” and the 2nd level evaluates
“what should be done” in a particular game context or
K. Pagnano Richardson situation (Gutiérrrez, González, García-López, & Mitch-
Bridgewater State University, United States ell, 2011). According to Grehaigne, Godbout, and
(karen.richardson@bridgew.edu) Bouthier (1997), tactical-context adaptation provides
information relative to the tactical process involved in the
Most students look forward to “playing the game” in assessment of performance in team sports, while previous
physical education. It is often the students’ desire to play game performance evaluation tools have only assessed
the game that allows the game to be a site for meaningful the tactical product. With regard to this 2nd level of
learning when games are appropriately modified analysis, development of the Game Performance
(Mitchell, Oslin, & Griffin, 2013). Thus, it is important Assessment Instrument (GPAI; Oslin, Mitchell, &
to document student learning in the context of game Griffin, 1998) components is proposed. This deeper
play. Preservice teachers, however, often struggle to analysis of the GPAI is a contribution of the Game
document and understand the impact of their instruction Performance Evaluation Tool (GPET; García-López,
on student learning. A program in the College of González, Gutiérrez, & Serra, 2014). The GPET is
Education and Allied Studies at Bridgewater State focused on the assessment of tactical awareness and the
University requires students to purchase an IPad. ability to identify problems and make the appropriate
Teacher candidates now have access to app-based decisions to solve these problems (Mitchell, Griffin, &
technologies (e.g., Dartfish Easy Tag and Videotagger) Oslin, 1994, p. 21). In doing so, a situated view to the
and handheld digital recording for collection of Game basic tactical problems with regard to attacking
Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) data. (maintaining possession of the ball, penetrating the
Teacher candidates learn to use the technology in their defense, and achieving the objective) is adopted. Game-
methods classes. Data were collected as part of an upper- centered approaches (GCAs) to games teaching, and
level methods course, which includes classroom-based especially the tactical games model (TGM; Mitchell,
instruction and fieldwork in an urban high school. Oslin, & Griffin, 2003), develop their lessons from an
Participants were 16 teacher candidates, each coteaching overarching tactical problem. For this reason, the
8 to 12 high school students in a 4-day minigames unit evaluation of game performance depending on the
of instruction (water polo, volleyball, or badminton). The tactical problems, as it is proposed in this work, promotes
unit was focused on 1 tactical problem. Teacher the alignment between assessment and learning when
candidates developed the criteria for the GPAI with the applying GCAs (especially TGM).
 S42 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Formally and Formatively Assessing Students Using into how students’ off-the-ball movements enable
Game Performance Rubrics effective game performance. This aspect of the response
will focus on how well the GPAI approaches create the
S. Harvey foundation for more engaged play and skill development.
West Virginia University, United States In relation to teaching strategies, the GPAI offers a way to
(Stephen.Harvey@mail.wvu.edu) enable students, both children and student teachers, to see
how players interact with the demands of the game and
Although there are numerous practitioner-orientated facilitates a form of game literacy in the moment and over
journal articles and books showcasing different modes of time (Mandigo & Holt, 2004). The aspect of this response
assessment in games (i.e., Game Performance Assessment will consider how the GPAI process enables the teaching-
Instrument, team-sport assessment procedure), the use of games-for-understanding approach to be more effectively
these modes by both researchers and practitioners is realized for a range of skill abilities and understandings.
limited (Harvey & Jarrett, 2014). Some of the reasons for In relation to learning, the GPAI process creates the
this limited use may be due to the instruments’ practical possibility for developing strong perception–action coup-
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utility, ability to assess technical and tactical skills both on lings in relation to the rules, opponents, and peers’ actions
and off the ball, and the practitioners’ knowledge and (Hopper, 2011; Tan, Chow, & Davids, 2012) and between
ability to read and interpret results to ensure they are student off-the-ball movements and skill selection/execution
adequately being embedded into the teaching and learning (Mitchell, Griffin, & Olsen, 2006). The key benefit of the
cycle. Consequently, the aim of this presentation is to GPAI is that it captures the prerequisites that lead to the
outline the initial stages in the development and validation dynamics of game play—the emergent moments that create
of a range of game performance rubrics, which have been exciting player interactions. Such patterns of play can often
designed through the amendment and extension of be missed with a focus on game-play outcomes or skill tests.
concepts from the Game Performance Assessment The aspect of this response will focus on how the elements of
Instrument. Brewer and Jones’s (2002) 5-step validation the GPAI assessment processes presented allow students to
process was used as a guiding framework for this see more, do more, and visualize more effectively how they
development process. During the presentation, information can engage in and create more worthwhile game plays.
pertaining to instrument development will be outlined (e.g.,
literature review, amending an existing instrument, content Symposium:
and face validity, and observer reliability). The eventual aim Complexity and the Design of Learning Systems in
of these rubrics is to offer practitioners: (a) a basis for TGfU
teaching content in physical education and sport and
providing feedback to learners, and (b) a means of formally
Chair: A. Ovens
and formatively assessing students’ progress in becoming University of Auckland, New Zealand
more skillful players throughout the learning process. (a.ovens@auckland.ac.nz)

GPAI Applications: Critical Responses and Possibilities In this symposium, we examine the value that working
with complexity has to the teaching and coaching of
T. Hopper games. Each of the 4 presentations provide different
University of Victoria, Canada insights into how teachers, coaches, and researchers are
(thopper@uvic.ca) working with complexity to better understand how young
people learn and perform in physical activity settings.
In responding to the 5 presentations on the Game We begin with an introduction to the concept of
Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) approaches, complexity and outline some of the implications for the
the respondent will focus on 3 areas: (a) assessment design of learning systems. The next 2 presentations
perspective, (b) strategies for using the GPAI process, and discuss the implications that complexity has for embodied
(c) the benefits of the GPAI process in relation to student learning and working with young people in modern,
learning. highly mediated settings. Overall, the symposium aims to
In relation to assessment, consideration will be given to interrupt our traditional understandings of what it means
how the GPAI offers assessments “of/for/as” learning to know, learn, and teach and focuses instead on how new
opportunities (Earl, 2003) to enable authentic insights understandings from theories of complexity can help
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S43

practitioners enhance their teaching, coaching, and approach tends to explain education as a linear process
research practices. capable of being understood at the level of its independent
and constituent parts. Complexity provides ways of
Tactical Disturbances: Exploring the Complexity of understanding that embrace uncertainty, nonlinearity,
Tactical Learning in Basketball and the inevitable “messiness” that is inherent in game
settings. The presentation will argue that for coaches and
teachers, complexity provides a way of viewing the
V. Minjares connectedness inherent in playing games and accommo-
Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
dates the influence of feedback loops and enabling
(a.ovens@auckland.ac.nz)
constraints, the ability of participants to self-organize, and
This presentation explores the learning experiences of the nested nature of related systems. The presentation
members of a secondary school boys’ basketball team in concludes by suggesting that teachers and coaches have to
Auckland, New Zealand. In particular, it takes interest tap into the generative potential of complexity thinking to
in how male adolescent team members experience the design teaching and coaching systems that foster the types
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tactical and strategic aspects of sport learning and of learning and performance outcomes conducive to
decision making amid the intersecting sociomaterial quality learning.
contexts of their everyday lives. Drawing on a relational
ontology and the theoretical framework of complexity, Embodied Learning: A Simplified Pedagogical
this study recognizes the embodied, extended, Complexity
embedded, and enacted nature of cognition in sport.
Participant ethnographic data have been collected across S. Visawanath
a range of training, competition, school, and team University of Auckland, New Zealand
settings, including not only the focal team of interest (a.ovens@auckland.ac.nz)
but outside participation settings as well. This nested
case study traces over time the tactical challenges faced This research uses a complexity thinking framework to
within and across sport settings, embodied sense examine teachers’ beliefs in embodied learning and the
making in play, contextualized approaches to tactical implications for modern pedagogies.
learning and development, and how features of the By problematizing the ethnographic accounts by New
school-sport ecosystem constrain and afford such Zealand-based teachers with philosophical and scientific
processes. The findings help explain sport-based theories, the presentation will elaborate on the following 3
learning, curriculum, and decision making as complex claims: (a) Teachers exhibit an innate sense of
processes that unfold over time from interactions of the embodiment and desire to provide opportunities for
sociomaterial context. Studying tactical learning experi- students to learn through their “bodies”; (b) teachers have
ences has relevance for human development through insufficient knowledge of the mechanics and philosophies
sport, particularly the intersection of cognition, learning, behind embodied learning to be able to use it effectively in
team sports, and the academic mission of educational their pedagogies; and (c) embodied learning must play an
institutions. essential role in modern education.

Making Sense of Complexity and Its Implications for The Complexity Turn in Sport and Physical Education:
Teaching and Coaching Reflecting on an Emerging Field

R. Pucheggar A. Ovens
University of Auckland, New Zealand University of Auckland, New Zealand
(a.ovens@auckland.ac.nz) (a.ovens@auckland.ac.nz)

This presentation provides an overview of the concept of In this presentation, I bring together some of the threads
complexity and its implications for how teachers and implicit in the previous presentations and consider how
coaches might design activities for student learning. In the these enact a particular way of theorizing educational
past 2 decades, increased attention has been paid to the phenomena. In acknowledging that there has been an
complexity of educational phenomena. The orthodox increased interest in the idea of “complexity theory,” the
 S44 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

main suggestion underpinning this presentation is that one game cues, both opponent and game structure, and
does not have to “talk complexity theory” to research and the importance of creating games where any player
discuss complex matters in teaching and coaching. Rather, can win.
attention is brought to understanding how complexity can
inform the design of learning systems that enable young Application of Social Coordinated Mimicry:
people to play games with skill and pleasure. Net/Wall Example

Symposium: T. Hopper1 and J. Rhoades2

Learners as Complex Systems: Basic Moves, 1
University of Victoria, Canada; 2University of North
Modification-by-Adaptation, and Social Coordinated Dakota, United States
Mimicry (thopper@uvic.ca)

Chair: T. Hopper Demonstrating a practical exploration of learning to

University of Victoria, Canada play net/wall games, this part of the symposium will
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(thopper@uvic.ca) show how a simple throw catch game can be used to

create the conditions for learning to emerge through
The purpose of this symposium is to explain the social coordinated mimicry (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999;
connection in our work in curriculum development, Richardson, Marsh, Isenhower, Goodman, & Schmidt,
motor learning, and sport pedagogy to a common interest 2007). Social coordinated mimicry implies that there is
in complexity theory. The session will focus on early-years a higher degree of coordination for conditions in
physical education; however, insights will inform the which pairs are visually coupled. We suggest that
application of teaching games for understanding at all where 2 players’ physical interactions are coupled with
levels of school and community sport programs. United the intent of a modified game, it is more likely that a
by a common interest in the emergent nature of learning social coordinated mimicry to more stable efficient
within simple, focused, modified games, we will focus on movement patterns increases. It is our premise that in
embodied learning. In this way, cognition is not a game play, novice players can unconsciously draw on
representation of an independently existing world, but more stable efficient movement patterns from compe-
rather, it is a “bringing forth” of a world through tent opponents when both players are adapting to
processes of learner engagement, adaptation, and self- constraints that allow similar potentials for success
organization around a common attractor/intent. Key for (Hopper, 2012).
creating common attractor states for learners is the idea of Framed by complexity thinking, this practical will
modification by “adaptation” where the outcome of a demonstrate how a diverse pairing of players (1
game encounter is to increase the challenge to a successful competent, the other novice) will be combined in a
player. The symposium will offer 3 phases: (a) outline of series of task constraints that are cooperative, creative,
an early-years physical education curriculum approach adaptive, and technical in relation to a modified-by-
called “Basic Moves,” which centers on a recursive process adaptation game. The key idea in the tasks will be
of learning through adaptive, creative, and technical tasks creating common attractor states for players in relation
to set the broad context for teaching physical education; to efficient off-the-ball movements to select and
(b) explanation of the role of social coordinated mimicry execute sending skills. The modification-by-“adap-
in student learning with a focus on how groups of dyads tation” game will be designed so that the outcome of
and triads can be designed to maximize the mimicry of a game encounter results in an increase in the
stable skill patterns between players with different challenge to a successful player. This process then
abilities; (c) practical exploration, using a simple net/ initiates the next game encounter between the 2
wall modified by an adaptation game, to demonstrate how players in a recursive process of playing, adapting, and
the combination of different types of tasks, with groups then playing again (Hopper, 2011). Through obser-
constructed with a diverse range of playing abilities, can vation, we will explore how this engagement results in
lead to stable skill patterns emerging from social social coordinated mimicry as the more competent
coordinated mimicry. player is forced to play at the optimum level of their
The session will discuss the role of teacher questioning ability to cope with the less competent player’s game
in this process to enable students’ ability to read structure advantage.
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S45

Social Coordinated Mimicry: Theoretical Applications of design of an early childhood physical education frame-
Current Research work. In the presentation, we discuss how key complexity
principles have helped with the creation of conditions to
J. Rhoades1 and T. Hopper2 design flexible learning tasks that support the coexistence
1
University of North Dakota, United States; 2University of outcomes highlighting both predictability and unpre-
of Victoria, Canada dictability and also similarity and diversity. Accordingly,
(Jesse.rhoades@email.und.edu) we present an early childhood physical education
framework composed of 2 interrelated components:
Studies have repeatedly demonstrated that socially con- core learning and applications. Employing examples from
nected dyads will tend to mimic psychomotor behaviors. Early Moves (Jess & MacIntyre, 2009) and Basic Moves
Essentially, paired participants who have visual contact will (Jess, Dewar, & Fraser, 2004), we consider how core
mimic each other’s movements (Nagasaka, Chao, Natoya, & learning concentrates on learning experiences that
Fujii, 2013). Additionally, it has been found that social accommodate the complex interaction of children’s
rapport and competence have influence on this socially holistic learning to integrate the efficient, adaptable, and
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based mimicry (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999). These findings creative attributes needed for successful participation in
support certain notions of complexity theory—specifically, early-years games and other physical activity applications.
ideas of constraints-based adaptations. For instance, Concurrently, we also consider how the early childhood
examining students as complex adaptive systems (Hris- framework posits the need for a pedagogical approach
tovski, Davids, Araujo, & Passos, 2011), whose behaviors that supports this complex learning process by actively
adapt to task, learner, or environmental constraints acknowledging children’s different starting points, the
(Williams & Hodges, 2005), it becomes apparent that recursive elaboration process involved, and the many
every student within the learning environment represents a potential connections within, across, and beyond the
component of the environmental constraint. Thus, there physical education setting. The presentation concludes by
hypothetically should be an observable influence between highlighting how this complex vision of early childhood
dyadically and triadically paired students, regardless of the physical education should not be viewed as a set of
pairing motivation. Specifically, each time a student learns a “building blocks” or “fundamentals,” but as a move
new behavior, it changes the learning environment for every toward the design and delivery of learning experiences
other student and thus should create adaptive pressure for that seek to scaffold the nonlinear nature of children’s
each of the other students. This adaptive pressure could be a core learning. In addition, leading to the next
reason for the identification of socially coordinated mimicry presentation, we acknowledge the interactive nature of
between dyadically paired individuals. children’s learning by highlighting how teachers can
Applications of these findings for physical education or create adaptive constraints in which diversity is used as an
coaching might provide unique instructional strategies. asset to benefit social coordinated mimicry as a feature of
Specifically, understanding the directionality of mimicry— children’s learning.
that is, who mimics and who is mimicked—may provide
instructional designers with a method by which to engage Symposium:
students who have traditionally been nonengaged. Further, A Critical Evaluation of Limits and Prospects of the
classroom pairing or practice strategies to take advantage of Simple Heuristic Approach, Ball-School Approach,
socially coordinated mimicry could allow for a greater Ecological Dynamics Approach, and TGfU Explaining
degree of individual skill development. Decision Making in Sports

Complexity Thinking and Early Childhood Physical Chairs: M. Raab and L. Musculus
Education German Sport University, Germany
(raab@dshs-koeln.de)
M. Jess and N. Carse
University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom Recently, teaching games for understanding (TGfU)
(mike.jess@ed.ac.uk) proponents asked 10 questions, and we will focus
specifically on the 4th: How can complexity thinking be
This presentation discusses how complexity thinking and utilized to shape day-to-day physical education and
ecological perspective have been used to inform the coaching practices?
 S46 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

We compare in this session current approaches of explicit practice for the development of declarative
teaching decision making and invited experts on the knowledge, (b) implicit practice for the development of
simple heuristic approach (Musculus), the ball-school procedural knowledge, (c) sequential practice (implicit
approach (Lopes), the ecological dynamics approach first and then explicit), and (d) a control group that
(Araujo), and TGfU approaches (Harvey) for a critical participated only in the measurements. All intervention
evaluation of the limits and prospects of each approach. groups trained for a period of 5 consecutive days, which
First, focusing on elite youth soccer players, the amounted to a total duration of 25 hr. A pretest and a
development of decision making testing the take-the- posttest in the form of a 3 £ 3 game measured, through
first heuristic will be presented, and conclusions for an the Game Performance Assessment Instrument, the
age-related decision-making training will be drawn accuracy of the decision making and skill execution.
(Musculus et al.). Second, based on a ball-school The results show a significant effect of groups on the
approach, the effect of explicit, implicit, and sequential decision-making test, F(3, 66) ¼ 4.72, p ¼ .005, h2 ¼ .18,
practice on decision making and skill execution in young and skill execution test, F(3, 66) ¼ 5.17, p ¼ .003,
basketball novices will be examined (Lopes et al.). Third, a h2 ¼ .19. A post-hoc analysis shows that the sequential
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training program for soccer to promote collective tactical group ( p , .05) and the explicit group ( p , .05) were
behavior will be presented from an ecological dynamics more accurate than the control group on the decision-
approach (Araújo & Silva). Finally, current research on making test. In the skill execution test, the sequential
decision making in sport will be critically discussed from a group ( p , .01) and the implicit group ( p , .05)
TGfU perspective, and ideas on how the “interpersonal” outperformed the control group. It seems that explicit
aspects of decision making can be fostered using several instruction is necessary to improve accuracy of decision
pedagogical strategies, skills, and knowledge will be making, while to enhance the skill acquisition is more
provided (Harvey et al.). In conclusion, we will discuss for important for the accumulation of procedural knowledge
which situation or person involved a particular learning in the early stages of learning.
mechanism should be beneficial and how it can be trained
(Raab and Musculus as discussants). Training of Team Decisional Behavior in Football From
an Ecological Dynamics Approach
The Effect of Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processes in
the Development of Game Performance in Basketball D. Araújo1 and P. Silva2,3
1
University of Lisbon, Portugal; 2FC Zenit, Russia;
3
M. C. Lopes,1 K. Roth,2 and P. J. Greco3 University of Porto, Portugal
1
Federal University of Vicosa, Brazil; 2University of (daraujo@fmh.ulisboa.pt)
Heidelberg, Germany; 3Federal University of Minas
Gerais, Brazil Ecological dynamics has developed a 3-stage model of
(lopesm@gmail.com) learning to explain to practitioners how to deal with
different perceptual-motor learning rates. These stages
The number of models of teaching sports games has been are nested together—not sequentially where 1 comes
growing recently. The models can lie more toward the before the other, but as concurrent processes of
explicit dimension of learning (e.g., teaching games for exploration and reinforcement (Renshaw et al., 2015).
understanding) and would refer to the top-down process The stages include: (a) search, exploring system degrees of
or lie more toward the implicit learning pole (e.g., ball freedom to achieve a task goal; (b) discover, exploring task
school) while emphasizing the bottom-up process. solutions and strengthening them; and (c) exploit,
However, it is not clear how these learning processes exploiting perceptual-motor degrees of freedom. In this
should be applied on the road to learning games. This talk, we extend this model to address team behavior (Silva
field-based study investigated the effect of explicit, et al., 2016). An ecological dynamics approach advocates
implicit, and sequential learning (implicit – explicit) that intrateam synchronization for decisional behavior to
processes in the development of game performance of solve match problems is governed by locally created
basketball beginners when technical and tactical training information, which specifies shared affordances respon-
are combined. The participants were 70 novices in sible for synergy formation. To verify this claim, we
basketball, aged 9 to 12 years old. The experimental evaluated coordination tendencies in 2 newly formed
groups followed 3 different methods of training: (a) teams of recreational players during association football
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S47

practice games, weekly, for 15 weeks (13 matches). The aims of this presentation are to: (a) examine and
We investigated practice effects on 2 central features of critique the current research on decision making in
synergies—dimensional compression and reciprocal sport and offer an alternative theoretical perspective;
compensation—here captured through near in-phase and (b) suggest ways that physical education teachers
modes of coordination and time delays between coupled and youth sports practitioners can develop the
players during forward and backward movements on the “interpersonal” aspects of decision making through
field while attacking and defending. The results verified using an array of pedagogical strategies, skills, and
that synergies were formed and dissolved rapidly as a knowledge.
result of the dynamic creation of informational proper- This pedagogical understanding forms a basis from
ties, perceived as shared affordances among performers. which practitioners can help performers grasp a more
Practicing once a week led to improvements in the nuanced and holistic understanding of the “interperso-
readjustment delays between copositioning team mem- nal” nature of tactics with respect to “time to action.”
bers and enabled faster regulation of coordinated team The presentation will conclude by overviewing how
actions. “field-based” phenomenological research methodologies
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may be utilized to study the “interpersonal” aspects of

decision making.
A Holistic Approach to Decision Making in Games
and Sport
Monitoring the Development of Elite Youth Soccer
1 2
S. Harvey, A. Mouchet, and R. Light 3 Players’ Decision Making: Implications for Age-Related
1
West Virginia University, United States; 2University Decision-Making Training From a Simple Heuristic
Paris-Est Créteil, France; 3University of Canterbury, New Approach
Zealand
(stephen.harvey@mail.wvu.edu) L. Musculus, B. Lobinger, and M. Raab
German Sport University Cologne, Germany
Traditionally, research into decision making in sport has (l.musculus@dshs-koeln.de)
predominantly been conducted from a cognitivist
perspective centered on elucidating the differences In sport, quick decision making is of high importance.
between “experts” and “novices” using experimental For adults, strategies like the take-the-first heuristic
designs in laboratory settings. Light (2008) recently (TTF) differentiate between expertise levels. So far,
critiqued such an approach to the study of decision research has rarely focused on how youth athletes
making as it reflects a “dualism” between mind and body develop or are trained regarding their decision-making
and a mechanical view of learning that reduces learning a skills. This longitudinal study (t1 – t4, 6-month intervals),
skill to a number of individual small parts. This view of therefore, examines how decision making develops to
learning fails to take into account the creative, dynamic, draw implications for age-related, cognitively oriented
and unpredictable manner in which the mind works and decision-making training. Using a temporal occlusion
the unpredictable and chaotic nature of team sports. paradigm in a within-subjects design, 97 players aged 6
In this way, cognitivist, deterministic approaches are to 13 years old (“under 8” [U8] – “under 14” [U14]
unable to adequately account for the participants’ “lived teams) generated options with and without time pressure
experiences” of decision making from within an by marking them on a touchpad and make a decision for
ecologically valid game context. What is more, develop- their personal best option. Results of t1 indicate that
ments in this research have been hampered by the fact players generate fewer options with time pressure in
that many researchers see decision making as tacit and comparison with the number of options without time
innate and not amenable to teaching and/or coaching. pressure, F(1, 95) ¼ 8.513, p ¼ .004, partial eta2 ¼ .08.
Consequently, research needs to move beyond simply The 1st option is selected to be the best, according to
examining the “intrapersonal” (within the body) aspects TTF, more frequently in the time pressure condition,
of decision making to the “interpersonal” (outside of the x2(1) ¼ 11.60, p ¼ .001. Furthermore, youth players’
body) aspects of decision making, which are also crucial dynamic inconsistencies, meaning the mismatch between
to learning and developing a holistic, embodied under- the 1st intuitive and final choice, are apparent in 22% of
standing of team games within physical education and the decisions made with and 29% of the decisions made
youth sport. without time pressure. Regarding age-related changes,
 S48 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

decision-making process variables show, by trend, a address the relationship of small-sided games with full-
curvilinear relation to the different-aged U8 to U14 sized matches and will present how players’ dynamical
teams. Compared with adults, age-related differences interaction affects different performance indicators.
became apparent regarding dynamic inconsistency rates,
which indicate that decision-making processes are
indeed influenced by developmental changes. Small-Sided Games: An Optimal Training Tool to
To identify sensitive phases for cognitively oriented Represent Tactical Match Demands in Elite-Standard
decision-making training, age-related changes of the Youth Soccer Players?
decision-making process will be discussed while taking
additional study results (t2, February 2016) into account. S. B. H. Olthof,1 and W. G. P. Frencken,1,2,3 and
From a simple heuristics approach, implications for an K. A. P. M. Lemmink1
1
age-related decision-making training for players, coa- University of Groningen, The Netherlands; 2Hanze
ches, and clubs will be discussed accordingly. University of Applied Sciences Groningen, The
Netherlands; 3Football Club Groningen, The
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Netherlands
Symposium: (s.b.h.olthof@umcg.nl)
Dynamic Match Analysis
Small-sided games are an often-used training tool in
Chair: H. Folgado soccer practices. They have proven to provide a
University of Evora, Portugal simultaneous physical, technical, and tactical training
(hfolgado@uevora.pt) stimulus for soccer players. Small-sided games replicate
the tactical character of a match, but in a simplified
Recent technological development has enabled research- format with reductions in number of players and pitch
ers to gather data from different performance scenarios size. Like full-sized matches, players have to interact with
while considering players positioning and action events team members and opponents to succeed in their task:
within a specific time frame. This technology varies from score a goal or try to keep the opponent from scoring.
global positioning systems to radio frequency devices and However, whether teams show similar tactical behavior in
computer vision tracking, to name the most common, and small-sided games as in full-sized matches is largely
aims to collect players’ time motion data and enable the unknown.
dynamical analysis of performance. Team sports—and in Previous research has shown that the pitch size is a
particular, invasion games—present a complex dynamic major influence on the tactical performance of players
by nature based on the interaction between 2 opposing during small-sided games. These findings demonstrate
sides trying to outperform 1 another. During match and the importance of the effect of field dimensions on
training situations, players’ actions are coupled to their players’ behavior on the pitch. It is also suggested that the
performance context at different interaction levels. dimensions of the full-sized match should be adopted in
As expected, ball, teammates’, and opponents’ positioning small-sided games. That is, the individual area of a player
play an important role in this interaction process. But in a full-sized match (i.e., 320 m2) should also be applied
other factors, such as final score, teams’ development in small-sided games.
level, and players’ expertise, seem to affect the match To identify the effect of these pitch dimensions on the
dynamics. tactical representativeness, a series of small-sided games
In this symposium, we will focus on how different was played with a different number of players and with
constraints affect invasion games dynamics during both an individual playing area of 320 m2. Tactical team
match and training situations. This relation will be variables were calculated from positional data collected
established while underpinning the importance of these (local position measurement system) of an elite-standard
effects to game teaching and performance optimization. youth soccer team during 5-v-5, 7-v-7, 9-v-9, and 11-v-
Regarding the match, different performance indicators 11 games in training sessions and 2 full-sized matches.
based on spatial-temporal relations between players and Results of the tactical team performance and interaction
teams will be presented to reveal the interaction patterns provide tools for the soccer coach to design
processes that form the crucial component of game small-sided games in training sessions to match the
analysis. Considering the training, this symposium will specific aspects of tactical behavior of full-sized matches.
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S49

Real-Time Quantification of Dangerousity in Soccer constrain successful emergent actions of the defensive
Using Spatiotemporal Tracking Data team. We compared sequences of play in which a pass
performed “in between defensive lines” was or was not
D. Link, S. Lang, and P. Seidenschwarz intercepted. The analysis implied the measurement of
Technical University of Munich, Germany interpersonal distances between players and teams.
(daniel.link@tum.de) Ninety-one sequences of play from 3 matches of a
professional Premier League team (2010– 2011 season)
This study describes an approach to quantify attacking were classified as intercepted (IP; N ¼ 26) and
and defending performance in soccer. Our method nonintercepted (NIP; N ¼ 65) passes. Two-dimensional
calculates a quantitative representation for the probability player trajectories (ProZone3w, Prozone Holding Ltd,
of scoring a goal for each moment a player has individual Leeds, United Kingdom) with a frequency of 10 Hz
ball possession—we call this quantity “dangerousity.” The were considered for analysis. At the team level, IP
algorithm takes the positional information of players and revealed higher values than NIP on distances between
the ball and uses the 4 dangerousity components of zone, geometrical centers of teams and the width ratio
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control, pressure, and density. The indicator of between teams. Higher values of width in attacking
performance quantifies the count and quality of teams were observed for IP compared with NIP.
dangerous situations of a team in a given time span, In contrast, lower values of width for the defending
whereas dominance represents the performance differ- team were registered for IP with to NIP. At the local
ence of 2 teams. level, the analysis of the distances between defending
Our evaluations are based on matches (N ¼ 64) of the and attacking players revealed lower distances between
German Bundesliga during the 2014 –2015 the season. the ball carrier, ball receiver, and immediate defenders
The statistical correlation between the winning prob- for IP than compared with NIP. In contrast, select
ability (calculated from betting odds) and the perform- variables were observed to be higher for IP compared
ance indicators of goal difference (r ¼ .55), shot with NIP. These findings highlight the importance of
difference (r ¼ .58), passing accuracy difference using positional data to support coaches’ knowledge
(r ¼ .56), duels won (r ¼ .24), and ball possession and intervention. Through the identification of tactical
(r ¼ .71) shows that dominance (r ¼ .82) has a greater profiles of play of certain groups of players or the team
potential to explain team performance compared with in general, it will be possible to determine with better
standard indicators. We use these metrics to analyze precision the vulnerabilities or the potential of the
single game actions, describe the effect of interventions or team in different game moments. Foremost, these data
main events in matches, and characterize the efficiency of also revealed clear implications for training design once
teams in the course of a season. coaches can improve the players’ attunement to the
most relevant information sources in this specific game
Spatial-Temporal Patterns of Play Constrain the scenario.
Success of Defensive Actions in Association Football
Changes in Offensive Tactical Performance Among
1,2 3
B. Travassos, R. Monteiro, P. Marques, and 4 Under-13 Basketball Players During 4 Months of
R. Duarte5 Training
1
University Beira Interior, Portugal; 2Research Centre in
Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human T. J. Leonardi,1,2,3 A. L. A. Soares,1 D. V. C. Brasil,1
Development, Portugal; 3Rio Ave Football Club, M. C. Boscariol,1 C. E. Goncalves,4 H. M. Carvalho,1
Portugal; 4Football Performance, City Football Services, and R. R. Paes1
United Kingdom; 5University of Lisbon, Portugal 1
University of Campinas, Brazil; 2Adventist Faculty of
(bfrt@ubi.pt) Hortolândia, Brazil; 3Faculty of Jaguariúna, Brazil;
4
University of Coimbra, Portugal
In team sports, tactical behavior emerges according to (thiago_leonardi@yahoo.com.br)
the interdependent spatial-temporal relations of players
and teams. In this study, we investigate the spatial- Game performance development is the focus of the
temporal relations between players and teams that teaching – learning process in team sports where tactical
 S50 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

decisions are key factors for success. In the present establishing, and engaging in collaborative practices
study, we examined changes of on-the-ball tactical within a sustained, supportive environment.
performance in under-13 basketball players during a 4-
month training period. A total of 15 players (female, Game Curriculum Based on Legitimate Peripheral
N ¼ 7; male, N ¼ 8) aged 12.6 ^ 0.7 years participated Participation
in the study. Chronological age, stature, and body mass
were considered. A standardized 3-v-3 condition (half-
court, 10 min duration) was observed from August 2015 N. Suzuki
Tokyo Gakugei University, Japan
to December 2015. The team-sport assessment pro-
(nmy-252612_treebell@nifty.com)
cedure (TSAP) proposed by Gréhaigne, Godbout, and
Bouthier (1997) was used to assess players’ on-the-ball Most teachers implement a modified game based on an
tactical performance. The rate of somatic growth during official competitive sport when using teaching games for
the 4-month period of training was 1.51 cm (90 % CI understanding. Games are shaped in various ways,
[0.98, 2.05]) and 1.44 kg (90 % CI [0.41, 2.47]) for including modification of the number of players, the
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stature and body mass, respectively. The magnitude of court size, the rules, and the type of equipment used.
body size changes was moderate at best. The TSAP These modifications are used to mirror and facilitate
offensive performance index had an increase of 39.4% tactical problems evident in sport. Many teachers struggle
(90% CI [17.6, 65.3) on average, and the effect size was to use modification for shaping games to be effective in
large (d ¼ 0.97, 90% CI [0.47, 1.47]). However, a transforming student tactical awareness for game play.
somewhat large within-players variability was observed This approach can be considered to be a top-down
(29%; 90% CI [21.4, 46.0]). No differences were approach, which focuses on the sport style. This
observed by gender. The increase in the TSAP index presentation will offer 1 strategy that has been conceived
showed that the test was sensible for the on-the-ball for learning to teach games that does not focus on
tactical performance assessment of female and male knowledge of the official sport, but rather tactical
under-13 basketball players, and it proved to be a useful awareness by experiencing game play. The presenter
tool for teachers and coaches. suggests that the art of learning to teach tactical awareness
is in the community of practice of preservice teachers
(PTs) during participation. The presenter will share how
Symposium: learning can be situated and decomposed into stages and
Sustained Collaborative Adventures in TGfU: initiation rituals. Players participate in the game fully
Communities of Practice using a step-by-step curriculum map based on common
tactics of the type of games, the competitive task, and goal.
Chairs: H. Bohler1 and D. Sheehy2 A new game curriculum based on legitimate peripheral
1
Westfield State University, United States; 2Bridgewater participation at one Japanese university will be shared.
State University, United States Also, the presenter will introduce the professional
(hbohler@westfield.ma.edu) development that incorporated this same framework
with in-service teachers to develop their professions with
In this symposium, presenters will explore and share how PTs.
particular communities of practice (CoP) are organizing
to develop a shared knowledge and support system for Teaching Life Skills Through TGfU Game Play:
learning and promoting teaching games for under- International Collaboration of CoPs
standing. CoP refers to “any collectivity or group who
together contribute to shared or public practices in a J. Sheppard
particular sphere of life” (Kirk & Macdonald, 1998, University of the Fraser Valley, Canada
p. 380). (joanna.sheppard@ufv.ca)
Wenger (2007) underlined 3 CoP elements: (a)
Members share a domain of interest; (b) members The Champions for Health Promoting Schools Program
actively pursue that interest; and (c) through sustained is dedicated to improving the life chances of children and
interaction, members develop a shared practice. This their families in Antigua, West Indies. Through health
session will be valuable for those interested in promoting, and physical education initiatives, the Champions
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S51

program expands opportunities for students to play professor on student progress and use of TGfU, and
leadership roles at school and in the community in which establishing interrater reliability with Game Performance
they live; relate academic learning to care for self, others, Assessment Instrument assessments on lower-level PTs’
and environments that support growth; and build bridges performances. Peer mentors can be used as a tool to
between community leaders, educators, health projects, facilitate access to lower-level PTs’ needs and concerns,
and school projects. With the sustainable support from drawing them both closer to legitimate peripheral
the Physical Education and Health and Family Life participation. By involving peer mentors, a reciprocal
Departments within the Antiguan Ministry and commu- value among professors, peer mentors, and PTs can be
nity partners, the Champions program has successfully created and acts to support PT development toward the
implemented the teaching-games-for -understanding domain, the community, and the practice.
model as a strong vehicle to support the learning of
both tactical and physical game play as well as the Reflecting Back and Looking Forward: A TGfU Graduate
impactful teaching of life skills. Life skills learned by the Cohort
students and defined by the United Nations include:
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communication and interpersonal skills, decision-making

and critical-thinking skills, and coping and self-manage- K. Pagnano Richardson
Bridgewater State University, United States
ment skills (UN Children’s Emergency Fund, 2012).
(karen.richardson@bridgew.edu)
By the end of this portion of the session, the 3 elements of
communities of practice will be highlighted with practical The purpose of this session is to share the conceptual-
and research-infused knowledge, experiences, and ization and implementation of a teaching games for
dynamic discussion about this international understanding (TGfU) graduate cohort at 1 university.
collaboration. The presenter will discuss features of this program, reflect
on how this cohort served as a vehicle for a community of
Peer Mentoring: On the Move to Legitimate Peripheral practice among educators in the state, and provide
Participation insights for possible future directions. In the summer of
2014, Bridgewater State University admitted its 1st cohort
D. Sheehy1 and H. Bohler2 of students into the Master’s of Science in Physical
1
Bridgewater State University, United States; 2Westfield Education, TGfU concentration. The program was
State University, United States designed to have a powerful face-to face component to
(deborah.sheehy@bridgew.edu) develop a community of practice and allowed graduate
students to develop a deep understanding of the
The purpose of this presentation is to describe how peer theoretical, philosophical, and practical dimensions of a
mentoring has been used at 2 universities to support constructivist approach to teaching and learning in
preservice teacher (PT) development, not only in teaching physical education. Through engagement with the current
games for understanding (TGfU) pedagogy, but in the literature in education, reflection on their own practice,
profession. In the peer mentoring process, upper-level and engagement in the research process, students
PTs are invited to “coteach” with the professor in a explored the impact of applying student-centered
sophomore-level premethods game course. In the games approaches on teaching and learning in K– 12 physical
courses, TGfU is the model learned about and practiced. education. The 2014– 2016 cohort began with 5 physical
Upper-level PTs are invited to be peer mentors based on education teachers who had completed an initial licensure
their interest to learn and develop their knowledge in program in physical education, and current enrollment
TGfU. Often, these upper-level PTs need/want a semester for the 2016 – 2018 cohort is projected to be 8 students.
of further experience and teaching practice prior to their Some of the lessons learned include the impact of peer-to-
final practicum to develop confidence and deepen peer support, the benefits and challenges of integrating
pedagogical content knowledge. At each university, peer noncohort students in classes with the cohort, the
mentors take on some of the following roles and challenge of recruiting and retaining students, and the
responsibilities with the professor: planning, teaching 1 financial strains of completing a program in 2 years. For
to 2 model lessons, offering feedback on peer teachers, the 2016 –2018 cohort, the next steps include changing
supporting lower-level students by answering questions the admission criteria and process, rethinking the
related to planning and teaching, reflecting with the curriculum to better support research proposal design,
 S52 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

and a continued focus on the Summer Institute, which when scoring points, throwing at targets identical to those
features a TGfU conference to engage students in a in the AT. The lessons culminated in a sport education-
broader community of practice. styled final tournament.
In 6 lessons, no student sought feedback on the
overarm throwing technique, suggesting the TGfU
Symposium: context achieved an implicit-learning dual-task environ-
Implicit Motor Learning: Applying Research Evidence ment. Issues of team games versus equal technique
to Real-World Contexts engagement opportunities remain unresolved.
The posttest did not reveal any significant differences
Chair: D. G. Slade between the treatment and control groups. The treatment
Massey University, New Zealand group also undertook a postprogram questionnaire that
(d.g.slade@massey.ac.nz) indicated very high levels of enjoyment and satisfaction
with the teaching experience.
Applying Implicit Teaching Methods Using a Teaching-
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Games-for-Understanding Model of Learning for Errorless Learning: An Implicit Approach Applied to

Improving Performance in the Overarm Throw in a Fundamental Movement Skills
Physical Education Context
C. M. Capio,1 J. M. Poolton,2 K. F. Eguia,3 and
D. G. Slade and D. J. Cochrane R. S. W. Masters4
1
Massey University, New Zealand University of Waikato, New Zealand; 2The University of
(d.g.slade@massey.ac.nz) Hong Kong, China; 3Leeds Beckett University, United
Kingdom; 4Therabilities Inc., Philippines
Finding a practical application of the theoretical construct (catherine.capio@gmail.com)
of implicit learning in school physical education lessons is
challenging. According to van der Kamp, Duivenvoorden, Errorless learning is one paradigm of implicit motor
Kok, and van Hilvoorde1 (2015), the model of teaching learning and has been suggested to be suitable for the
games for understanding (TGfU) may provide an promotion of fundamental movement skills (FMS)
appropriate dual-task implicit learning environment proficiency in children of varying abilities. By reducing
when teachers undertake motor skill instruction for the number of practice errors early in learning, stable
large groups. movement performance is achieved in the face of
The authors explored van der Kamp et al.’s (2015) concurrent tasks that may be competing for cognitive
hypothesis by applying implicit teaching methods using resources. Errorless learning has been used to train the
the TGfU model for improving performance in the FMS of overhand throwing within the context of physical
overarm throw. One hundred students (48 boys and 52 education (PE), leading to improved performance that
girls) enrolled in Years 7 and 8 at a lower North Island was stable in the presence of secondary cognitive tasks
school in New Zealand volunteered for the study. Four (Capio et al., 2013a). The fact that skills were unaffected
classes were randomly assigned to a treatment group or a by secondary cognitive tasks not only supports the
control group that consisted of 50 students per group (24 implicit nature of the approach, but also justifies the
boys and 26 girls). The mean ages of both groups were application in children with cognitive limitations (i.e.,
nearly identical (11.5 ^ 0.6 years for treatment and intellectual disability).
11.5 ^ 0.5 years for control). Through a quantitative The errorless learning approach generated similar
quasiexperimental, field-based design, every student stable improvements in movement performance among
performed pretesting and posttesting of the distance children with intellectual disability (Capio et al.,
throw, accuracy throw (AT), and choice reaction-time 2013b). In this current study, errorless learning was
throw. further applied by targeting other object control skills
The control group continued with its assigned physical (strike, dribble, throw, catch, kick) among children
education program, while the treatment group partici- with intellectual disability (N ¼ 20; Mage ¼ 8.7 ^ 0.8
pated in 6 TGfU lessons that in structure and equipment years). Those allocated to training attended 8 weekly
facilitated the employment of an overarm throw over group practice sessions; the control group had an 8-
variable distances, involving choice decision making and week waiting period. Components of the Test of Gross
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S53

Motor Development-2 were used to evaluate movement In this respect, we draw attention to the necessity of
proficiency at pretest and posttest. empirically verifying this proposal and provide guide-
Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance lines for doing so.
on pretest – posttest skill scores showed significant
interactions, F(13, 6) ¼ 13.43, p , .001. There were The Effect of Rule Modification on Strokes in Tennis
no group differences at pretest, whereas the training Matches: Induction of Offensive Play by Using the
group displayed higher scores than the control group at One-Trap Rule
posttest. This study supports the viability of errorless
learning in FMS training of children during PE.
H. Yamamoto and K. Kudo
It contributes to the growing evidence suggesting that
The University of Tokyo, Japan
errorless learning will likely promote skills acquisition (hyamamoto.mcml@gmail.com)
with relatively less dependence on cognitive resources.
Consequently, it promotes the availability of cognitive This study investigated the effects of manipulating the
resources when dealing with changing constraints in number of contacts in tennis matches to understand
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children’s play environments. Other implicit paradigms the effects of rule modification to induce offensive
may be explored in future research. play. Sixteen male tennis players with more than 3
years of tennis experience participated in this study.
Implicit Motor Skill Learning in Groups and How Each paired participant played tennis singles matches
Teaching Games for Understanding May Contribute in normal- and modified-rule conditions. We used the
one-trap rule that permits players to contact the ball
J. Duivenvoorden,1 W. Walinga,2 and J. van der Kamp3 twice per stroke. Players firstly play the ball in their
1
Windesheim University of Applied Sciences, The own courtside and subsequently hit the balls after the
Netherlands; 2Vrije University Amsterdam, The bounce. Performance during the matches was
Netherlands; 3University of Hong Kong, China evaluated in regards to winner (the shot that the
(j.duivenvoorden@windesheim.nl) opponent could not touch) rates and player/ball
positions. Previous research has shown that hitting in
We discuss the differences between explicit and implicit the front position has offensive advantages. Because
motor skill learning. With implicit learning, there is no we assumed that players can adjust hitting positions
conscious control of movement execution, resulting in a by one trap, hitting position distribution was
strongly reduced accrual of declarative knowledge. This calculated using a 2-dimensional direct linear
implies—we argue—that a teacher or coach intending to transformation method, which is a digitization
induce implicit learning needs to actively intervene to method from recorded images. In addition, the
prevent learners from building declarative knowledge. shortest distance from the flying direction of the
Most of these interventions (e.g., dual tasking, errorless ball to the position of the opponent when hitting
and analogy learning) have been validated in laboratory (Dshortest) was calculated, because time allowance
contexts with only the interaction between experimenter made by the one-trap condition can make players hit
and a single participant learner; yet, in physical a ball far away from the opponent. Results showed
education and sports, motor skill learning is often that the winner rate in the one-trap condition was
taught in groups. The group dynamics raise important significantly higher than that in the normal condition,
theoretical and empirical issues regarding the validity t(22) ¼ 4.00, p , .05. Averaged hitting position was
and applicability of implicit motor skill learning in approximately 12 m behind the net in the anterior-
physical education and sports that research has barely posterior direction in the normal condition and
addressed. approximately 4 m behind in the one-trap condition.
We suggest ways to adapt laboratory-validated In a rally, Dshortest in the one-trap condition was
implicit learning interventions. In particular, we propose significantly longer than that in the normal condition,
teaching games for understanding (TGfU) as a potential t(22) ¼ 2.81, p , .05. These results suggest that the
method for inducing implicit motor skill learning in rule modification can induce offensive play by
groups; TGfU interventions may serve to attract providing players with more preparation time for a
attention away from motor skill performance, not unlike stroke and by moving the hitting position forward in
the dual-tasking intervention in laboratory paradigms. the court. In future research, we will examine
 S54 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

learning effects of one-trap rule practice and significance of temporal pressure as a critical component
investigate merits and demerits of the rule modifi- of representativeness in practice.
cation in detail. (4) Finally, studies highlighting the critical role of
tactical creativity for top performance in team sports are
reviewed. The presentation discusses the accuracy of
Symposium:
different creativity tests. It then develops the “tactical
Developing Young Talent Toward Elite Performers
creativity approach” and works out implications for the
designing of practice and play in talent development.
Chairs: A. Güllich,1 K. Davids,2 D. Farrow,3,4 and
D. Memmert5
1
University of Kaiserslautern, Germany; 2Sheffield The Macro-Structure of Developmental Participation
Hallam University, United Kingdom; 3Victoria Histories of World-Class Players
University, Australia; 4Australian Institute of Sport,
Australia; 5German Sport University, Cologne, Germany A. Güllich
(guellich@sowi.uni-kl.de) University of Kaiserslautern, Germany
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(guellich@sowi.uni-kl.de)
This workshop addresses the development of young
talents toward outstanding senior athletes. Performance Performance progresses—in part—as a response to the
progresses—in part—as a response to the sport and sport activities in which players engage. Macro-structural
physical activities in which developing athletes engage. pathway models discussed in the literature (e.g., deliberate
We envisage sport activities through childhood and practice, early specialization, or early diversification
adolescence that facilitate the long-term development of frameworks) differ primarily in: (a) the intensity and
accomplished competitive performance. Four short exclusivity of early sport-specific practice/training and (b)
presentations review extant research with regard to variable experiences in various sports and nonorganized
different, but related, aspects of how coaches should play. The presentation reviews retrospective studies
design and shape practice and play. comparing juvenile participation histories of senior
(1) Senior world-class athletes’ developmental partici- world-class versus national-class players and a 2-year
pation histories differ from those of the national level in prospective quasiexperiment comparing youth elite
greater volumes of variable sport activities, in different soccer players exhibiting higher versus lower match-play
sports and peer-led nonorganized play, and in later performance progress.
specialization. Observations suggest that the interaction Senior world-class players consistently reported
of specific practice with earlier variable, nonspecific comparable or even less organized sport-specific youth
experiences benefits the potential for long-term develop- practice/training compared with national-class players
ment of excellence. but more practice/training in different sports and later
(2) An ecological dynamics perspective is discussed for specialization (in soccer, also more nonorganized play;
integrating the macro- and micro-structure of skill Rees et al., 2016). In longitudinal analysis, greater
acquisition and talent development. Players and teams performance progress correlated with more nonorganized
are conceptualized as complex adaptive systems where soccer play and organized practice/training in other
coordination tendencies emerge from the interaction sports, but not more organized sport-specific practice/
between varying task and environmental constraints and training. Variable nonspecific experiences elicited lagged
players’ intentions, perceptions, and actions. The effects in interaction with specific practice/training.
implications for the designing of practice and learning Participation in different game sports was overrepre-
environments promoting adaptive and situationally sented (compared with other types of sports) in all
functional skills challenge many conventions of tra- studies, but the practiced types of sports did not
ditional practice. differentiate success.
(3) Representative task designs in practice seek to The presentation reflects these macro-structural find-
reflect the behavioral demands experienced in compe- ings from outstanding players’ participation histories
tition. Systematic assessment of practice and performance against different approaches hypothesized in the literature
reveals prevalent decontextualization of traditional to explain the mechanisms of specialized practice/training
practice methods from performance demands in or of variable experiences (e.g., specificity of practice,
competition. Research demonstrates the particular deliberate practice, “monotonic benefit assumption,”
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S55

specific transfer of common elements between related performance environment to promote adaptations of an
sports, augmentation of the potential for subsequent long- athlete to specific competitive environments. The more
term skill perfection, facilitation of intrinsic motivation specific the information designed into practice tasks, the
and prolonged engagement, sustainability through cost- greater the specificity of transfer. Less specific informa-
reducing and risk-buffering individual investment pat- tional constraints could also lead to learning, but
terns, and functional matching through multiple through more general transfer processes. These distinc-
sampling). It is concluded that future longitudinal studies tions in the micro-structure of practice, between specific
may combine macro- and micro-structural perspectives and general transfer, have implications for time and
while considering interactive and delayed effects of effort needed for athlete talent development.
combined activities and recording their perceptual-
motor, motivational, and psychosocial attributes more Closing the Gap Between Practice and Performance to
sophisticatedly. Maximize Talent Development

From the Micro-Structure of Practice to the D. Farrow1,2

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1
Macro-Structure of Talent Development: Victoria University, Australia; 2Australian Institute of
Pedagogues as Designers Sport, Australia
(damian.farrow@vu.edu.au)
K. Davids
Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom The concepts of representativeness (Brunswik, 1956) or
(c.a.harris@shu.ac.uk) specificity (Henry, 1968) in the fields of psychology and
skill acquisition are clearly not new. When translated
To optimize time and effort involved in training and into the sports setting, these concepts have been
practice to reach elite levels of performance, pedagogues contextualized as the extent to which the practice
need a theoretical model of “the learner” and the learning prescribed reflects the behavioral demands typically
process to guide planning and organization of work with experienced in competition (Davids, Araújo, Vilar,
athletes. Ecological dynamics is a theoretical framework Renshaw, & Pinder, 2013). Whichever theoretical
for understanding the design of learning environments in perspective is adopted, it is argued that the closer the
sport, inviting a reconsideration of traditional pedagogical fit between the practice demands and performance, the
practice in sport, and conceptualizing athletes and sports more effective the skill learning. This argument has
teams as complex adaptive systems (Araújo & Davids, become a well-established mantra of talent development
2011a). used by scientists and coaches alike. However, systematic
Key ideas from ecological psychology and dynamical observation of coaching practice often reveals a poor
systems theory propose that coordination tendencies, application of what is theorized, with practice often
within and between individual athletes, emerge as a highly decontextualized from the performance demands
function of interacting constraints on their intertwined (Barris, Farrow, & Davids, 2013; Ford, Yates, & Williams,
intentions, perceptions, and actions. Emergent coordi- 2010; Partington & Cushion, 2013). While there is a
nation tendencies in individuals and teams are myriad of potential reasons for this situation, the focus of
continuously regulated by information for perceiving this presentation will center on how the systematic
and acting on affordances or possibilities for action assessment of practice and performance can improve this
(Gibson, 1979). Affordances are utilized in organism – situation by providing coaches with a clear picture of the
environment relations (after Gibson, 1979; see also van disconnect and providing them with the necessary
Dijk, Withagen, & Bongers, 2015), which in sport information to close the gap. Data will be presented from
environments form the basis of skill acquisition (Araújo a range of high-performance sports settings including
& Davids, 2011b) and can be continually developed and Australian football, tennis, and aquatic sports to illustrate
enhanced by attending to the micro-structure of practice the utility of such an approach. These data suggest that
(Davids, 2015). the constraint of temporal pressure is particularly
This presentation outlines examples from research on influential in the overall representativeness of practice
perception and action in sport to illustrate the and provides coaches with a useful starting point to
importance of designing representative practice task develop more effective talent development environments
constraints that simulate (aspects of) the competitive for their athletes.
 S56 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Fostering Young Talents: The Case of Tactical Creativity Learning and education are still widely regarded as a
pedagogic relationship between the teacher and the
D. Memmert learner with the teacher owning the learning process and
German Sport University Cologne, Germany deciding what the learner should learn (Hase & Kenyon,
(memmert@dshs-koeln.de) 2001). This belief is nowhere more prevalent than in
coach education. Paralyzed by financial gains and quality
The statements of the German national coach and World assurance concerns, coach education programs are still
Cup winner of 2014 Jogi Löw substantiated the particular largely certified, steplike processes, that do not reflect
importance of tactical creativity in soccer: “Creativity and contextualized learning. Stodter and Cushion (2016)
playful class should be the new German virtues.” First, suggested that 1 major flaw in current formal coach
empirical evidence from the World Cup in 2010 and 2014 education courses is that the learning experienced does
demonstrated that as actions took place closer to the goal, not truly reflect the coach’s learning journey when
they were evaluated as more creative. The objective of this acquiring new knowledge. Moreover, Cushion and
talk is to give an overview of the literature on tactical Nelson (2013) argued the learning that takes place on
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creativity in team sports. After defining and exposing the these courses does not reflect the dynamic and cultural
relevance of tactical creativity in team sports, the demands placed on the coach when they return to their
advantages and disadvantages of different tests (video natural setting.
tests, game test situations) that measure tactical creativity Butler (2005) and Light (2008) have identified that an
will be compared to each other. The main focus of the talk “epistemological” gap exists between game-centered
lies in sport activities, coaching, and training environ- approach (GCA) theory and practice (2005). Almond
ments to foster tactical creativity in youth sports. Here, (2010) has proposed that teaching games for under-
I will introduce the tactical creativity approach (TCA; standing (TGfU) has been accepted more openly
Memmert, 2015) for team sports, which is based on within academia than it has with teachers and coaches.
extensive research and can be seen as the basis for the Cultural, political, contextual, individual, and operational
development of tactical creativity. The TCA distinguishes themes have been identified in the literature as to possible
between a micro-level (process) and a macro-level reasons for this occurrence. Memmert et al. (2015)
(content). The former points toward the mechanism suggested that academia has a responsibility to not only
and psychological processes in the respective training share their findings through the traditional avenues, but
situation (micro-rules) that lead to the generation of to also provide coaches with current knowledge and
creative ideas, and the latter points toward the organizable understanding of GCAs to develop their pedagogical
environmental training conditions that can be steered by practice.
teachers and coaches (macro-rules). The TCA focuses on In this symposium, we will discuss a connection made
7 methodological principles that foster tactical creativity through the TGfU website, a research collaboration
in team sports. All of these principles (1-dimension between a university (St. Mary’s, London, England) and a
games, diversification, deliberate practice, deliberate play, professional sports club (Leinster Rugby Football Club)
deliberate coaching, deliberate memory, and deliberate that resulted in an 18-month-long GCA coach education
motivation) are discussed on the basis of an empirical study. The symposium will consider how the study aimed
background. This talk is enclosed by potential directions to address the current conceptual, cultural, and
for future research with a link to other research topics. operational challenges with adopting and implementing
a GCA approach.

Symposium:
Measuring the Impact of an 18-Month GCA Coach
An 18-Month Case Study of a Game-Centered
Education and Development Program Within 1
Approach Coach Education and Development
Professional Rugby Club
Program Within a Professional Rugby Club

M. Ayres,1 S. Page,1 D. Maybury,2 and G. Murphy2

Chair: L. Almond 1
St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom; 2Leinster Rugby
St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom Club, Ireland
(almonds@me.com) (michael.ayres@stmarys.ac.uk)
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S57

Harvey and Jarrett (2014) suggested that physical teachers or preservice teachers (Hopper, 2009; O’Leary,
education teachers’ training around a game-centered 2014) and have been limited in their duration. At present,
approach (GCA) is largely limited in time and resources. we are unable to locate any studies that have examined
Furthermore, studies that have examined the implemen- coaches undertaking a similar shift in pedagogical
tation of a pedagogical change from a GCA perspective practice using such a methodology. The coach concerned
have also had limited time during the intervention or had limited coaching experience, although he had played
professional development process (6– 8 weeks). To the for a rugby club. A range of data collection methods were
authors’ knowledge, this study is the first of its kind to adopted for this autoethnographic study. Session plans,
examine the impact of an 18-month coach education and diary entries, postsession reflections, and semistructured
development program within a GCA context, that focuses interviews were collected throughout the duration of the
on both the pedagogical and philosophical transition of study. Concurrent verbalization was also encouraged
both a professional sports club and its coaches. This throughout the recording of their GCA coaching sessions.
presentation identifies the impact the study has had from Initial results of this study have highlighted the
an organization and coach perspective. As the study was pedagogical, cultural, political, and emotional struggle
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embedded within a grounded theoretical approach, a the coach went through while implementing a GCA
constant comparative method was used, which meant that pedagogical approach. The coach also identified the
coding occurred throughout the study. Analysis of the approaches used to positively overcome these struggles.
data collected has initially highlighted 3 main findings of
the case study. These findings suggest that the 18-month A Case Study Examining an 18-Month-Long Game-
coach education and development program had redefined Centered Approach Coach Education and Development
the coaches “understanding” of games, reshaped their Program—The Professional Rugby Club’s Perspective
personal and the organization’s coaching philosophy, and
reconceptualized coach learning and development within
the organization. The presentation will present the future D. Maybury,1 G. Murphy,1 M. Ayres,2 and S. Page2
1
Leinster Rugby Club, Ireland; 2St. Mary’s University,
developments of this GCA coach education and
United Kingdom
development program for the coming year while (suzanne.boyle@leinsterrugby.ie)
identifying the methodological issues that such a study
presents. Finally, the authors propose that a rethink is Research has identified that professional development
required around the development and education of opportunities are most successful when integrated into
coaches and organizations within the context of GCAs. the workplace (Armour, 2010). Stodter and Cushion
This rethink should include the deconstruction of (2016) highlighted the fact that a coach’s learning in a
learning hierarchies to enable professional sports clubs rigid coach education program is often misaligned with
to become “learning organizations” (Senge, 1993) to the realities of coaching within their own organization.
successfully embrace a GCA as part of their organiz- Taking this misalignment 1 step further, it can be argued
ational and coaching culture and identity. that not only do current coach education program
outcomes conflict with the complex realities of coaching,
An Autoethnographic Study of 1 Coach’s Experience of but they may also contradict and misalign with the
Engaging With an 18-Month Game-Centered Approach organizational culture where the coaches work. To be able
Coach Education and Development Program to constructively align (Biggs, 2003) the philosophical and
pedagogical stance of a professional sports organization
D. Maybury,1 G. Murphy,1 M. Ayres,2 and S. Page2 with their coaches and coach education program
1
Leinster Rugby Club, Ireland; 2St. Mary’s University, represents a substantial and significant challenge. With
United Kingdom this in mind, implementing pedagogical change at an
(Suzanne.Boyle@leinsterrugby.ie) organization level has received little or no attention from
the academic world within the field of game-centered
Current research on coach education that focuses on approaches. This study analyzed the process that a
implementing pedagogical change, specifically related to a professional rugby club went through when engaged with
game-centered approach (GCA), has so far been limited the 18-month coach education and development program
within the field. The studies that have examined this from an organization and coach development perspective.
process have largely focused on physical education The methodology was based on a grounded theoretical
 S58 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

approach. The participants in the study consisted of 1 observations, and recall techniques were also implemented
coach development manager, 1 rugby manager, and 5 during coaching practice. The findings suggest the positive
coach development officers. Data collection methods impact a bespoke GCA coach education program can have
included semistructured interviews, field notes, obser- on both the philosophical beliefs and pedagogical practice
vations, and memoing. The findings highlighted the of coaches engaging in the program. The presentation will
cultural, political, social, and pedagogical challenges, at also explore the researcher’s itinerary from project design
both a macro-level and micro-level, that exist when a to implementation and will present the concept of “expert
professional rugby club attempts to shift its pedagogical novice” coach educator and researcher.
practice across philosophical and pedagogical boundaries.
Furthermore, the study identified the organizational
values, behaviors, and practices that enabled the Symposium:
organization and coaches to embrace and fully adopt BIG Data in Sport Games
the change in pedagogical philosophy and practice.
Chair: D. Link
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Technical University of Munich, Germany

A Case Study Examining an 18-Month-Long (daniel.link@tum.de)
Game-Centered Approach Coach Education and
Development Program—The Researcher’s Perspective The technological innovations of recent years—in particu-
lar, advances in the field of position tracking—lead to
M. Ayres,1 S. Page,1 D. Maybury,2 and G. Murphy2 enormous amounts of data. This presents new challenges
1
St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom; 2Leinster Rugby including questions such as (a) how coaches and athletes can
Club, Ireland best exploit the possibilities to analyze game tactics and
(michael.ayres@stmarys.ac.uk) manage training processes, (b) how media companies can
use this information to offer better and more innovative
Research has consistently highlighted the challenges, match coverage products, and (c) how new scientific
limitations, and benefits when attempting to implement a insights into the nature of sporting phenomena in general
change in pedagogical practice to a more game-centered and the factors that influence performance can be gained.
approach (GCA; Roberts, 2011). This study aimed to fill The key for this answering these questions lies in using
the knowledge and applied practice gaps that exist within intelligent algorithms to derive complex performance
GCA research (Jarrett & Harvey, 2013; Memmert et al., indicators from the raw data that add real value when it
2015). The methodology was based on a grounded comes to game analysis. There has been increased activity in
theoretical approach. Purposive sampling was used to this area in recent years driven by companies and the
ensure a group of experimented coaches were included in scientific community. Competing information providers are
the study. The participants in the study were 5 coach incorporating advanced methods of analysis into their
development officers (CDOs) and 12 community coaches software tools, and an increasing number of publications in
(CCs). Four CDOs and 8 CCs completed the study. Their the academic sphere have reported success in detecting
coaching roles within the organization varied from coach tactical structures in raw data. This symposium presents the
developers to grassroots coaches, and their coaching current state of research, reflects on achievements and
experience ranged from 1 year to 15 years. The bespoke limitations of existing technologies, and looks at the
GCA coach education program was developed from a innovations that are shaping the future.
needs analysis of the coaches within the organizations.
This program consisted of thematic workshops, seminars,
virtual learning activities, practical sessions, observations, DFL Innovation Program Powering Match Analysis With
peer coaching and co-coaching, and the establishment of a Smart Data
community of practice within a GCA context. In addition,
a process of comentoring was established between the H. Weber
CDOs and CCs. Data collection methods included the German Professional Soccer League (DFL), Germany
completion of session plans before, during, and after the (hlif@hotmail.de)
study. Recordings of coaching sessions before, during,
and after the study were captured using Go-Pro (V4) Access to match data has dramatically improved within
body cameras. Semistructured interviews, field notes, the last few years. Event data (e.g., corners and shots on
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S59

goal) exist in almost all sports, and in football down to the temporal mean of the classification labels. This rating was
amateur level. In addition, all major leagues in football expressed in 4 different scores per scene (total scene, start,
collect positional data (“tracking data”), which can be end, and midpart of the scene).
seen in different media outputs, such as TV graphics, Classification results for a 10-fold cross-validation
data-driven second-screen apps, or live sports centers. showed precision and recall rates of 86% for a 3-class
Increasing effort has been made in international elite problem using all features. The 3 class labels were low,
football to give meaning to these data for match and medium, and high compactness. Rates of 96% were achieved
performance analysis. Due to the complex technical and if only 2 labels (low and high) were used (including all
information technology-related challenges as well as the features) and dropped to a recognition rate of 84% if only 2
continual change and evolution of technical-tactical features were used. A validation using an unknown game
aspects, this task remains a challenge. This talk will showed an agreement of 59% between computed and rater-
provide some insights about match analysis in the generated labels. The agreement increased to 97%, if only
Bundesliga and the role of the German Football League the confusion between low and high compactness was
(DFL). One major objective is to foster technology and considered.
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bring innovation to the game. Therefore, a DFL Evaluations show satisfying classification results,
innovation program was put in place in 2015 to bridge especially for the 2-class problem. Rating 3 parts per scene
the needs of practitioners and expertise from universities proved to be useful for finding crucial scenes. The developed
and research institutes. In the 1st round of the DFL’s assessment for compactness seems to also be suitable for
innovation program, 3 scientific projects were funded. large-scale analyses.
The rationale behind that program and a short overview
about the projects will be presented. The key objective of A Real-Time System for Availability Detection
the DFL program was to develop innovative key
performance indicators for football by using and refining
positional data—to obtain relevant and interesting “next O. Bartels and D. Link
Technical University of Munich, Germany
generation” statistics.
(daniel.link@tum.de)

Defensive Compactness as a Performance Indicator for Availability is treated as 1 of the factors of success in
Game Annotation football. In this lecture, an automated method is derived
to evaluate the availability of players. First, a motion
N. Witt model of the players is theoretically justified on
Fraunhofer Institute, Germany biomechanics. This model provides the time in which a
(daniel.link@tum.de) player can reach any point on the football field from his
starting position and present speed. Based on this
Manually extracting important scenes from a whole game information, a model for the probability of success of
can be a challenging task for soccer analysts. Therefore, ground and high passes is built. The model for the
we developed a team performance indicator for defensive probability of success of ground passes had been validated
compactness in soccer to allow for automatic scene against the opinion of an expert team.
annotation using video-tracking data. In the next step, practical performance analysis is
Defensive scenes were annotated if they were longer performed on a large sample of games from the 2014–
than 10 s. Two seconds of changes in ball possession were 2015 season from the First German Bundesliga. The
ignored. For rating the compactness, a Random Forrest model is used to determine the availability and support of
classifier was trained on 17 different features computed individual players in specific playing positions over
from tracking data. The training was based on 96 scenes multiple games.
(from 5 games) annotated by different expert raters. The As a future outlook, the model is used to evaluate
feature computation and classification were done every possible sequences of passes with different passing
0.5 s. The feature set contained simple features like options at each stage using algorithms from graph theory,
maximum distances between players, as well as more while delivering several tactical performance indexes.
elaborated features developed together with domain Finally, the practical impact of this approach to game
experts (e.g., coaches). A final team performance indicator analysis and scouting of a professional football team using
for every scene in percent was computed using the modern software tools for big data will be discussed.
 S60 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

An Approach to Tactical Performance Optimization in a Following this training period, the team played a test
Big Data World game advised to use the trained target patterns as often
as possible, while defenders were instructed to apply the
H. Folgado 6:0 defense system. Subsequently, the position data of the
Research Centre in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences offensive action sequences were tested with the SOM to
and Human Development, Portugal analyze the assignment to the target patterns.
(hfolgado@uevora.pt) From 43 successfully played offensive action sequences
in the test game, the SOM assigned 25 sequences (58%)
The amount of data collected from an individual player to the target patterns. The remaining 18 sequences (42%)
during a football match has increased significantly in were associated with other patterns. The mean distance
recent years, following technological evolution in between the positions of the target patterns and the
positional tracking. However, given the short time that related pathways was less than 0.50 m, indicating a good
separates competitions, the common analysis of these accordance.
data focuses on the magnitude of actions of each player, The application of an SOM appears to be an adequate
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while considering either technical or physical perform- method to recognize trained tactical patterns during
ance. This focus leads to a considerable amount of competition. Offensive patterns classified during com-
information not being taken into account in performance petition resembled the target patterns with high
optimization, particularly while considering a sequence of accuracy. Combined with automated tracking, the
different matches of the same team. In this presentation, method could provide valuable feedback for coaches
we will present a tactical performance indicator that regarding the accuracy of the implementation of tactical
considers players’ overall positioning and their level of trainings.
coordination during the match. This performance
indicator will be applied in different time scales, with a
particular focus on possible practical applications. Symposium:
Learning to Teach TGfU: Pedagogical Ventures With
Preservice Teachers
The Use of Self-Organizing Maps to Assess Tactical
Training Effectiveness in Team Handball
Chairs: H. Bohler1 and D. Sheehy2
1
Westfield State University, United States; 2Bridgewater
A. Hassan,1 N. Schrapf,2 W. Ramadan,1 and M. Tilp2 State University, United States
1
Mansoura University, Egypt; 2Karl-Franzens-University (hbohler@westfield.ma.edu)
Graz, Austria
(amrahh1994@gmail.com) In this symposium, presenters will explore preservice
teachers’ (PTs) learning of constructivist teaching and
In sports game analysis, researchers primarily focused on teaching games for understanding. Presenters will share
players’ behavior during competitions. However, there is some of their individual work with PTs at their own
a lack of research regarding the assessment of transfer of institutions, how learning is situated, and general
tactical measures from training into competition. outcomes of work with PTs. Sharing in this session will
Therefore, this study aimed to assess the outcome of a include PT work products and ideas for engaging PTs’
tactical training intervention by a self-organizing map understanding of pedagogical approaches to teaching
(SOM). games.
Offensive action sequences were determined from 12
official handball youth national team games in 2012.
Each of the annotated action sequences contain position Incorporating the TGfU Framework Into PETE
data from the last 5 passes prior to the shot and the shot
itself (Schrapf & Tilp, 2013). Commercial software N. Suzuki
(neurosolutionw) was used to cluster the action Tokyo Gakugei University, Japan
sequences into 27 tactical patterns by means of an (nmy-252612_treebell@nifty.com)
SOM. A male handball team (17 ^ 0.5 years) trained the
most commonly occurring patterns for 6 weeks, 6 times The purpose of this presentation is to share a physical
a week for 60 min to 75 min against a 6:0 defense system. education teacher education 6-stage model for learning
 THEMATIC SYMPOSIA S61

to teach within a teaching games for understanding was obtained. PTs were not required to participate in
(TGfU) framework. This presentation focuses on the study and were graded solely on course objectives.
preservice teachers’ experiences with, knowledge of, Constant comparison of the data revealed that PTs
and learning to teach using a TGfU model and a appreciated opportunities to practice teaching alone
constructivist framework. The 6-stage engagement cycle and with a partner. Multiple teaching episodes,
is similar to the TGfU learning process itself and participation in peers’ lessons, and observing others
includes: (a) appreciation for teaching a concept, then enhanced their understanding and application of TGfU.
transferring the knowledge to a discussion of the tasks; Reflecting after teaching helped them to recognize
(b) experiencing a professor-taught model to gain opportunities for improving, maintaining, and enhan-
strategic awareness and to consider what TGfU is and cing positive teaching behaviors. Novel content and
why TGfU is used; (c) engaging in a discussion seminar complex tactical problems often elicited more desirable
to reflect on understandings, share diverse ideas, and teaching behaviors. Few PTs demonstrated fragile and
uncover the benefits of implementing TGfU; (d) fluctuating understandings of TGfU when they
development of a lesson plan within a group, based on mirrored direct instruction pedagogies used in the
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current understanding of the model; (e) implementation corequisite courses, thereby disabling the integrity of
of the lesson plans through peer teaching; and finally (f) the model.
a video assessment where preservice teachers watch and
reflect on their own teaching and promote their Concept-Mapping the Way to TGfU Pedagogy
understanding to teach the game using TGfU.
D. Sheehy
Changing the ‘Course’ of Games Teaching Bridgewater State University, United States
(deborah.sheehy@bridgew.edu)
H. Bohler
Westfield State University, United States The purpose of this presentation is to share how a
(hbohler@westfield.ma.edu) concept map assignment is used in 1 university games
course to assess how preservice teachers (PTs) are
This presentation will offer a description of 2 courses growing to understand teaching games for under-
that were developed and integrated into the curriculum standing as a pedagogical approach. Concept maps are
at 1 university to support preservice teachers’ (PTs) a unique and graphic means of sharing how a topic is
learning of teaching games for understanding (TGfU). understood. They can be used to organize and represent
Additionally, PTs’ learning and perceptions of their knowledge of a subject, as well as depict relationships
experiences will be shared. Theory and practice of field- among and between concepts. In this presentation,
run-score and invasion games and theory and practice directions for the assignment will be shared, along with
of net/wall and target games were designed as 3-credit, samples of PTs’ concept-mapping products. Based on the
semester-long premethods courses. In each course, PTs concept maps shown, the presenter will engage attendees
use lessons, content, and pedagogy from the Mitchell, in a discussion of the PTs’ knowledge structures in
Griffin, and Oslin (2013) text, as well as the Rovegno relationship to course content. Using concept mapping
and Bandhauer text (2013). PTs engage in an in-depth affords PTs creativity and allows students to express the
study of game content, tactics, constructivist pedagogy, depth of their learning in relation to their prior
as well as questioning, feedback, and assessment knowledge and experiences. This metacognitive process
techniques. Each PT also peer-teaches multiple 30- allows students to dig deeper and explore and question
min lessons. In-class debrief sessions with peers and what they know. In addition, sharing the maps with their
individual debriefs with the professor are an important peers allows them to see multiple representations and
reflective aspect of the course. PTs in the 2nd cohort of interpretations of the content, while broadening their
implementation engaged in focus-group interviews with view of the information that they may not access
a TGfU expert from another university. PTs also otherwise. Concept-mapping tools allow the professor to
completed a brief questionnaire. These data, along with see strengths, weaknesses, and misconceptions in
student work products, were used to examine what knowledge structures. Concept mapping can be a
students learned from the course and the perceptions valuable tool for PT education to assess and support
of their experiences. Institutional review board approval PTs’ learning.
 S62 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Suspended Disbelief and How It Works: Interacting teaching games for understanding (TGfU) lesson.
With Avatars Suspended disbelief was the technique used that
temporarily fooled preservice teachers’ senses into
M. Neutzling believing the virtual environment was reality. Thus, the
Bridgewater State University, United States technique allowed preservice teachers to practice pedago-
(misti.neutzling@bridgew.edu) gical skills and make mistakes in a safe environment that
did not place real students at risk (Kane & Staiger, 2012).
The purpose of this presentation is to describe the virtual- A 2nd purpose of the session is to instigate discussion and
reality video simulation called Mursion and techniques questions about further use of this technology and how it is
used to engage preservice teachers while teaching a used as a means for TGfU with preservice teachers.
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 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Decision Making and Task Constraints Anticipation of Beach Volleyball Attacks: A Comparison
of Natural Versus Animated Virtual-Reality Scenes
Exploring the Quiet Eye Phenomenon in Basketball
Game Situations C. Vater, L. Riedener, and E.-J. Hossner
University of Bern, Switzerland
A. Klostermann,1 D. Panchuk,2 and D. Farrow2,3 (christian.vater@ispw.unibe.ch)
1
University of Bern, Switzerland; 2Australian Institute of
Sport, Australia; 3Victoria University, Australia Defending beach volleyball attacks requires good
(andre.klostermann@ispw.unibe.ch) anticipation skills due to the highly time-constrained
situations (Vansteenkiste et al., 2014). For examining the
The duration of the final fixation before movement underlying mechanisms of these skills, using virtual
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initiation—a phenomenon labeled quiet eye (QE)—has reality is a promising approach because specific variations
been found to explain differences in motor expertise and of players’ movements can be manipulated (e.g., the run-
performance of aiming tasks (Vickers, 2007). However, up of the attacker) to evaluate important cues for
whether the same effect occurs in complex, on-field game anticipating attacks. As a 1st step, animated virtual-reality
situations remains unresolved. Consequently, this study scenes were created from natural beach volleyball
examined intermediately (N ¼ 10) and highly skilled attacking sequences by manually animating players’
(N ¼ 7) basketball players’ QE behavior (onset, offset, movements in Autodesk 3dsMax. Four conditions of
and duration) as a function of performance (6 hits/ attacking scenes were created: animated occluded,
misses) in undefended free-throw and defended small- animated not-occluded, natural occluded, and natural
sided game situations (counterbalanced order). It was not-occluded. In occluded trials, videos were occluded 5
predicted that differences in QE duration (Vickers, 2007) video frames (167 ms) before ball– hand contact of the
and QE offset (de Oliviera, Oudejans, & Beek, 2008) attacker. Participants were instructed to decide as
would occur as a function of expertise and performance, accurately as possible (accuracy in %) in occluded trials
not depending on game situation. The players’ actions and to respond as fast as possible (response time in
were recorded with GoPro video cameras (25 Hz) and milliseconds) in nonoccluded trials. Eighty-two sport
Applied Science Laboratories mobile eye-tracking systems science students were tested in 120 trials with the same 30
(25 Hz) and were analyzed using mixed-factorial analyses mother trials in each condition (counterbalanced order).
of variance. Results revealed earlier QE onsets and longer Videos were back-projected on a large screen, and
QE durations in undefended versus defended situations participants responded using a 3-button response system
(all p , .01). Independent of game situation performance, (WiiMote). After the study, participants evaluated the
differences were found for QE offset, F(1, 15) ¼ 4.83, p , animated scenes with a questionnaire. Response accuracy
.05, hp2 ¼ .24, with later QE offsets for hits than for was analyzed with paired t tests. Performance was lower
misses. Likewise, for QE duration, a main effect for for animated scenes compared with natural scenes
performance, F(1, 15) ¼ 11.99, p , .01, hp2 ¼ .44, but (55.3 % vs. 64.4 %), t(81) ¼ 7.06, p , .01, d ¼ 0.71),
also a significant Performance £ Expertise interaction, F and participants responded later in animated compared
(1, 15) ¼ 5.13, p , .05, hp2 ¼ .26, were revealed. Only with natural scenes ( –170 ms vs. 2237 ms before ball–
the highly skilled players showed longer QE durations in hand contact), t(81) ¼ 7.46, p , .01, d ¼ 0.32. Lower
hits versus misses ( p , .05). Finally, the 2 groups did not accuracies in animated scenes imply that visual cues were
differ in their QE behavior (all p . .39). In summary, the less helpful for anticipation. Questionnaire data revealed
study replicates positive QE effects for defended small- that the dynamics of a shot negatively affected
sided game situations but challenges the suggested anticipation in animated scenes and that rather late cues
mechanism in movement parametrization as the QE were used for decisions, which could explain the later
offset clearly exceeded movement execution. However, responses. Future virtual-reality applications should
these findings might be explained in terms of attentional especially focus on the animation of relevant visual cues
mechanisms. and the dynamics of the attack.

q 2016 SHAPE America

 S64 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Development and Position Data-Related Application of Fitness Level of Young Female Competitive Basketball
a Stochastic Model for Trajectory Simulation of a Players
Nonspinning Volleyball
P. F. Aschendorf, C. Zinner, and J. Mester
B. Meyer German Sport University Cologne, Germany
University of Brunswick, Canada (paulasperlich@gmx.de)
(bernd.meyer@tu-bs.de)
Introduction: Physiological testing of team-sport
Background/Purpose: Modeling the knuckling effect in athletes is a fundamental element for designing training
volleyball aerodynamics is essential for representing and and for tracking each athlete’s and team’s development.
analyzing erratic motion in a competition-related task. To evaluate the athletic status of young elite female
Based on net crossings of constant height (cf. Lithio & basketball players, several anthropometric and physio-
Webb, 2006), this study investigated the influence of logical tests were conducted.
position data on uncertainty quantification in numerical Methods: Seventy young female basketball players
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ball flight trajectories evaluation. (Mage ¼ 14.7 ^ 1.2 years) were tested for height, body
Method: The addition of Langevin forces for drag and weight, body fat, vertical jump, standing long jump (SLJ),
lift to measured mean values taken from Asai et al. (2010) chest pass (CP), and the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery
covers parameter uncertainty modeling in Newton’s 2nd Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IR 1).
law, while taking into consideration only 1 low-frequency Results: The female basketball players were 171 ^ 7.3
component with magnitude as proposed by Wei, Lin, cm tall, weighed 61.8 ^ 8.8 kg with a body fat of
and Liu (1988) and phase angle as a random variable. 16.9 ^ 5.15%. For the different vertical jumps, the highest
To simplify output uncertainty modeling, an analysis of height was measured in the counter movement jump (CMJ)
s_{LP}^{2}, the variance of landing points, based on with arm swing (31.1 ^ 4.86 cm). The mean jump heights
Wiener-Askey polynomial chaos expansion using were 27.14 ^ 3.97 cm for the CMJ, 25.62 ^ 3.89 cm for the
Legendre polynomials, is carried out. Calculated ratios of squat jumps, and 158 ^ 60 cm for the SLJ. The distance for
Sobol’s indexes (17.8 ^ 3.8, Q_{0.05} ¼ 11.5) for a wide the CP was 9.82 ^ 1.01 cm. The mean distance covered
range of initial values of velocity (11.1 –23.6 ms^{ –1}) and during the Yo-Yo IR 1 was 1,465.8 ^ 464.7 m (estimated
elevation angle (108 –218) indicate a dominant effect peak oxygen consumption ¼ 48.60 ^ 4.02 mL/kg/min).
driven by drag-force fluctuations and enable a reduction in Discussion: Compared with results of previously
the number of random variables. Furthermore, using lift published studies, the adolescent players were smaller
coefficient-induced dimension reduction results in neglect and less heavy but showed a similar CMJ jump height.
of the lateral direction of flight (cf. Goff & Carré, 2009) Furthermore, the endurance level was lower than in
corresponding to a moderate relative error in s_{LP}^{2} previously published studies (58.8 ^ 6.85 mL/kg/min).
(3.4 ^ 1.7%). Methods chosen for a subsequent charac- Therefore, basketball-specific training interventions are
terization of fluttering flights include time-averaging 99% needed to improve the fitness level of young female
confidence interval lengths for magnitude of position basketball players specifically.
vector as well as Gauss-Legendre integration for
calculation of s_{LP}^{2}. Additionally, a calibration of Current Trends in Performance Analysis
results based on recalculation assuming a speed-
independent drag coefficient is used. Exploring Scientific Learning Outcomes of a 12-Session
Analysis/Results: Overall, numerical simulations reveal Unit of Rugby Using the Rugby Attack Assessment
a predominant occurrence of effective volleyball knuckle- Instrument (RAAI): A Micro-Level Analysis
balls for the low-value range of initial conditions and a
smooth decrease to higher values. B. Llobet-Martí,1 V. López-Ros,1 and J. Barrera-Gómez2
Conclusions: Optimizing tactics in float-serving play 1
University of Girona, Spain; 2University of Barcelona,
and volleyballs engineering outline potential fields of Spain
application. Moreover, model application without uncer- (bllobet@gmail.com)
tainty quantification may include sensitivity analysis-
based investigation of perceptual trajectory illusion Our aim is to report the learning outcomes of a 12-session
(McBeath, 1990). rugby unit using a micro-level analysis. Results were
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S65

obtained from the Index of Performance (IP) using the Dreckmann et al., 2009). This study aimed to assess the
Rugby Attack Assessment Instrument (RAAI; Llobet- effects of video-based tactics training with 10- to 14-year-
Martí et al., 2016). We applied the integrated technique- old tennis players.
tactical model (López-Ros & Castejón, 2005) to improve Methods: A field experiment with 24 players, divided
tactical (and technical) behaviors in simple offensive into a control and experiment group, was conducted. The
game situations (e.g., 2 v 1, 3 v 2, 3 v 3, 5 v 5). Participants experimental group participated in a 12-week program
were 10 male novice players of a club (aged 17– 19 years, where 2 weekly training sessions were devoted to video-
with 4 months of experience). We report these results and based tactics training. Two types of variables were
describe the changes observed related to the evolution assessed in a pre-experiment and postexperiment test.
of the action frequencies of the IP during the course First, players’ ability in interpreting tactical behavior was
of the learning process with 4 assessment times: initial measured using a specifically developed video-based
assessment, 2 formative assessments, and a final tactics test. Second, players’ tactical behavior in official
assessment. The RAAI assesses a 5-v-5 rugby situation matches was video-analyzed and assessed by experts
for 10 min. The IP is a team score that summarizes (.85 rallies per player per test).
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favorable and unfavorable actions, either simple or Results: The ability to interpret tactical behavior
combined. Results are described as collective measures of improved significantly in the experiment group after the
all members of each team in relation to these actions. 12-week program, while no significant changes were
Although IP results did not reveal significant improve- recorded in the control group (F ¼ 22.133, p , .001,
ment, results at the micro-level showed an increase in the h2 ¼ .502). Comparably, results showed a significant
combined favorable actions frequency (CFAF), like the difference between the groups for the improvement of
actions of (a) drawing a defender and passing the ball to a tactical behavior in matches (e.g., for service; F ¼ 18.165,
teammate in a 2-v-1 situation, and (b) involving a player p , .001, h2 ¼ .452).
who is stopped by a defender but is able to pass the ball to Discussion: The experiment demonstrated that video-
a teammate who can keep advancing (weighted CFAF based tactics training benefits the ability to interpret
of Team A ¼ 68, 38, 39, 87; weighted CFAF of Team tactical behavior and match behavior of 10- to 14-year-
B ¼ 46, 83, 13, 131). By the end of the unit, both teams old tennis players. Therefore, video-based tactics training
broke the defense fewer times and increased handling is a recommended training method for the development
errors with no loss of possession. In conclusion, although of young tennis players.
the small sample size prevented significant results, players
showed an increase in the execution of some tactical Validation and Reliability of a Game Performance
actions linked to the learning objectives. Evaluation Tool for the Offensive Behavior of Players in
Iranian Soccer Schools
Video-Based Tactics Training in Youth Tennis
M. Maleki and F. Allahvisi
A. Raschke, J. Brouwers, and M. Lames University of Kurdistan, Iran
Technical University of Munich, Germany (mo.maleki@uok.ac.ir)
(alex@tennis-raschke.eu)
The interaction between tactical knowledge and con-
Problem: Training sessions of young talented tennis sciousness makes it difficult to measure the knowledge
players frequently focus on technical and physical aspects and understanding of a game. However, Gutierrez et al.
of player development, while tactical training is neglected (2011) designed a game performance evaluation tool
and there is hardly any coupling of match behavior and (GPET) that is an observational system for notational
training. Video is mostly used for technical feedback, but analysis of the tactical decisions of a soccer player. The
recording and analyzing video clips from youth players’ purpose of this study was to validate the GPET in Iranian
matches to improve tactical skills is frequently taken as soccer schools. Forty-eight experienced (at least 3 years of
too demanding in practice. The advent of digital video experience in a national league) and inexperienced soccer
made it possible to introduce game analyses in training school under-11 (10 years, ^0.9), under-14 (13 years,
and preparation of matches (Lames & Hansen, 2001). ^1.02), and under-18 (16 years, ^1.3; all groups include
Several studies addressed methodological issues (e.g., the 8 experienced and 8 inexperienced players) players were
use of qualitative methods for video-based game analysis; asked to play 6 small-sided soccer games 3 v 3 with
 S66 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

a goalkeeper on a 25-m £ 35-m pitch. The games were the CCC for angular degree of the ball being .97, .99, and
recorded with a digital camera at a height of 5 m from the .99, respectively, for 3 kicks. For validity, constant error
pitch and were then coded by the GPET. After consulting (0.44 –1.27) and proportional error (0.97– 0.98) were very
with 6 physical education experts and coaches to rate and low for distance to target. Also, constant error ( – 1.16 to
revise some behavioral descriptions, the Content Validity 22.51) and proportional error (1.00–1.01) were very low
Index tool was found to be 0.99 in offensive behaviors for angular degree of the ball to target. Because of including
of players on and off the ball in all 3 age groups. a confidence interval of “0” for constant error and “1” for
To investigate intraobserver reliability, the videos of the proportional error, it is not seen as a systematic bias.
mentioned games were randomly selected and the In conclusion, the new software (SAMS) represents a valid,
observations of 2 observers were compared at an interval reliable, and time-effective instrument to measure the
of 2 weeks. The results of tactically appropriate behaviors accuracy of shooting to target.
such as ball possession, attacking the opponent’s goal, This study has been supported by the Afyon Kocatepe
and scoring were positively correlated with each other University Scientific Research Projects Commission
(r ¼ .81, .88, .97, respectively). To evaluate interobserver (Project No. 16.KARİYER.02).
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reliability, the coding of 2 trained observers of the videos

was compared. The results showed a high agreement Small-Sided Team Games
between observers in tactical and technical variables
(kappa ¼ .72). The GPET benefits soccer coaches in Comparison of Small-Sided Game Training Versus
evaluating learners’ offensive behavior performance in Regular Basketball Training in Physical and Technical
on- and off-the-ball situations, according to the tactical Skills in Basketball
situation at the present moment.
M. A. El-gammal
Reliability and Validity of New Shooting Accuracy Zagazig University, Egypt
Measurement System (SAMS) Software (malgammal23@yahoo.com)

U. Fidan and M. Yıldız Aim: Challenges in sport sciences and coaching are not
Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey exclusively focused on clarifying the complex structures
(mehmetyildiz@aku.edu.tr) of performance and their associated parameters. The aim
of this study was to compare the effects of 2 training
The aim of this study was to investigate the reliability and methods based on small-sided games (SSG) and regular
validity of new shooting accuracy measurement software basketball training (RBT) on physical and technical skills
(SAMS). Thirty-two male collegian soccer players of male junior basketball players.
performed 3 inner-side kicks to the transparent goal Methods: Twenty-eight players participated in a pretest-
construction. A high-speed camera was placed at the back ing session, 8-week intervention period, and posttesting
of the construction to determine where the ball made session. Presessions and postsessions involved assessments
contact on the construction. Recorded video results were of aerobic fitness, repeated sprint ability (RSA), agility,
assessed by the SAMS and Kinovea software. To investigate upper- and lower-body power, shooting, and passing skills.
test –retest reliability, the new software examined 3 kicking Results: The main results showed that both training
results twice. Also to investigate validity, kicking accuracy methods resulted in similar improvements in aerobic
results obtained by the new software were compared to capacity. However, RSA was unchanged after both training
results provided by the Kinovea software program. methods. In addition, compared with RBT, SSG resulted in
Reliability of the new software was examined using greater improvements in agility, shooting skills, and upper-
concordance correlation coefficient (CCC). The Deming body power.
regression method was used to determine validity of the Conclusion: These results suggest that SSG should be
SAMS. After determining the compatibility in a Bland- prioritized in physical conditioning of junior basketball
Altman plot graphic, the Deming regression method was players during the preseason; however, when RSA is
applied to determine systematic bias (constant and targeted, more specific training seems necessary. The results
proportional error). Test–retest reproducibility of the of this study suggest that if coaches of basketball players
new software was excellent, with the CCC for distance to want to achieve greater physical and technical skills, they
target being .99, .99, and .99, respectively, for 3 kicks and should organize half-court SSG games.
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S67

Does the Use of Futsal Balls Enhance the Quality of Play capacity to execute these decisions. Both require a broad
in School Football? pool of experience at young ages as a foundation for
excellence in adulthood. To acquire this experience, it is
U. Frick and C. Heim important to be exposed to a large variety of competition-
Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany like actions. Horst Wein has constructed an alternative
(c.heim@sport.uni-frankfurt.de) to today’s competition and training system in youth
football called “FUNinio,” which is designed to provide
Despite being one of the most popular sports in the world, a much higher amount of action than the current
football is also one of the most difficult games to teach in competition mode. The aim of this study is to compare
physical education, with reasons—among others—lying the action density of “FUNinio” to that of the current
in the widely different experience of learners and the competition mode under the influence of coaching.
difficulty of running and simultaneously controlling the We tested 16 children (Mage ¼ 9.9 years) on an under-
ball with the foot. In Germany, school football is usually 11 squad with a heterogeneous proficiency level. Data
taught indoors, resulting in the ball bouncing a lot more were collected on 2 different days with an identical
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than it does on a grass field and thus making it even more structure: standardized warm-up (10 min) followed by 4
difficult to control the ball, particularly for beginners. rounds of competition (10 min) with 4 recuperation
However, ball control is essential for any further actions phases (7 min) in between. Two rounds were coached,
such as passing, dribbling, or shooting. Therefore, the and 2 were not. On the 1st day, the children played the
study’s objective was to evaluate the effects of utilizing standard mode of “FUNinio,” and on the 2nd day, they
low-bouncing futsal balls during physical education played 7 v 7. The teams were put together based on the
lessons in comparison with leather and indoor (felt) coaches’ judgments to be equal in performance. Every-
footballs. Technical skills and playing performance of 423 thing was videotaped, and the footage was used to count
5th-grade pupils (197 female; Mage ¼ 10 years, 11.5 different actions (shots, passes, ball contacts, goals). All 4
months) were assessed in isolated trials (time taken to parameters were analyzed by a linear model with repeated
perform a certain task) as well as during 5-a-side matches measurement with the 2 factors of competition mode
(quantitative video analysis). The results indicate that and coaching. There were significant ( p , .001) effects of
utilizing futsal balls is associated with improvements in competition mode so that all 4 parameters (shots, passes,
almost all areas of assessment. In particular, control of ball contacts, goals) were much higher in the “FUNinio”
bouncing balls is significantly faster with futsal balls than condition. There were no other significant effects. The
with either leather or felt footballs. In play, using a futsal results indicate that FUNinio provides a much higher
ball results not only in an increase in effective playtime amount of actions than the current competition mode.
and the number of ball contacts per player, but also in
an improvement in the quality of offensive play (e.g., The Impact of Competition Mode and Coaching on
percentage of successful passes). Interestingly, we also Physical Load in Youth Football
found similar results in competitive high-level youth
football players. In conjunction, these findings indicate
that the quality of play can be greatly enhanced by using a M. Akdag,1 D. Poimann,1 T. Czyz,1 and M. Lochmann1,2
1
Friedrich-Alexander-University, Germany; 2Fraunhofer
futsal ball instead of a leather or felt football when playing
Institute, Germany
or teaching football indoor with young people. (matthias.lochmann@fau.de)

The Impact of Competition Mode and Coaching on the A sufficient amount of movement supports healthy
Amount of Actions in Youth Football development for children. Therefore, it is important that
competition and training are matched appropriately to
M. Akdag,1 D. Poimann,1 T. Czyz,1 and M. Lochmann1,2 children’s developmental stages. Horst Wein has
1
Friedrich-Alexander-University, Germany; 2Fraunhofer constructed an alternative competition and training
Institute, Germany system in youth football called “FUNinio,” which is
(matthias.lochmann@fau.de) designed in accordance with the developmental charac-
teristics (physical, psychological) of children. It claims to
It is an essential ability for a football player to make correct increase and level the inequality in physical load produced
and quick decisions, as well as to have the techno-motoric by the current system. This study tested the hypotheses
 S68 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

that “FUNinio” increases and levels children’s physical outcomes of the preassessment, formative, and summa-
load in comparison with the current 7 v 7, independent of tive assessment of players’ game performance using the
external coaching. Rugby Attack Assessment Instrument (RAAI; Llobet-
We tested 16 children (Mage ¼ 9.9 years) with a Martí et al., 2016). The RAAI is based on coding the
heterogeneous proficiency level. Data were collected on 2 actions of the ball carrier and their tactical weights relative
different days with an identical timetable: standardized to their outcomes during a 5-v-5 game situation. The
warm-up (10 min) followed by 4 rounds of competition Index of Performance (IP) is a holistic team measure used
(10 min) with 4 recuperation phases (7 min) in between. for scoring purposes. Results of the IP on this macro-level
Two rounds were coached, and 2 were not. On the 1st show no significant linear trend for each team (A and B)
day, the children played the standard mode of at the 4 assessment times ( p ¼ .504 and .851,
“FUNinio,” and on the 2nd day, they played 7 v 7. The respectively).
teams were put together based on the coaches’ judgment
to be equal in performance. Data of physical load New Theoretical Directions for TGfU
(number of steps, mean speed, heart rate) were collected
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via a pedometer, a global positioning-tracking system, Is It Possible to Unify Teaching Games for
and a heart rate belt, respectively. All parameters were Understanding With Nonlinearity to Improve
analyzed by a linear model with repeated measurement Creativity in Team Sports?
with the 2 factors of competition mode and coaching.
The effects for competition mode were significant ( p ,
.001) so that all 3 variables (number of steps, mean speed, S. Santos, J. Sampaio, and N. Leite
University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Portugal
heart rate) were higher in the “FUNinio” condition. The
(sarasantos_8@hotmail.com)
only significant effect ( p , .001) for coaching showed
that active coaching increased mean speed. There were Introduction: Despite the excellent coverage of the
no significant interaction effects. The results show that connections between teaching games for understanding
“FUNinio” increases and levels the physical load in all 3 (TGfU) and nonlinear pedagogy (Tan, Chow, & Davids,
dimensions, but only mean speed could be influenced by 2012), the potential of integrating both approaches to
coaching. boost the creative behavior in team sports still remains
unexplored. Therefore, the aim of this study was to
The Integrated Technique-Tactical Model (IT-TM) in a examine the effects of a nonlinear game-centered
12-Session Unit of Rugby With Novice Players: program in individual and collective game behavior in
Application and Overall Outcomes team sports.
Methods: Forty children, without previous experiences
V. López-Ros and B. Llobet-Martí in sports, were allocated to control (N ¼ 18,
University of Girona, Spain Mage ¼ 9.2 ^ 0.4 years) and experimental (N ¼ 22,
(victorlopezros@gmail.com) Mage ¼ 9.5 ^ 0.7 years) groups. Experimental children
participated in a 5-month training program with 3
In this communication, we describe the use of the sessions per week (60 min each), involving the TGfU
integrated technique-tactical model (IT-TM; López-Ros approach embodied in the nonlinear pedagogy principles.
& Castejón, 2005) in a 12-session unit of rugby union. Individual and collective game behavior was assessed
Participants were 10 male novice club players aged 17 to during a 3-a-side small-sided football game with a
19 years old. The IT-TM is a game-centered approach goalkeeper on a 10-m £ 12-m pitch. The in-game
that originated in Spain partially out of the influence of individual exploratory behavior (attempts, fluency, and
teaching games for understanding and the French tactical versatility) in ball possession was measured through a
decision-learning model. This approach takes into designed spreadsheet entitled “Creativity Behavior
account the integrated development of techniques and Assessment in Team Sports.” Furthermore, in-game
tactical behaviors using game situations. Our research is collective behavior was measured through positional-
consistent with the practice-referenced approach (Kirk, derived variables, collected by a global positioning
2005) because it reports a real coaching experience in a system, and processed with an approximate entropy
naturalistic setting with novice players. We show technique to compute the amount of the players’
principles and tasks of the learning process and learning movement regularity.
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S69

Results and Discussion: The results suggest that the Education (SOTG– PE; Roberts & Fairclough, 2012).
training program nurtures the players’ individual Groups were compared on teacher –learner interaction
exploratory behavior through the attempts and versatility and lesson content component scores. Additional
improvement in the game. Still, it promotes a high comparisons were made between pedagogical principles
interplayer positional regularity (more repeatable move- used and types of questions posed during lessons.
ment patterns), indicating an intentional positional Results: Workshop training significantly improved
adjustment as a result of the players’ game perceptions physical education teachers’ TGfU CK scores between the
and revealing a better understanding of the game. In fact, control and experimental group, t(60) ¼ 1.93, p ¼ .06.
a nonlinear game-centered program provides freedom Analysis using one-way analysis of variance and Kruskal
to experiment and produce a variety of novel motion Wallis tests on different component scores of the SOTG–
configurations, which in turn gives children the PE revealed that both experimental groups significantly
opportunity to explore and adapt continuously. More- ( p , .05) improved their PCK components when
over, it could be speculated that variability demands compared with the control group. However, no significant
provided by both approaches lead to great effects in difference in PCK was observed between experimental
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children’s capacity to adjust collective actions and unlock groups.

their creative potential. Conclusion: Though the traditional workshop facili-
tates TGfU learning by teachers, the hybrid training as a
Developing Physical Education Teachers’ TGfU Content PD has a greater impact on the implementation of TGfU.
and Pedagogical Content Knowledge
TGfU, But Not as We Know It
B. Nkala and J. Shehu
University of Botswana, Botswana D. Slade and A. Martin
(nkalabruce@gmail.com) Massey University, New Zealand
(d.g.slade@massey.ac.nz)
Purpose: This presentation reports on a study that
helps answer the question, “How can [teaching games During the last 30 years, traditional skill-based game-
for understanding (TGfU)]-related approaches be teaching models have gradually been supplemented by
implemented in teacher or coach education with the goal instruction under an inclusive banner of teaching games
of facilitating preservice and in-service teachers/coaches’ for understanding (TGfU). This approach focuses on
learning to teach (developing content knowledge [CK] and developing tactical understanding through modified
pedagogical content knowledge [PCK]) and thereby foster games and a philosophy that places the learner rather
their professional development from novices to experi- than the game at the center of instruction. We argue that
enced practitioners?” (Memmert et al., 2015, p. 351). because no 2 students learn or conceive knowledge in
Method: Fifty-nine Botswana Junior High School exactly the same way, teaching contexts require a more
in-service physical education teachers were randomly flexible approach to instruction, based on a methodo-
assigned to 3 groups (experimental group 1 [EG1], logical continuum of empirical to radical constructivism.
experimental group 2 [EG2], and control). EG1 Providing learners with sufficient opportunities to learn
participants were exposed to a 3-day TGfU training requires flexibility and a holistic experiential approach to
workshop, which included lectures and practical sessions. teaching that is appropriate for the learner, activity, and
EG2 participants also received the same TGfU training context. We note that pedagogical practices associated
workshop together with onsite TGfU teacher-led plan- with modifying or constraining games are much more
ning discussions before and after each lesson (hybrid than solution-based learning outcomes. They contribute
training). The control group received no TGfU training. to overcoming the movement competency barrier and
A TGfU knowledge questionnaire was administered assist teachers in facilitating “learning games through
before and after workshop training to assess physical understanding.” We suggest that maintaining the art of
education teachers’ TGfU CK. To assess teachers’ TGfU teaching is not achieved by being ideologically bound to 1
PCK, a subset of 17 teachers was selected through methodology of instruction. Rather, it is the flexible
stratified random sampling to have their pregames and nature of one’s (TGfU) philosophy and access to a variety
postgames lessons recorded and coded using the System of appropriate pedagogical models coupled with the
for Observing the Teaching of Games in Physical ability to discern learners’ needs that are the keys to
 S70 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

providing sufficient opportunities for learning games. Psychophysical Factors Affect Team-Sports
The presentation will highlight how this philosophical Performance
approach to TGfU can be transferred to physical
education and coaching settings. Gibson, Yygotsky, and Bourdieu and Intentional
Human Movement
TGfU in Nature: The Czech Way
W. Smith
University of Auckland, New Zealand
A. J. Martin,1 I. Turčová,2 and J. Neuman2
1 (wayne.smith@auckland.ac.nz)
Massey University, New Zealand; 2Charles University,
Czech Republic
(A.J.Martin@massey.ac.nz) As a proponent of ecological and dynamical systems
theorizing about intentional human movement,
The Czech educator Comenius (Jan Komenský, 1592 – I recognize the need to juxtapose the direct perception
1670) wrote about outdoor experiences and games some approach of ecological psychology with the indirect
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400 years ago. His work can be understood as a basis perception approach of information processing to try to
for the roots of experiential education and education in discredit the mind – body dichotomy, but I am concerned
nature. Comenius believed in educating the whole that in doing so, we could be unintentionally excluding
person and linking the ideals of the Greek holistic other theories of how our mind contributes to intentional
philosophy of education, kalokagathia, involving edu- human movement. When we fail to recognize the
cating the mind, body, and soul through experiences in contribution of mindful intentionality, we are in danger
nature using all the senses. He also believed in the use of of moving from a preponderance of total mind-controlled
games, play, and traveling in achieving educational information-processing theorizing to an interpretation of
outcomes, particularly for improving youth self-esteem indirect perception that is “mindless.” This, in my view, is
and interpersonal relationships. While the English term a limited explanation of direct perception, affordance
outdoor education is accepted in Czech as výchova v theory, and ecological psychology, and so we need to
přírodě, its translation as education in nature involves demonstrate how the mind contributes as an internalized
tourism activities defined as traveling for fun and affordance. We could gain by considering, alongside
playing games with the aim of learning about nature. Gibson’s theory of direct perception, Vygotsky’s theory of
The original form of turistika involved active movement imagination and the role of play in developing what he
on foot (i.e., walking, hiking). referred to as sensorimotor imagination. We could also
By the end of the 19th century, due to British and draw on Bourdieu’s social theory of the logic of practice
German influence, there was also a rapid development of to explain the impact of social affordances. So if we
outdoor sports, especially rowing, water sports, skiing, and combined Gibson, Vygotsky, and Bourdieu, we could find
cycling, which further influenced the separation of sports that given the affordance of the situation and a holistically
from turistika activities, and newer types started to be conceived imagination of possibilities, we have the social-
formed—on bikes, canoes, skis. Turistika also involves constructed mind –body synergy as a total ecology of
other outdoor and cultural activities (e.g., local history, art, action that is necessary for intentional movement.
music). While some tourism definitions involve traveling
away from local environments, turistika is culturally Individual Success and Personality of Professional
unique and specific to the Czech context and environment. Soccer Players: How Self-Report and Objective
The Department of Outdoor Sports and Outdoor Performance Data Differ
Education has continued these traditions based at the
Faculty of Physical Education and Sport at Charles J. Decius
University Prague since 1958. Their programs provide an University of Paderborn, Germany
integrated approach to physical education combining (julian.decius@uni-paderborn.de)
sports, games, and creative and touristic activities with
group experiences in nature. The presentation will Introduction: The relationship between personality and
highlight how this holistic philosophical approach to success in team sports such as soccer has been discussed
teaching games for understanding in nature can be for years (Singer, 2004). Often, research has focused on
transferred to international outdoor settings. team success (Cooper & Payne, 1972). At the personal
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S71

level, especially general criteria such as league or squad competition moves closer has emerged as a topical area for
membership were examined (e.g., van Yperen, 2009; research within the theoretical domain of sport psychol-
Zuber, Zibung, & Conzelmann, 2015), because individual ogy (Cerin, Szabo, Hunt, & Williams, 2000). However,
career performance is difficult to operationalize. Alter- very little is known about the pre-event patterning from a
natively, you could question the athletes themselves for a holistic perspective. The present study examined temporal
success rating. But do you gain reliable and valid data responses associated with competitive anxiety and
this way? How does personality of successful and less integrated dimensions of intensity, directional percep-
successful athletes differ, regarding operationalization tions, and frequency of intrusions in athletes with respect
(objective/subjective success)? This study is supposed to to between-subjects variables across gender and skill level.
answer these questions. Methods: Elite table tennis athletes from the Ghanaian
Method: To receive objective data of success, we used league (N ¼ 90) completed the modified version of the
the playing times in various competitions of 147 retired Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 at 3 temporal phases
German soccer players (1st and 2nd league). For (7 days, 2 days, and 1 hr) prior to a competitive fixture.
weighting and standardization of the competition levels, Results: Multivariate analysis of variance (Gender £ Skill
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we asked 504 soccer supporters in a preliminary study. Level £ Time to Event) with follow-up analyses revealed
Personality was measured by the German version of the significant interactions for between-subjects factors on
Business-Focused Inventory of Personality-6 Factors competitive state anxiety dimensions of intensity, direction,
(Hossiep & Krüger, 2012). Items for self-reported success and frequency. Notably, elite (international) female athletes
were added to the questionnaire. were less cognitively anxious, showed more facilitative
Results: Objective and self-reported success have a interpretations toward somatic anxiety symptoms, and
moderately high correlation (r ¼ .53). Regarding personal- experienced less frequent somatic anxiety symptoms than
ity, athletes who attribute a high success to themselves show their male counterparts. For time-to-event effects, intensity
higher values in discipline, engagement, and emotional of cognitive anxiety fluctuated, increased progressively, and
stability compared with subjectively less successful players. became more facilitative as competition neared. Debilitative
Considering the objective data, successful athletes score somatic anxiety interpretations slightly improved with high
lower in cooperation and social competence compared self-confidence displays 1 hr before competition.
with less successful players. There are no differences in Conclusions: These findings suggest a more dynamic
the other traits. Furthermore, personality explains at least image of elite athletes’ precompetitive anxiety responses
13.4% of success variance in soccer, independent of other that require effective structure, content, and timing of
characteristics (e.g., soccer skills). psychological skills interventions, and perhaps, cultural
Discussion: The results show a relationship between differences might have influenced the outcomes.
subjective and objective success data but also different
personality profiles of successful athletes. Indeed, these
findings should be considered in terms of success The Effects of Team Constitution on Tactical Behavior
operationalization. In practice, decision makers could of Teams During 7-a-Side Football in Small-Sided
utilize these findings for team selection and training Games
optimization. Moreover, researchers might focus on self-
perception of success in further studies. J. Baptista,1,2 B. Travassos,1,3 B. Gonçalves,1,4
P. Mourão,5 J. L. Viana,1,2 and J. Sampaio1,4
1
Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences
Pre-Event Competitive State Anxiety Fluctuations: and Human Development, Portugal; 2University
Intensity, Direction, and Frequency Accounts Using Institute of Maia, Portugal; 3University of Beira Interior,
the Time-to-Event Paradigm Portugal; 4University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro,
Portugal; 5Sport Lisboa and Benfica, Portugal
J. E. Hagan Jnr1,2 T. Schack,1,2 and D. Pollmann1 (jorgebaptista68@gmail.com)
1
Bielefeld University, Germany; 2Center of Excellence
“Cognitive Interaction Technology” (CITEC), Germany This study aimed to identify the effects of team formation
(elvis.hagan@uni-bielefeld.de) on tactical behavior of teams during 7-a-side football
small-sided games. Twenty-three semiprofessional foot-
Background and Purpose: Examination of competitive ball players participated in the study and were divided in
anxiety responses as temporal events that unfold as time to 3 teams, based on their playing positions: Team 4:3:0
 S72 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

(4 defenders and 3 midfielders); Team 4:1:2 (4 defenders, 1 appropriate. According to neuropsychologial data concern-
midfielder, and 2 forwards); and Team 4:0:3 (4 midfielders ing the use of hemispheres, differences between left- and
and 3 forwards). Each team played against each other right-handed players are to be expected, especially regarding
twice in randomized sequence in a 62-m £ 50-m pitch for reaction time and tactical skill (Noroozian et al., 2012).
5 min. Players’ trajectories were gathered using a The placement of players with different handedness in
nondifferential 5-Hz global positioning system and were female German team handball was investigated in the
used to compute the following variables: individual– present study. Further, the influence of handedness on
distance from each player to both one’s own and the certain handball-relevant performance factors was assessed.
opponent’s team centroid (Dist CG and Dist OPP CG, Finally, the selection mechanisms for left handers are
respectively), individual area, and total distance covered; surveyed and discussed. Six hundred fifty-four female
collective– team length, team width, and surface area. players of the DHB (German Handball Association) were
Approximate entropy was measured to identify the tested for handedness, constitution, technique, tactical
regularity pattern from the time series of each variable. ability, and physiological and psychological factors.
Team 4:3:0 showed lower approximate entropy (ApEn) Results show that position-specific preferences regarding
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values in the individual area compared with Team 4:1:2 handedness (left handers on the right side of the court, right
(very likely lower, Cohen’s d ¼ –0.88 ^ 0.63) and Team handers in center back, and both handers in the goal) are
4:0:3 (likely lower, Cohen’s d ¼ – 0.58 ^ 0.63). Team evident. In addition, the psychological variable of action
4:1:2 showed moderately higher ApEn values in the Dist versus state orientation differentiated between right- and
CG in comparison with both Team 4:3:0 (likely higher, left-handed players. No differences were evident for any of
Cohen’s d ¼ 0.66 ^ 0.63) and Team 4:0:3 (very likely the tactical and reaction-time variables between left and
higher, Cohen’s d ¼ 0.91 ^ 0.63). On the other right handers. Based on these findings, coaches could take
hand, Team 4:0:3 revealed lower ApEn in the Dist OPP into account more sensitive selection procedures consider-
CG in comparison with Team 4:3:0 (likely lower, Cohen’s ing left handers.
d ¼ – 0.77 ^ 0.63) and Team 4:1:2 (very likely lower,
Cohen’s d ¼ –0.99 ^ 0.63). In conclusion, Team 4:3:0 Team Tactics
revealed higher regularity on individual space occupation,
while Team 4:1:2 seemed to mainly sustain their Key Information From Complex Interaction Processes
positioning decisions on teammates’ behavior. Conver- in Football
sely, Team 4:0:3 looked to be more fine-tuned with the
opponent’s displacements. Overall, the teams’ consti-
tutions present different emergent behaviors and should J. Perl1 and D. Memmert2
1
Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany;
be taken into account during training tasks design. 2
German Sport University Cologne, Germany
(juergen.perl@t-online.de)
The Influence of Handedness on Performance on the
Different Playing Positions in Female Team Handball Contemporary data acquisition techniques are able to
provide data in enormous amounts. Even computer-
J. Weber,1 M. Wegner,1 and S. Fatulescu2 based data analysis techniques seem to have problems
1
Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Germany; detecting key information hidden in the data frequently.
2 The problem can be clarified with an example from
Sanconfind, Romania
(hlif@hotmail.de) football: During a 90-min soccer game, video-based data-
recording systems can produce (at least) 25 xy-position
As part of the performance profile for team handball, data of the 22 players as well as the ball per second, adding
handedness is frequently named. However, the topic of up to 90 £ 60 £ 25 £ (22 þ 1) £ 2 ¼ 6,210,000 pieces of
handedness in team handball is not sufficiently specified, data per match. There is a tremendous variety of possible
because there still is a discrepancy between recommen- games, while most of the games have extremely different
dations for training and empirical data. Left handers often data representations. In contrast, the term “key
play in the right-wing player position. If there are no left information” is intended to reduce a whole game with
handers available, that position is often filled with young and all its complex activities and dynamics to just a handful of
tactically inexperienced players. To develop the full potential encoding numbers. In particular, key performance
of players, a positioning according to handedness is indicators (KPIs) like ball possession rates and pressure
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S73

intensity, in which coaches are interested, do not offer and 7 min of phases without control. Boys and girls
significant information if not embedded in the context of passed 1.9 times per possession on average ( p . .05).
processes and playing dynamics—even more if such Discussion: The physical load and speed structure
indicators are used to plan more successful tactical were similar for boys and girls. The number of passes
processes. For this reason, the analysis software SOCCER per possession was not different for boys and girls, but
(Perl & Memmert, 2013) uses position data not only for it was quite low in comparison with professionals
calculating a long list of numerical indicators, but (Hughes & Franks, 2005). Moreover, the duration of
SOCCER analyzes patterns of attacking and defending stoppages was shorter, and there were more phases
activities, type and success of passes, as well as rates of without control in youth soccer than in professional
space control in critical areas to measure the significance soccer. More matches should be analyzed while focusing
of KPIs in the context of playing processes. For example, on different age groups, genders, and levels of players
pressure and number of bypassed players are indicators of and to create recommendations for training in youth
passes and therefore do not make sense as mean values soccer.
over a game, but only in the context of type and success of
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those passes. Space-control rates and ball-control Impact of the ‘Warm-Up Game’ on Tactical Awareness
frequencies as indicators of attacks do not count as
much, if not correlating with each other and occurring in
the opponent’s critical areas. N. Suzuki,1 S. Okuma,1 J. Fujisawa,1 and H. Anbe2
1
Tokyo Gakugei University, Japan; 2Hokkaido University
of Education, Japan
Kinematic and Tactical Analyses in Youth Soccer (nmy-252612_treebell@nifty.com)

C. Augste,1 R. Prüßner,1 D. Linke,1 B. Grossmann,1 and Introduction: Suzuki (2014) proposed a new idea In the
M. Lames2 introduction of teaching games for understanding
1
University of Augsburg, Germany; 2Technical (TGfU): the “warm-up game,” which is a large modified
University of Munich, Germany game for doing a warm-up and executing the skills. The
(claudia.augste@sport.uni-augsburg.de) purpose of this study was to clarify that the “warm-up
game” had a strong impact on tactical awareness during
Introduction: While in professional soccer many statistics the lesson.
are given even in real time, only few studies in youth Materials and Methods: A comparison was made
soccer exist to analyze tactical and physical performance. between 2 classes that incorporated different forms of
The aim of our explorative study was to describe and warming up (the “warm-up game” and skill practice).
compare kinematics and tactical performance of boys and Data collection was done during 7 sessions scheduled
girls in a 9-a-side soccer match. from January 13, 2016, to February 8, 2016. Six randomly
Methods: A soccer match between a female under-13 selected players per group served as participants and were
team and a male under-13 team was recorded with 2 video investigated during a modified basketball game (4 v 4).
cameras and a high-frequency local position measurement Two researchers analyzed the games using the Game
system. Kinematic data like total distances and speed Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) separately.
structure were analyzed. Speed zones were defined as The focus of the analysis was on players’ tactical decision
referring to the maximum-occurring sprinting speed for making. Two additional researchers implemented the
boys and girls separately. Tactical performance was fieldwork. One observed the game while teaching.
assessed by analyzing characteristics of ball possession Another observed the game while participating in the
periods. lesson.
Results: The average total distance covered during the Main Results: The GPAI analyses showed significant
60-min match was not significantly different between differences between the 2 classes. The “warm-up game”
boys (5,341 m) and girls (5,562 m; p . .05) and was promoted students’ understanding of tactics. The results
divided into walking (34.2%), jogging (35.3%), running of the fieldwork were similar and showed that students in
(13.5%), high-speed running (13.3%), and sprinting the “warm-up game” group appreciated the game
(2.4%). The playing time comprised 21 min of possession framework and understood the tactical problem based
for the boys and 17 min for the girls, 16 min of stoppages, on it. Therefore, students who played the game after
 S74 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

taking the warm-up game, promoted their decision- exploration of varied collective tactical behaviors
making competence. Hence, the “warm-up game” had a saturates.
strong impact on tactical awareness.
Discussion and Conclusion: Based on the results of the Differences Between Knockout and Group Matches:
present research, teachers are well advised to incorporate An Analysis of Tactical Behavior in Football During the
the “warm-up game” at the beginning of TGfU lessons FIFA World Cup 2014
instead of skill practice.
C. Winter and M. Pfeiffer
Emergence of Self-Organized Team Tactical Behaviors Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany
During a Preseason Football Game (christian.winter@uni-mainz.de)

Introduction: An analysis of tournaments in sports games

A. Ric,1 C. Torrents,1 B. Goncalves,2 J. Sampaio,2 and
R. Hristovski3 is often performed as a summary for all matches.
1
National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia, However, there is reason to believe that teams behave
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Spain; 2University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, differently depending on the tournament’s stage (Mack-
Portugal; 3Faculty University of Skopje, Macedonia enzie & Cushion, 2013). This difference in behavior could
(angelric10@outlook.com) lead to a different relation concerning tactical behavior
because of a different structure of performance. There-
The aim of this study was to identify the soft-assembled fore, an analysis of the FIFA World Cup 2014 was
hierarchical dynamics of team tactical behavior during conducted to examine differences in the structure of
football game competition. Twenty male professional tactical behavior between knockout (ko) and group
football players on the same team participated in a matches.
preseason match. Positional data from the outfield Methods: For the notational analysis, a football match
players were collected using 5-Hz global positioning was subdivided into different states. The attacking team
system units (SPI Pro, GPSports, Canberra, Australia). had to solve successive states: (a) control the ball, (b)
Twenty-nine categories were determined from 8 spatial progression, and (c) prepare a scoring opportunity
positional measures creating multivariate binary (Boo- leading to (d) the goal shot. The defense faced
lean) time-series matrices. A soft-assembled hierarchy corresponding tasks beside the omnipresent task to win
model was applied by using 2 statistical analyses: the ball. Based on the relative transitions between these
a hierarchical principal components analysis and the states, 11 tactical metrics were calculated (Winter &
calculation of dynamic overlap order parameter q. Pfeiffer, 2015). Thirty-eight matches of the FIFA World
These analyses allowed for determining the hierarchical Cup 2014 were analyzed. An explorative factor analysis
structure of the emergent tactical patterns and its (Varimax) was conducted subsequently for ko and group
dynamic properties. The sequential reduction of each matches separately to analyze the relations between
set level of principal components (PCs) revealed 1 PC the metrics.
as the slowest collective variable forming the global Results: Screeplots showed 4 factors for the ko
basin of attraction of tactical patterns. The dynamic matches as well as for the group matches. For the latter,
overlap showed the time scale on which the exploration the factors are transition after ball win (32.24%), offense
of team tactical behaviors saturates attaining to the and scoring (19.93%), transition after ball loss (17.86%),
stationary value. Mean values of the stationary part of and defense (14.37 %) explaining 84.41% of the
the overlap showed that team behavior performed in variance. The factors for the ko matches explain
the 2nd half was more varied than behavior in the 1st 86.56% of the variance and consist of transition in
half: t(1,289) ¼ 12.078, p , .0001. The mean dwell both ways (41.69%), offense (21.67%), defense (12.73%),
time of each positional measure helps to understand and scoring (10.47%).
the soft-assemble hierarchy of football dynamics. These Discussion: Factor analysis showed that tactical
results provide a rationale for understanding the metrics represent different dimensions depending on
emergence of collective behaviors. Coaches should the stage of the tournament, indicating differences in the
consider the frequency to manipulate task constraints structure of performance. Therefore, future research
to significantly increase the exploratory breadth of team should separate group matches and ko matches. In the
behavior and enlarge the time lag on which the final stage of the World Cup, success in scoring is less
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S75

dependent on other offensive behavior than in group TGfU in the Field

matches.
About Teaching Games in Brazil: National Scientific
Interaction Between Offensive and Defensive Behavior Production and the TGfU
of Opposing Teams in Team Handball Analyzed by
Artificial Neural Networks F. R. Costa, I. Scremin, and M. V. Euzebio
University of Brasilia, Brazil
N. Schrapf and M. Tilp (fcostavix@gmail.com)
University of Graz, Austria
(norbert.schrapf@uni-graz.at) This project aimed to analyze the Brazilian physical
education scientific production related to teaching
The analysis of game tactics is of high interest for collective sports and the teaching games for under-
researchers as well as for practitioners. However, the standing (TGfU) presence in that scenario. For this
analysis of the interaction between teams is not reason, we have searched through Qualis Capes for
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well established. Therefore, the present study attempted national physical education journals of pronounced
to examine the interaction between offensive and defensive value. With these criteria, we defined 10 magazines to
behavior of opposing teams in team handball. find articles regarding the target issue of research and
Twelve games from the EURO-Men-18 Champion- found 516 documents, which will contribute to under-
ship 2012 were analyzed with a custom-made analysis stand the national stage of research on teaching methods.
system (Rudelsdorfer et al., 2014). Position data from Sports education in Brazil is historically based on the
723 action sequences were used to find typical patterns traditional technique-centered perspective. Since the
of offensive and defensive players by means of artificial 1980s, the debate about the teaching process has
neural networks (ANNs). Patterns were determined motivated the proposition of different pedagogic
separately for offensive and defensive behavior. Sub- perspectives. Nowadays, the Brazilian physical education
sequently, the most frequently occurring pattern professionals comprehend the importance of teaching
combinations were analyzed with regard to their goal about “how to play the game,” while discussing
success and the distance between offensive and defensive methodological and curricular aspects to organize the
players. sports teaching. In this sense, we have looked for
The training process of the ANNs led to 25 offensive Brazilian universities and authors who contributed the
and 13 defensive clusters. Out of all possible cluster most to this debate. We also intend to respond to what is
combinations, 214 were realized within the analyzed being produced about TGfU in Brazil and what is
games. Frequency analysis highlights 16 common discussed about this process. For now, the Movimento
combinations with a scoring rate of 30% to 90% and and Motriz journals, the most important periodic
an average distance of the shooting player to the nearest publications in Brazilian physical education, revealed
defending player of 0.76 m to 2.07 m. No statistically 23 articles that discuss sports teaching. The university
significant relation between the cluster combinations, that contributed the most was Unicamp, with 8 articles.
the scoring rate, and the distance between the shooting Bayer, Garganta, and Greco were the most quoted
player and the nearest defending player was found. authors in the articles. The TGfU authors who appear
However, results revealed tendencies toward higher more times are Tim Hopper, David Bunker, and Linda
efficiency of some patterns. Moreover, odds ratio Griffin. There are differences in periodicity, quantity, and
analysis revealed favorable defensive behavior. contents between the journals. The outcome of this
Results indicate that ANNs are an adequate method to project will allow researchers to analyze the Brazilian
analyze the interaction between offensive and defensive physical education system and its impact on the sports-
behavior based on players’ positions. Although we could teaching process, as well as aspects related to professional
not detect significant differences between the different qualifications, teaching models adopted, knowledge of
playing behaviors, odds ratio analysis demonstrated the teaching methods, and the adoption of the TGfU
advantage of specific defensive tactics against a specific method, which is not well disseminated across the
offensive tactic. country yet.
 S76 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Application of Teaching Games for Understanding 1990s through Japanese translations of Griffin et al.
(TGfU) in Preschool Children Basketball Education (1997) and Siedentop (1994). A number of Japanese
physical educators attempted to put the models into
H. Zeng,1 A.-Q. Liu,2 Y. Zhang,3 H. Tao,4 and Q.-Q. Dong5 physical education practice, but not all elementary school
1
Hubei University of Arts and Science, China; 2Central teachers used the models because of their lack of
China Normal University, China; 3Hubei University of knowledge and experience.
Education, China; 4Guangzhou University of Education, Therefore, this research documents an attempt to
China; 5Wuhan Sports University, China familiarize general elementary school teachers with the
(434824769@qq.com) teaching – learning process of the TG approach in
combination with cooperative learning and the SE model.
The present work investigated the effects of a teaching games The TG approach was designed as a modified game-
for understanding (TGfU) training among 5- to 6-year-old centered lesson. That is, the teaching– learning process of
preschool children with respect to recognition, motor lessons was organized as follows: skill practice, 1st-half
learning, emotions, and game performance in basketball. game, questioning, team practice, 2nd-half game, and
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Ethical approval from the university’s ethics committee was reflection. Cognitive learning of tactical awareness was
sought, and subsequently, 20 children were recruited from a emphasized through questioning and reflection. Coop-
local kindergarten, including 10 boys and 10 girls, after erative learning was introduced by using a “sibling team
parents provided informed consent. Participants underwent system” strategy. This strategy entailed an alliance of 2
an 18-week TGfU-based training. Dependent variables were single teams, who then competed against the other teams.
recognition performance, motor skill, emotional attitude, The same sibling teams worked cooperatively in team
and game performance, and they were tested at pretraining practice, and if one team played a game, the other team
and posttraining using observational methods and semi- provided a referee or cheering supporters. In addition, if
structured interviews. All data were analyzed for significant somebody was absent, a member of the sibling team
differences using appropriate statistical tests with an alpha served as a substitute. Features of the SE model were also
level set a p ¼ .05. Results indicated that after TGfU applied to the lesson unit and were reinforced by the
basketball education: (a) Both males and female participants sibling team system. Formal games were played in each
significantly improved in recognition performance, motor lesson and scores were recorded, with the climax being a
skills, emotional attitude, decision making, and game tournament in the final lesson.
performance (all p , .05); and (b) gender differences Six lesson units of ball games were taught by 6 different
become only significant for game performance, decision teachers and were observed and video-recorded at 3
making, and cooperation ( p , .05). The results, therefore, elementary schools in Tokyo and Saitama. The study
suggest that TGfU with preschool children approach is examined how the physical education lesson setup of the
helpful in improving children’s overall abilities during TG approach affected teachers’ lesson management and
basketball game performance and positively influences their children’s game performance and affective states. Inter-
emotional attitude toward the game. Furthermore, children views with teachers were also conducted, and observa-
enjoyed playing basketball and often would motivate family tional notes were taken.
members to join the game. In summary, the present study
proposes a new education method for Chinese preschool
children for future reference by investigating TGfU-based 5- Effects of Teaching Games for Understanding on
to 6-year-old preschool children’s basketball education. Quantitative and Qualitative Indexes of Grade 3
Students’ Game Performance
Combining the Tactical Games Approach, Cooperative
Learning, and the Sport Education Model for A. Dania and K. Zounhia
Elementary School Physical Education in Japan National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
(adania@phed.uoa.gr)
E. Hasegawa
University of Tsukuba, Japan Growing research has demonstrated that game-centered
(hasegawa@taiiku.tsukuba.ac.jp) approaches have been favored by physical education (PE)
teachers as a means to increase all students’ competence at
The tactical games (TG) approach and sport education a physical and (meta)cognitive level. Utilizing the teaching
(SE) model were introduced to Japan at the end of the games for understanding (TGfU) instructional model, the
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S77

aim of the present research was twofold: (a) to present the was repeated in the beginning of February 2016 to include
implementation of a game-centered intervention program more recent publications. Inclusion criteria resulted in a
within the context of Greek PE, and (b) to assess its impact body of 195 papers, later reduced—by applying exclusion
on primary school students’ game performance and criteria—to 42 empirical papers and 5 nonempirical
understanding. Four in-service PE teachers, trained in the papers (i.e., systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses).
use of TGfU, taught 16 45-min invasion-game units, and Results show that all research on periodization has been
each were responsible for a different class of Grade 3 mistaking periodization with variation. Furthermore,
students from 2 separate schools (N ¼ 91, approximately none of the empirical papers make any prediction
N ¼ 23 per class). All teachers agreed on the content of all concerning the timings, magnitudes, and/or directions of
units so as to sequentially address the tactical problems of the adaptations, which is the original purpose of
maintaining possession of the ball, creating space in attack, periodization. Tactical, technical, and psychological
attacking the goal, and defending space. Each unit began factors are largely ignored. Reporting of confounding
with an initial game form, followed by observation and variables such as nutrition, supplementation, and/or
questioning by the teacher, and ended with a final game medication is absent or, when present, highly deficient.
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form of increased difficulty. At the end of every unit, Reporting of data reliability is absent or incomplete in
teachers completed a structured reflective journal noting most cases. Effect sizes are properly reported in less than
the students’ and lessons’ strengths and weaknesses. Using half of the sample. Data are analyzed with regard to
a single-participant design, 4 students per teacher (2 boys central values and between-groups differences, whereas
and 2 girls) were randomly selected from each class dispersion data and within-group variations are dis-
(N ¼ 16). Changes in these students’ game performance missed. Nonresponders are not considered. Finally,
from baseline to intervention were assessed within a studies are usually short- to medium-term, while school
modified 4-v-4 handball game (Game Performance years or seasons are long-term. The systematic reviews
Assessment Instrument; Oslin, Mitchell, & Griffin, 1998), and meta-analyses provide no valid input as they have
while pedometers were used to record changes in their bypassed such problems and moved toward data
physical activity during game play. Qualitative data comparison. Overall, there is no support in favor of
involving students’ verbal reports of game understanding using periodized approaches, as research on the topic is
were analyzed along with journal entries at the end of the conceptually and methodologically flawed.
program. Because the intervention is still in progress,
results from the combinational analysis of the quantitative TGfU and Coaching
and qualitative data will be released during the conference.
A Soccer Content Map Designed for Novice Teachers
A Systematic Review on Periodized Approaches to and Coaches
Teaching and Training: No Evidence Supporting
Periodization A. P. Turner and P. Ward
Bowling Green State University and Ohio State
J. Afonso,1 P. T. Nikolaidis,2 P. Sousa,1 and I. Mesquita1 University, United States
1
University of Port, Portugal; 2Hellenic Army Academy, (Adriant@bgsu.edu)
Greece
(jafonsovolei@hotmail.com) As a physical education teacher educator and technical
director for a small soccer club in the American Midwest, it
Periodized approaches to teaching and training stand in presents a challenge to equip novice teachers and coaches
contrast to well-established science, as we describe in our with the content knowledge necessary to effectively teach
conceptual critique on periodization. In the present study, soccer to children using games-based approaches.
we conducted a systematic review on the topic to verify Instructors must initially comprehend the laws, tactics,
what research on the topic has been done. The search was and skills of the game as part of their common content
conducted in late September of 2015 (Scopus, Scielo, knowledge and select the instructional tasks/experiences
PubMed, EBSCO þ SportDISCUS, specifically selecting (specialized content knowledge [SCK]) that will facilitate
Academic Search Complete, CINAHL Plus with Full Text, performers’ acquisition of tactics and skills (Ward, 2009).
MedicLatina, MEDLINE with Full Text, PsycINFO, and The interplay of players learning tactics and skills in
SPORTDiscus with Full Text; and Web of Science) and teaching games for understanding requires that teachers
 S78 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

have SCK to sequence and then interconnect gamelike (b) DSS helps the referee to make the best possible
tasks with increasing complexity. The purpose of this decision by means of replaying the missed motion; and (c)
presentation is to present a content map (Ward, Lehwald, DSS improves timing control.
& Lee, 2015) for use by novice teachers and coaches to In the future, we hope that the Judo competition system
enable them to conceptualize, sequence, and explore the could not only be generating data for balloting and
relational elements of soccer content to be learned by weighting athletes before the game as is its present usage,
upper elementary-age children. Four offensive tactical but that it will also provide integrated information about
principles (mobility/support, advancement, width, and the competition results, as well as real-time analytical
depth/retaining possession) and 4 defensive principles technical data to help athletes or coaches react
(engagement/restraint, depth, contraction, and expansion) responsively during the game.
provide an overarching framework as players progress
toward a 4-v-4 modified game (no goalkeepers)—the basic Comparative TGfU Junior Hockey Coaching Analysis:
configuration representing 8 tactical principles of the adult Effect of TGfU in Game Play, Knowledge,
game. A ground game is emphasized to simplify play, while Cardiovascular Fitness, and Coaches’ Reflection
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specific learning tasks permit every player to contact the in Malaysia and India
ball frequently to maximize time on task. Players are
organized into similar-size groups (e.g., 4 students) that
can be combined (e.g., 4 v 4) or divided promptly (e.g., S. Nathan, G. L. Khanna, and A. Hashim
Sultan Idris Education University of Malaysia, Malaysia
2 þ 2 or 6 v 2) to avoid managerial disruptions during
(sanmuga@fsskj.upsi.edu.my)
game-task transitions involving players and field space.
In various learning activities, numerical overload con- Teaching games for understanding (TGfU) in a coaching
ditions (e.g., 4 v 2) are employed to facilitate off-the-ball context seems to be untested among Asian hockey-playing
movement on offense, and degrees of defensive pressure countries in contrast to the skill drills technical (SDT)
(passive, active, competitive) are also applied. The approach. Therefore, this quasiexperimental pretest –
proposed content map provides a useful tool for beginning posttest control-group study design examined the effect
teachers and coaches. TGfU had on Malaysian and Indian junior hockey players
in ball control, while supporting player roles in 5-v-5 game
Understanding the Taiwan Judo Referee Decision play, as well as declarative and procedural knowledge
Support System and cardiovascular fitness performances. Furthermore, a
qualitative approach was employed to elicit coaches’
T.-L. Yeh, K. Pina, and S.-Y. Wan (N ¼ 4) reflections on implementing TGfU. The sample of
Chang Gung University, Taiwan 60 players randomly selected from both countries involved
(z2648.9104@gmail.com) in this study were assigned equally (N ¼ 15 players) to
the TGfU groups and the control group (N ¼ 15) that
This case study is aimed to understand how an predominantly utilized SDT training. The study utilized
information system supports decision making of Judo the following methodologies: the Game Performance
referees and the possibility for developing a sustainable Assessment Instrument, multiple-choice tests, bleep test,
domestic Judo judgment support system in Taiwan. The and reflection journals to collect coaches’ reflections.
growing popularity of Judo competitions and the Findings indicated that TGfU was significantly more
ubiquitous use of instant replay decision support systems effective compared with SDT among Malaysian and Indian
(DSSs) in those events have brought increasing pressure players in ball control in 5-v-5 game play and fitness levels.
on the referees in making convincing decisions. Further, Results showed that Malaysian players improved signifi-
requirements of expertise in balancing the agile rhythm of cantly using TGfU regarding supporting players compared
the game and the scrutiny of the rendered decisions with the Indians. As for procedural hockey knowledge,
remain constant. In this presentation, we conducted no significant difference between the TGfU and SDT
interviews with a Judo referee who participated in major approach was evident among Malaysian and Indian
Taiwan Judo competition events to collect qualitative players. However, for declarative knowledge, significant
and quantitative data and compile lessons learned. improvements for the Indian players via TGfU were
To conclude, the advantages of the DSS are threefold: evident. In general, the current results support the TGfU
(a) DSS helps the organizer to reduce erroneous scoring; model in enhancing both game play and cardiovascular
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S79

fitness; however, coaches expressed a need for better Connecting With Diverse Communities:
education regarding the TGfU approach. Athlete-Centered Coaching, TGfU, and Sport as a
Vehicle for Social Communities
TGfU Transitions: Teacher Education to Teaching
Practice in 3 Countries S. R. Walters, K. Spencer, and A. Farnham
Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
(simon.walters@aut.ac.nz)
S. Mitchell
Kent State University, United States
Although sporting research has tended to focus on
(smitchel@kent.edu)
performance and processes of globalization, sport can also
The primary purpose of this study was to determine the be a powerful vehicle for promoting health, education, social
extent to which physical education teachers implement development, and peace and for reducing conflict (Butler,
teaching games for understanding (TGfU) practices in the 2008). The aims of this study were to explore the potential
manner in which they were taught and the extent to and value of sport as a vehicle for developing relationships to
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which the same teachers modified their TGfU practice enhance social outcomes in underprivileged communities.
dependent on their context. A secondary purpose was to Case-study methodology was adopted to explore how
determine the extent to which similar practices were used sport can be used by a religious organization in the
by teachers prepared to teach using TGfU in different Philippines to enhance the organization’s ability to
countries. Participants in the study were 9 physical effectively engage and build relationships within the
education teachers, including 3 in Ohio, 3 in British communities they serve.
Columbia, Canada, and 3 in New South Wales, Australia. This 5-year project involved academics from New
These teachers ranged in experience from 2 to 16 years of Zealand visiting the Philippines on an annual basis and
teaching. Data sources included semistructured individual implementing sports education programs underpinned by a
interviews, field notes from direct observations of TGfU holistic athlete-centered coaching philosophy. Principles
lessons, and examination of TGfU teacher preparation drawn from a teaching games for understanding (TGfU)
materials related to TGfU. Interviews were audio-taped approach were used to develop future teachers’ understand-
and transcribed verbatim, and member checking was ing of how the coaching of sport can create environments for
employed to ensure data authenticity. A direct obser- learners that are fun, inclusive, and developmental.
vation protocol was developed from the TGfU “bench- The objective of the project was to create a fully self-
marks for action” identified by Butler (2014). sustaining educational program to be delivered by graduates
Data were analyzed by a process of constant comparison from the Marist Asia-Pacific Center in Manila. For the
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967) using open and axial coding, with majority of these graduates, this experience has been their
several themes emerging. Emergent themes included: (a) very 1st engagement with sport at any level. Focus-group
Teachers maintained faithfulness to their TGfU prep- interviews revealed that the experience, for many, has been
aration; (b) declared knowledge was consistent with TGfU “transformative” and “inspirational.”
practices; (c) teachers used game-based and question- This study directly addresses 1 of the 10 identified key
driven teaching; (d) teachers combined curriculum TGfU research questions identified in a recent article by
models, and especially constraints-based modifications Memmert et al. (2015): Can the TGfU approach be
were used when necessary; (e) small-group practice and considered a helpful model across different cultures?
game play were common among all teachers; and (f) all
teachers emphasized transfer among games. Effects of Korfball Teaching Games for Understanding
The findings are discussed with reference to the in Chinese College Students: A Randomized Study
implications for TGfU teacher education, as well as
similarities between TGfU preservice teacher education in C. Jindong, G. Hao, Y. Lei, and Y. Ming
the 3 countries and the extent to which different Southwest University, China
approaches are “different paths up the same mountain” (112309106@qq.com)
(Mitchell, 2005). The findings indicate many similarities
among TGfU implementation across the 3 countries, and Objective: The objective of this study was to test the
teacher educators can do more to emphasize the effectiveness of the teaching games for understanding
affordance of student input into game design. (TGfU) model; a 12-week korfball teaching practice was used.
 S80 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Methods: A TGfU group was compared to a technique development and transferable life skills (Turnnidge,
approach group and a control group. In this randomized Cote, & Hancock, 2014), such positive youth development
study, 99 college students were enrolled in the experiment (PYD; Fraser-Thomas, Cote, & Deakin, 2005) outcomes
(33 participants in each group). The technique method have yet to be rigorously investigated as a potential
focused primarily on skill instruction where the skill taught outcome of a teaching games for understanding (TGfU)
initially was incorporated into a game at the end of each coaching approach. As TGfU has become increasingly
lesson. The TGfU approach emphasized developing popular, an extensive literature review has led investi-
tactical awareness and decision making in small-game gators to posit that the approach may facilitate PYD
situations. One physical educator (the assistant coach of outcomes including: perceived competence, confidence,
the China team) taught field korfball using these coach – athlete connectedness, peer connectedness, char-
approaches for 12 weeks (1 80-min lesson each week). acter, and intrinsic motivation. The present study will
The control group did not receive any field korfball offer an important addition to the literature by examining
instruction. Pretests (in the 6th week) and posttests (during the impact of a season-long (10-week) TGfU sport
the 12th week) were administered for korfball knowledge, experience on PYD outcomes of youth soccer players.
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skill, and game performance. Separate analyses of variance Three youth soccer teams (2 male and 1 female) ranging
or analyses of covariance were conducted to examine group in age from 9 to 12 years will be the participants in this
differences for cognitive and skill outcomes. study. The soccer teams typically play an 8-game season
Results: The TGfU group (16.25 ^ 3.71) scored over 2 months (April –May). Each team will undertake 2
significantly higher on passing decision making than did practice sessions per week for approximately 1.25 hr
the technique (12.26 ^ 2.79) and control groups beginning 2 weeks prior to the season. The teams will be
(8.17 ^ 3.84) during posttest game play ( p , .01). The taught using a TGfU approach by an experienced coach
TGfU group (20.50 ^ 4.65) scored significantly higher who has worked extensively with this instructional model
than the control group (17.16 ^ 4.29) for declarative and for a 25-year period and who has taught and coached
procedural knowledge ( p , .01). The TGfU group soccer in elementary and secondary schools as well as
(19.88 ^ 5.13) scored significantly higher on control and higher education settings. To examine potential changes
passing execution than did the other groups (16.27 ^ 5.96; in the aforementioned PYD outcomes, a repeated-
12.32 ^ 6.38) during posttest game plays ( p , .01). For measures one-way multivariate analysis of variance will
korfball skill, there were no significant differences among be used to compare baseline measures taken at the
the 3 groups for accuracy ( p . .05), but the technique beginning of the season with a postseason assessment.
group (15.25 ^ 6.25) recorded faster than the control The current study will attempt to add to the body of
group (11.85 ^ 2.66) on the posttest ( p , .05). literature on games-based instruction by providing an
Conclusion: This randomized study indicates that the empirical investigation into TGfU as a vehicle for
TGfU approach provides a more viable way of teaching promoting psychosocial youth development.
strategic decision making for korfball players. In particular,
effective decision making is important for the successful A Review on the Effect of Small-Sided and Modified
execution of skills among korfball players. The authors Games in Sport Teaching and Coaching: Informing
suggest further exploring the efficient use of the TGfU TGfU Pedagogy
approach in the field of korfball teaching.
S. Pill
TGfU and Psychosocial Factors Flinders University, Australia
(shane.pill@flinders.edu.au)
Psychosocial Development Through a Teaching Games
for Understanding Approach to Coaching In tactical models (Metzler, 2011) for games and sport
teaching, such as teaching games for understanding
S. Graupensperger and A. Turner (TGfU; Bunker & Thorpe, 1982), learning is game-based
Bowling Green State University, United States (Webb, Pearson, & Forest, 2006). For many, this means
(Graupes@bgsu.edu) not just that students are first placed in game play, but
that playing of small-sided games (SSGs) is analogous to
Although it is well documented that youth sport TGfU, as structured learning experiences through
participation may provide young athletes with psychosocial minigames and SSGs are at the “heart” of the model
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S81

(Butler, 2015; Kirk, 2005). It has been reported that mixed-reality classroom in which their preservice teachers
teachers see tactical models like the Game Sense approach interacted with avatars that were scripted to portray
as playing SSGs or modified games (Breed & Spittle, typically developing 7th-grade students. Preservice tea-
2011). In TGfU, it has been suggested that lessons focus chers cotaught 3 teaching-games-for-understanding les-
on SSGs as “principles of play” (Liu Yuk-Kwong, 2010) as sons, and 6 hr of teaching experiences were completed—
the 6-step model moves first from the tactical-conceptual specifically, 4 hr of simulation experiences. Data collection
to technical skill development, or from “why” to “how” included video recordings of simulation experiences,
(Stolz & Pill, 2014) and that game competence is semistructured interviews, lesson plans, lesson reflections,
specifically fostered through SSGs (Jepson, 2012). SSGs and debriefs. Data were analyzed qualitatively. Preliminary
are, therefore, commonly presented as a core pedagogical findings suggest that preservice teachers engaged “in the
feature of tactical models (Stolz & Pill, 2014). This moment” with the avatars due to suspended disbelief, were
presentation considers the evidence base for SSGs as a challenged by the off-task behavior of student avatars,
pedagogical device in games and sport teaching through a and struggled to find proactive positive strategies. The
qualitative systematic review of the literature. This review simulations provided opportunities for the preservice
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involved identification of relevant published evidence via teachers to experience a range of off-task behaviors from a
a search of academic research collections, such as Google diverse set of student avatars who have unique back-
Scholar and PubMed, for data-driven research where grounds, interests, and needs. The faculty members were
SSGs were the focus of the study. Data analysis proceeded afforded an accelerated view of individual preservice
by first tabulation of the studies to summarize the data teachers’ skills of making connections to students and of
and then systematic coding and analysis. The analysis being able to manage off-task behavior while creating a
reveals that SSGs have been shown to be at least as positive learning environment.
effective in technical, tactical, and physiological training
as the drill-practice and drill-conditioning style in sport Refereeing
coaching contexts, but the evidence of technical or tactical
efficacy in achievement of skill-learning outcomes using Decision Making in Football Officiating: An Interview
SSGs in a tactical model in physical education is less clear. Study With Top-Level Referees

Exploring Mixed-Reality Simulation Using TGfU U. Schnyder and E.-J. Hossner

University of Bern, Switzerland
M. Neutzling, K. Pagnano-Richardson, and D. Sheehy (urs.schnyder@ispw.unibe.ch)
Bridgewater State University, United States
(misti.neutzling@bridgew.edu) Introduction: Officials take a vital role in almost every
competition-oriented game sport. For this reason, an
Virtual-reality simulation is taking center stage as a next- interesting area of research has emerged in recent years
generation environment for teacher professional learning with respect to sport officiating. However, the majority
and allows preservice teachers to practice pedagogical skills of football-related studies can be characterized as
in a safe environment that does not place real students at pursuing a “from-theory-to-practice” strategy. Therefore,
risk (Kane & Staiger, 2012). Though few studies have been the present project focused on the reconstruction of
conducted to measure teaching performance, such as type subjective theories of elite football referees and on the
and pacing of feedback (Brandenburg, Donehower, & identification of problems in the practice of top-level
Rabuck, 2014), to date, no known studies have investigated football officiating.
the pedagogical aspects of teaching using constructivist Methods: Semistructured interviews were conducted to
principles in physical education. The purpose of this study collect data from 23 European elite referees, either from
was to understand physical education preservice teachers the Union of European Football Associations’ elite group
and faculty experiences using the virtual rehearsal method (n ¼ 19) or 1st group (n ¼ 4). With the average length of
in the Mursion simulator. Participants were 2 physical 19.4 min (SD ¼ 5.4 min, range ¼ 10.5 min– 39.2 min), all
education teacher education (PETE) faculty and 23 interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed
preservice teachers enrolled in physical education methods independently by 2 coders to generate a category
courses. Grant funding allowed PETE faculty at 1 framework that was necessary for further processing
university to use the computer-simulated, immersive, based on the qualitative content analysis.
 S82 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Results: From the interview material, the data analysis vice versa, a systematic processing of the use of the new
resulted in 91 raw-data themes that were grouped into technology is required, including or combined with an
22 lower-order themes and further structured into 7 investigation of all consequences that it affected.
higher-order themes—namely: (a) descriptive, (b) This approach was used to evaluate 2 new
characteristics of a good elite referee, (c) difficulties, technologies introduced in the German Bundesliga.
(d) prematch preparation, (e) communication through Kolbinger and colleagues found that on average, 5.0
headset, (f) decision making, and (g) decision-making scenes per season could be resolved only by goal-line
training. technology and therefore raised concerns about its cost–
Discussion: The vast researched area of visual benefit ratio. Another study about the use and impact of
capabilities and perception enhancement in refereeing the vanishing spray on free kicks showed a significantly
is also recognized by the interviewees as highly relevant. lower extent of violations of 6.0% but no further positive
A clear need for further research, however, could be side effects. Furthermore, this evaluation created
revealed for an optimization of the following topics: the valuable information about the underlying phenomena
prematch preparation; the evaluation of supporting in identifying a lack of application for the minimum
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technical devices; the development of innovative distance rule, as not even 1 such rule violation was
training tools for improving decision-making quality; punished properly.
the optimization of communication within the referee
team, particularly through the headset; and the The Accuracy –Adequacy Model: A Theoretical
evaluation of supporting training methods like mental Perspective for Understanding Referees’ Decisions
practice. Hence, for sport scientists with a special
interest in applied work, these topics can be
recommended for conducting further research. G. Schweizer and H. Plessner
Heidelberg University, Germany
(geoffrey.schweizer@issw.uni-heidelberg.de)
Evaluation of Innovative Technologies That Support
Referees in Game Sports This talk aims to present the accuracy – adequacy
model, a theoretical approach for understanding
O. Kolbinger, D. Link, and M. Lames referees’ decisions. Although referees’ decisions have
Technical University of Munich, Germany been subject to psychological research and controversial
(otto.kolbinger@tum.de) discussions for more than a decade (Brand, Schmidt, &
Schneeloch, 2006; Mascarenhas, Collins, & Mortimer,
More and more sports are introducing new systems to 2002; Plessner & Betsch, 2001, 2002; Schwarz, 2011), so
support the referees and umpires, respectively. Currently, far, no comprehensive theoretical approach has been
there is a lack of evaluation of such technologies as the developed that allows for understanding them. The
respective associations and scholarly studies focus mostly accuracy – adequacy model promises to be a theoretical
—sometimes even exclusively—on technical parameters. basis for further research on referees’ decisions. The
Especially the impacts of the technologies are neglected. accuracy – adequacy model assumes that referees’
In this connection, the impact is not only the achievement decisions follow the predictions of default-interven-
of the objectives but also other (side) effects of the tionist models (Evans, 2008; Glöckner & Witteman,
innovation, which can be positive as well as negative. This 2010). Additionally, the accuracy – adequacy model
impact is quite surprising, as investigating the merit of distinguishes between accurate and adequate decisions
innovations should be the main goal due to most of the (Brand, Schweizer, & Plessner, 2009). Accurate
common definitions of evaluation. decisions are correct according to the laws of the
Our goal was to introduce a conceptual framework to game, and they are based solely on cues provided by
overcome this discrepancy. Therefore, a wide range of the respective incident (e.g., potential foul play).
analysis and tools has to be used. In advance, the Adequate decisions, in turn, take the specifics of the
prevalence of scenes that can be solved with the respective game (e.g., prior decisions, minute of play,
technology has to be investigated to point out the additional situational cues) into account.
necessity. In addition, positive and negative effects The accuracy –adequacy model predicts that accurate
should be considered, concerning the game itself as well decisions are primarily the result of intuitive processing.
as the opinions of stakeholders. After the introduction, When a conflict between the accurate decision and
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S83

prior decisions or situational cues occurs, additional broadcast and the close-up view behind the goal
deliberate processing is activated and may lead to showing the greatest effects. These results seem
adequate decisions. Therefore, the accuracy –adequacy interesting, considering current discussions about
model allows for deriving testable hypotheses regarding additional technology in soccer.
decision outcomes and decision times depending on the
extent of conflict in a given situation and the
availability of cognitive resources, which can both be Coaching
experimentally manipulated. And, thus, inferences on
underlying processes are possible. An Investigation of Professional Top-Level Youth
Football Coaches’ Questionnaire Practice

How Effective Is a Video Review System in Soccer? E. Cope,1 M. Partington,2 C. Cushion,3 and S. Harvey4
1
University of Hull, United Kingdom; 2Edge Hill
A. Pizzera,1 J. Marrable,2 and M. Raab3 University, United Kingdom; 3Loughborough
1
Heidelberg University, Germany; 2German Sport University, United Kingdom; 4West Virginia University,
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University Cologne, Germany; 3London South Bank United States

University, United Kingdom (Ed.Cope@hull.ac.uk)
(alexandra.pizzera@issw.uni-heidelberg.de)
To position learners as more central components in the
For the first time in soccer history, FIFA allowed coaching process, scholars have suggested that coaches
additional technology to support referees’ decisions at should employ a questioning approach, which may lead to
the World Cup 2014. Debates are pursued regarding the development of desirable learner outcomes (i.e.,
the implementation of a video review system. The increased problem-solving and decision-making skills,
present study aimed to take up this debate and creative-thinking skills, game understanding, and
investigate if different visual perspectives and the use of superior critical reflection skills). Observational studies,
slow motion influence referees’ decisions. One hundred however, have indicated that coaches rarely employ
nine (inter)nationally licensed referees (Mage ¼ 30.8 questions within their practice. When questions are
years) took part in an online video test and judged 48 asked, these questions rarely move beyond lower-order or
video clips on foul decisions in the penalty box. Each “fact-seeking” inquiries. While this research provides
incident was randomly shown 4 times (3 different information concerning the frequency and, in some cases,
perspectives and 1 slow motion). Perspective A showed the type of questions coaches ask, it fails to report the
the typical television broadcast view, Perspective B more discursive nature of coaches’ questioning
showed the assistant, and Perspective C showed the approaches, including how the coach controls the
additional assistant referees’ view. After each video clip, questioning exchange and player responses. To address
the referees indicated if the situation should be such limitations, the purpose of this study was to
categorized as no foul, foul, yellow card, or red card. investigate coach questioning practices (CQPs).
Decision accuracy (DA) was significantly higher for the We recorded the practices of 5 academy youth-level
slow-motion condition (M ¼ 69.8%, SD ¼ 13.55) com- football coaches, who coached players aged 10 to 14 years
pared with the real-time condition (M ¼ 64.98%, old, and subjected the data to a conversation analysis,
SD ¼ 13.16), t(109) ¼ 5.07, p , .01, d ¼ 0.48. Referees which enabled the analysis of interaction between coach
were most accurate in Perspectives A (M ¼ 63.53%, and player(s). Findings revealed that CQPs, regardless of
SD ¼ 15.37) and C (M ¼ 65.29%, SD ¼ 12.39), signifi- coach or context, followed similar discursive patterns.
cantly better than Perspective B (M ¼ 59.10%, In particular, 3 themes presented themselves in each CQP:
SD ¼ 12.85), F(2, 107) ¼ 16.81, p , .01, h2 ¼ .24. (a) coaches’ requirements for an immediate player
The highest DA was obtained at the 3rd viewing, F(3, response, (b) leading questions for a desired response,
105) ¼ 5.38, p , .01, h2 ¼ .13. The results show that and (c) monologist nature of coach –player interaction.
referees benefit from slow-motion video displays and These findings showed that the coach positioned himself
repeated viewings, with a threshold after 3 viewings. or herself as the gatekeeper of knowledge and learners as
The results also suggest that a video review system passive recipients. This finding reinforces the messages of
should include different video perspectives, with the previous research suggesting that coaches’ ideologies
 S84 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

inform their practice and are stable structures that are Teaching Methodologies in Football Coaching
difficult to change. We concur with other researchers that Education
there is a need for further investigation in this area to
better understand how dominant discourse can be J. Baptista1 and J. Castro2
challenged. 1
Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences
and Human Development, Portugal; 2University
Institute of Maia, Portugal
A Conceptual Critique to Periodized Planning: Why (jorgebaptista68@gmail.com)
Rigorous, Detailed Plans in Teaching Make No Sense
Framework: It is a common belief in coaching education,
1 2 1
J. Afonso, P. T. Nikolaidis, P. Sousa, and I. Mesquita 1 highlighted by the evidence collected during the last 2
1
University of Porto, Portugal; 2Hellenic Army Academy, decades, that coaches do not value academic and formal
Greece knowledge as much as experiences in context environ-
(jafonsovolei@hotmail.com) ments such as peers’ observation, expert coaches’
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observation, and knowledge sharing (Gilbert, 2006;

Periodized approaches to teaching and training, whether Jones et al., 2004). In Portugal, research has shown that
in sports or health settings, are nearly universally coaches give more importance to guided sources, while
acclaimed in the name of rigorous planning and emphasizing experiential sources through work with
organization. Notwithstanding, in the present work, we expert coaches (Mesquita, Isidro, & Rosado, 2010).
contend that periodized planning is actually contra- Despite the relevance of these findings, there is a clear
dictory with well-established scientific postulates, predominance of descriptive research in coaching
including: (a) ignoring the knowledge brought about education, and studies addressing critical evaluation
by chaos theory, dynamic systems theory, and complex- learning models and programs are lacking (Erikson et al.,
ity theories; (b) bypassing knowledge brought by biology 2008).
and by training theory and methodology, specifically the Objective: This challenges the design of coaching
complex nonlinear relationships between internal and programs, particularly in football. Therefore, we aimed to
external loads; (c) abiding by a Cartesian philosophy, develop a model for coaching training that proposes a set
thereby erroneously framing the concepts of training of interactive learning experiences, based on real
factors, physical load, and peak performance; and (d) coaching practice that would emerge from the concep-
mishandling statistics and probabilities, specifically by tualizations of students’ previous ideas of their “ideal
largely failing to account for test validity, reliability, game model” and guided by expert coaches. The
specificity, and sensitivity, as well as ignoring concepts proposed model embraces 2 main outcomes: (a)
such as power laws, outliers, black swans, and presenting a set of football learning experiences in an
nonresponders. integrative progression framework, and (b) the possibility
The aim of the present work was to explore these to bring the football context into the classroom and take
conceptual drawbacks and make inferences on how we classrooms into the football pitch.
should approach planning. Overall, variation seems to be Participants: This protocol was implemented during
a relevant factor in teaching and training contexts, but 32 weeks in 2 modules (football training methodology
periodization does not appear to stand the scrutiny of and technical/tactical) of the master’s degree program in
scientific analysis nor of more recent pedagogical sports training at the University Institute of Maia,
accounts. Future systematic reviews on the subject should Portugal. Twenty-eight male students (Mage ¼ 25 ^ 1
check whether conceptual and methodological issues are years) participated in this intervention. All participants
being properly addressed by research on periodization, had experience as football practitioners and short-term
instead of focusing on merely reporting the results. experience as football coaches.
Learning is an open process, and therefore, teaching and Learning Outcomes: The core principle is that students
coaching philosophies should incorporate inherent can progressively be able to construct, reflect, decon-
nonlinearity and unpredictability into their core, instead struct, and rebuild in a progressive set of experiences
of attempting to impose externally derived abstract in an environment with peers and expert coaches.
programming. The way learning experiences are introduced along the
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S85

3 progressive stages develops students’ ability to create a alleviate perceptions of staleness with the approach.
personal and unique “game model idea.” Nevertheless, overall, the players placed considerable
value on games-based learning and were collectively
A 5-Year Action Research Project Investigating Coach committed to enhancing this approach rather than
and Athlete Perceptions of a Game-Based Coaching seeking alternatives.
Approach in High-Performance Domestic Women’s
Field Hockey Learning Effects of the Didactic Model of Game Action
Competences on the Tactical Principles of Football
D. Vinson
University of Worcester, United Kingdom W. Valencia and E. Arias
(d.vinson@worc.ac.uk) University of Antioquia, Colombia
(elkin.arias@udea.edu.com)
Despite unequivocal literature support in favor of
games-based approaches across the sporting landscape, Introduction: The didactic model of direct instruction
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pedagogically focused research has principally investi- (DMDI) is the most used model for teaching football in
gated youth environments as opposed to adult or elite competitive settings. However, it is difficult for players to
settings. Additionally, the majority of research has learn the guidelines of tactical behavior during the game,
featured snapshot investigations concerned with rela- such as the principles of play, through DMDI. Player-
tively short-term impact. The aim of this investigation centered approaches seem to be more suitable for
was to explore, via action research, athletes’ perceptions attaining this goal than DMDI. However, alternative
of and my (coach) experiences with a 5-year games- models to DMDI have not been applied and validated
based coaching approach at a women’s field hockey club consistently in extracurricular sports. The didactic model
operating in the English national leagues. Specifically, of the game action competences (DMGAC) could be a
founded upon complex learning theory, this investi- good alternative for learning cognitive, procedural, and
gation focused on the athletes’ perceptions of the value attitudinal skills for the practice of football.
of games-based approaches relating to tactical learning Aims: This study aimed to determine and compare the
and decision making. Throughout each year, data were learning effects of the DMGAC and DMDI.
collected from field notes made in one-on-one and Methodology: Thirty-six children aged 8 to 11 years old
group player – coach meetings, verbatim transcripts from in the city of Medellin, Colombia, were randomly
player focus groups, session plan evaluations, written assigned to an experimental group in which DMGAC
feedback from players, and my reflective diary. During was implemented or a control group in which DMDI was
this 5-year period, the team was both promoted to and implemented. Each group had a teaching process
relegated from the English Premier League. Data were according to the respective didactic model for 12 sessions
analyzed thematically and produced 3 major categories of 80 min each. They were evaluated in 3 stages on
comprising the purpose of training, facilitating collab- learning the fundamentals of playing football: pretest,
oration, and engagement in learning. The data revealed posttest, and a retention test. Performance and com-
initial player skepticism concerning the perceived value pliance with tactical principles were measured with the
of games-based learning, and although the majority of System of Tactical Assessment in Football, the motivation
athletes came to espouse the value of such approaches, it to practice football was investigated using the Sport
was not until Year 3 that the approach received virtually Motivation Scale adapted for football, and the perception
universal support. The most common difficulty experi- of tactical skills was evaluated with the Tactical Skills
enced by players throughout the investigation sur- Inventory for Sports.
rounded perceptions of insufficient individual challenge Results and Conclusions: The DMGAC group pre-
and feedback facilitated during sessional delivery. sented significantly better performance than the DMDI in
Additionally, players struggled to embrace the games- the posttest and in the retention test. The results suggest
based approach as an authentic learning environment that the DMGAC may be an appropriate model for
and preferred to see sessions as mechanisms through teaching football because the tasks proposed in this model
which to embed team strategy. Furthermore, from the promote the integral development of skills, autonomy,
4th year, players negotiated deliberate strategies to and motivation.
 S86 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Sports Physiology and Training Science conclude with practical recommendations for coaches to
optimize training prescription and recovery management
Periodization of High-Intensity Training Methods in elite youth players.

B. Sperlich The Speedcourt: Performance Analysis and Training for

University of Wuerzburg, Germany Team Sport-Specific Speed and Agility
(billy.sperlich@uni-wuerzburg.de)

Within athletic development, team-sport athletes combine D. Born

University of Wuerzburg, Germany
several training methods emphasizing either endurance-
(dennis.born@uni-wuerzburg.de)
specific adaptation (e.g., mitochondria biogenesis) or
strength-related training adaptation (e.g., for neuromus- Team sports are characterized by a nonlinear movement
cular adaptation or protein synthesis). In principle, both pattern with oscillating running intensity. Short sprints
endurance and strength are crucial prerequisites for of maximal intensity are interspersed with brief recovery
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athletic performance; however, to date, special features periods of submaximal running, which requires high
such as the sequence and the training intensity distribution anaerobic and aerobic capacity. Team-sport athletes,
seem to be important components for optimal adaptation. however, barely sprint in a linear direction but perform
This presentation will focus on different training concepts quick change-of-direction (COD) movements while mov-
(i.e., high-volume training, “threshold training,” high- ing forward, backward, or sideways. In addition, most COD
intensity interval training, and a combination of these movements are performed in response to an external
aforementioned trainings with a special emphasis on how stimulus such as ball movement, continuously changing
to assign the different training methods over time. game situations, and interacting opponents, which is known
as reactive agility. The Speedcourt is made of a platform
Individualized Training Prescription and Recovery with the dimensions 5.25 m £ 5.25 m. Twelve plates with
Management in Game Sports contact sensors are integrated in a symmetric order and are
displayed on a large screen. The Speedcourt shows a given
A. Ferrauti or randomized sequence of contact plates to the player.
Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany With each foot touchdown on the targeted contact sensor,
(alexander.ferrauti@rub.de) the next contact plate is visualized on the screen. Predefined
or randomized running paths challenge the player’s COD
Technical and tactical skills are predominant factors for a speed or reactive agility. The preplanned COD movements
game player’s success. Accordingly, it is of particular were shown to be reliable in sprints of various lengths (i.e., 8
importance to organize athletic training and the sub- s, 15 s, and 43 s). Validity was proven with the Illinois Agility
sequent recovery interventions as efficiently and quickly as and 5-0-5 test (Düking et al., 2016). While repeated shuttle
possible. An individualized physical training prescription sprints are commonly used in strength and conditioning,
based on multidimensional and regular physical testing is programs were 6 sessions of multidirectional COD sprints
obligatory especially in elite youth players, considering the in response to a visual stimulus on the Speedcourt superior
specificity of the respective game sport, the individual with respect to team sport-specific speed and agility (Born
strengths and weaknesses of the players, their game style et al., 2016). Additionally, preliminary data will be presented
and position, and their anthropometrics and biological age. regarding the reliability of a novel incremental exercise test
Besides individualizing the training prescription, currently, including multidirectional COD movements in response
there is increased attention on optimizing the recovery to a visual stimulus. Cardiorespiratory data have been
process. Recent convincing data point out that the period evaluated and proven to be valid with the conventional
between successive training and competition demands can procedures (i.e., Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Level 2 and
also be adapted on an individual level because significant ramplike treadmill test). The Speedcourt represents a
evidence for recovery improvements of specific interven- valuable method to improve team sport-specific speed and
tions is missing. This talk is based on longtime agility. The neuromuscular and cardiovascular performance
experimental data in the field of diagnostics and can be analyzed reliably and validly with respect to
intervention and includes practical experiences mainly in multidirectional COD movements in response to a visual
tennis but also in football and basketball players. We will stimulus.
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S87

Periodization of Strength, Speed, and Endurance physical education teachers follow the selected model
Training During a Handball Season “faithfully” by adopting the specific benchmarks of the
model (Gurvitch & Metzler, 2010), lest the research be
C. Zinner compromised (Hastie & Casey, 2014). However, Metzler
University of Wuerzburg, Germany (2011, p. 18) acknowledged that it will be “rare” that a
(christoph.zinner@uni-wuerzburg.de) model can be implemented exactly as described in the
local site-specific context of physical education teaching.
Handball is a team sport that is characterized by Consequently, the purpose of this study was to
numerous defensive and offensive actions. Physical and investigate academics’ perceptions of model fidelity
physiological demands during matches have partially when using tactical games models (TGMs). Participants
been investigated. The average running pace is relatively were 44 academics from across North America,
low in handball compared with other team sports like Australasia, the United Kingdom, and Europe who
soccer, basketball, rugby, and hockey. Even though the were identified through a literature search on TGMs and
greatest part of playing time consists of low-intensity associated game-centered models using a number of
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activities such as standing (,40%) and walking (,40%), multidisciplinary academic search engines. In January
handball is an intense sport for players. Besides a large 2016, academics responded to 1 online survey question
number of high-intensity actions (i.e., sprints, changes of that probed their perspectives on model fidelity, which
direction, jumps, etc.), the large amount of body contact was part of a larger data collection on current and future
and duels increases the neuromuscular load during and research on TGMs. Data were analyzed inductively.
after matches. These actions are very short in duration Results showed academics could not overwhelmingly
but are match-winning and are therefore important to agree on the need for model fidelity in TGMs. For
consider. However, team-average data of match analyses example, some academics vehemently supported follow-
are only of little interest for the practitioners, because ing benchmarks and noted things such as, “Validation
position-specific requirements differ greatly in handball. of the process is of utmost importance!”—particularly
For example, pivots run less than wings and backs but when it came to research. With that said, some
show the highest number of duels requiring a very high academics were opposed to benchmarks and noted that
level of strength and speed. Therefore, position-specific “there will be variation diversity in application based on
tasks, drills, and training content are important and context” and that focusing on fixed benchmarks
necessary to improve physical and physiological “disregards teachers’ professionalism.” A 3rd group of
requirements. Detailed training studies, especially for academics suggested a more parsimonious approach
certain playing positions, are missing. Therefore, most of where “teachers should follow the most important
the training content in professional handball is based on benchmarks that are the cornerstone of the model.”
the experiences of coaches rather than scientific knowl- Further debate on the notion of fidelity in TGMs is
edge. Here, we will present examples of different training required so that academics can agree on requirements
contents of possible periodization models in handball. for TGM research and practice.

Physical Education and Team Games Physical Education Majors’ Experience in a

Student-Designed Games Unit
Academics’ Perceptions of Model Fidelity When Using
Tactical Games Models M. H. Andre1 and M. H. C. Tsukamoto2
1
Leeds Beckett University, United Kingdom; 2University
S. Harvey1 and S. Pill2 of São Paulo, Brazil
1
West Virginia University, United States; 2Flinders (mauro.ha@gmail.com)
University, Australia
(Stephen.Harvey@mail.wvu.edu) Introduction: Student-designed games (SDGs) are the
process in which students create, practice, and refine their
Metzler (2011) proposed that instructional models own games and where the teacher acts as a facilitator in
represent the means by which teachers design and guiding and establishing certain limits (Hastie, 2010). The
implement decisions that create the learning environ- purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of a
ment experienced by students. It is recommended that group of physical education majors as they participated in
 S88 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

a teaching unit of SDGs. More specifically, the study and Physical Education at the University of Toronto will
sought to identify: (a) what their appreciation was in this be outlined and explained. This model, which I have
experience, (b) what their learning outcomes were, and (c) developed during the past 5 years, uses the 4 games
what their considerations were in teaching SDGs in their categorizations by Griffin and Butler (2005) as the
future professional practice. foundations for the course content. It then uses
Methods: Participants were 45 1st-year physical suggestions from Launder and Pilz (2013) and Light
education majors (22 women, 23 men) from a Brazilian (2012) as the means to deliver this content. Students who
university, who were members of 8 game-design are training to become HPE teachers make 4 individual or
groups. The SDG unit lasted for 4 weeks. Data group presentations in the areas of territory, striking, net,
collection included: (a) field notes, (b) online discussion wall, target, and adapted games. After each presentation,
forum participation, and (c) postintervention inter- students are given immediate written, verbal, and visual
views. Data were analyzed through a systematic process (video of themselves teaching) feedback. Students are
of inductive analysis and constant comparison among then required to reflect on the feedback from each
the 3 sources of data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). When presentation and compare their development from 1
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accumulated data confirmed similar findings, themes presentation to the next. HPE teacher candidates are
were generated. required to read Game Sense by Richard Light (2012) and
Results: Ten themes were developed from the data, and Play Practice by Launder and Pilz (2013) in Year 3 and to
these themes are located within the original research put pedagogical theory into practice.
questions. In terms of appreciation, themes included (a) In recent years, much has been written about different
liking the freedom of choice, and (b) appreciating games-teaching methods, which have evolved from the
different games. In terms of learning outcomes, themes teaching games for understanding (TGfU) model
included (a) learning about games classifications, (b) how originally proposed by Bunker and Thorpe (1982) and
to work in groups, (c) game appreciation, and (d) SDG updated by Griffin and Butler (2005). Although I
pedagogical methodologies. With respect to future acknowledge the origins of this model, in the teaching
adoption, students suggested they would (a) use SDG of games play, I use 2 other models that have evolved from
methodology to design other activities, (b) use SDG to TGfU. These models are the Game Sense model proposed
promote improved relationships among students, (c) by Light (2012) and the Play Practice model suggested by
promote teamwork, and (d) use SDG as they consider an Launder and Pilz (2013).
appropriate practice for children.
Conclusion: The present study supports SDG as a
Comparison of Researchers and Physical Education
meaningful experience that has the potential to teach
Teachers’ Perspectives on the Utilization of the Tactical
content (e.g., teamwork, game appreciation) from
Games Model
learning domains that are often overlooked within
physical education.
S. Harvey1 and S. Pill2
1
West Virginia University, United States; 2Flinders
Teaching the Pedagogy of Games Play to Future University, Australia
Physical Education Teachers (Stephen.Harvey@mail.wvu.edu)

D. Cooper Tactical games models (TGMs) have emerged in physical

University of Toronto, Canada education (PE) and have emphasized small-sided/
(david.cooper.a@utoronto.ca) modified game play, inquiry, and reflective practices
with students. However, research suggests the utilization
The goal of my presentation is to create discussion among of TGMs only exists in isolated instances, particularly
those of you who are involved in the training and where teachers demonstrate “true” fidelity to these
development of health and physical education (HPE) models. In contrast, many university-based academics
teacher candidates in the curriculum area of games seem to have adopted TGMs in their courses.
playing. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to investigate
As a starting point, the teaching model developed by reasons for this disparity. Participants were 44 academics
me and activity instructors in the Faculty of Kinesiology and 80 PE teachers. Academics were included based on
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S89

the search for publications on TGMs and associated under-19), 64 female age-matched soccer players (high
game-centered models during the past 20 years level but not selected for a U-National Team), and 35
undertaken using a number of multidisciplinary academic players of the A-National Team (preselection for the
search engines. In January 2016, academics responded to World Championships 2015). We focused on 2 questions.
6 online survey questions that probed their perspectives First, which components differentiate between U-
on current and future research on TGMs. In the same National Team players and their nonselected same-age
month, PE teachers participated in a Twitter chat held in peers? Second, are there any differences between the 4
4 different time zones. Data were analyzed inductively national teams? In 2014, all players completed a
and generated themes placed into Windschitl’s (2002) questionnaire covering 13 psychological components
constructivist “dilemmas” framework, which provides a based on the Sport-Related Achievement Motivation Test
heuristic to investigate beliefs, routines, and the forces (Frintrup & Schuler, 2007).
that shape pedagogical practice. Results showed that both Statistical analyses showed that players selected for a
academics and teachers supported TGMs due to their U-National Team differ from their peers on 9 of 13
focus on students’ holistic learning and affective domain components including higher aspiration level, stronger
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development. Academics cited a range of dilemmas for motivation by competition and status, and clearer long-
teachers: conceptual (i.e., equivocal research evidence), term goals (all p , .01). Comparisons of the 4 national
pedagogical (i.e., model fidelity), cultural (i.e., lack of teams indicate that younger players are more prevention-
support/mentors), and political (i.e., self-serving motivated (more effort after failure), are more strongly
research). PE teachers’ dilemmas included: conceptual motivated by status (both p , .001), and are tendentially
(i.e., pseudo-principles—game as teacher), pedagogical less persevering ( p ¼ .06) than players of the A-National
(i.e., content/pedagogical knowledge), cultural (i.e., Team. Long-term goals are most clearly formulated by
teacher washout), and political (i.e., competing TGM under-19 National Team players and are much clearer
models). There is a critical need to create improved than those of under-16 National Team players.
connections between academics and PE teachers through The study revealed important differences between
TGM professional development initiatives. Additional U-National Team players and less successful peers as well
research evidence for TGMs is also required and could be as differences between U-National Teams and the A-
achieved through the longitudinal examination of the National Team. Longitudinal monitoring will reveal if
micropedagogies of teacher practice in TGMs using a these motivational factors are generally relevant for these
range of research designs. specific transitions and at which levels sport psychologists
should watch out for motivational factors.
Talent Development in Female Soccer in Switzerland:
Important Motivational Factors for Successful Specialization Regarding Constitutional Demands in
Transitions From an Under-16 National Team Female Team Handball
to the A-National Team
J. Weber,1 M. Wegner,2 and S. Fatulescu2
1
S. Horvath, G. Morgan, and D. Birrer Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Germany;
2
Swiss Federal Institute of Sports Magglingen, Sanconfind, Romania
Switzerland (hlif@hotmail.de)
(stephan.horvath@baspo.admin.ch)
Constitutional factors are relevant for performance in
Female soccer rapidly and successfully developed in team handball (Čavala et al., 2013). Because only few
Switzerland in the last 10 years. In contrast, sport- studies have focused on female players and positional
psychological research in female soccer is still rare, and specialization (Weber, 2015), the current study will focus
the development of female players should be better on constitutional aspects of different playing positions in
supported by sport psychologists in the future. The aim of female team handball with respect to the connection of
the present study was to explore and identify motivational specialization and success. For this purpose, 654 female
factors that might be important for successful career players of German clubs of all performance levels were
transitions. Participants were 64 U-National Team tested regarding age, body height, body weight, and body
players (N ¼ 22 under-16, N ¼ 20 under-17, N ¼ 22 fat percentage next to biographical data regarding their
 S90 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

handball career. These data make it possible to calculate This paper presents an alternative model of PD. The
an expertise index stating the performance quality of PD model was devised and implemented as part of a Ph.
every player. After statistical analysis, it is evident that D. thesis, aimed at supporting teachers in implementing
there are significant differences between the positions GCA. An overview of the 4-phase PD model (i.e., needs
regarding constitutional factors. Expertise correlates with assessment, planning, implementation, and evaluation) is
constitutional performance factors. For some positions, provided and is used to support teachers in planning,
specialization correlates positively with expertise regard- delivering, and assessing a GCA unit of work. This paper
ing particular constitutional performance factors (e.g., reports the features and characteristics of effective PD and
body height for half-backs). Consequently, position the types of PD that are likely to enhance teacher learning
specialization seems to contribute to success in female when implementing GCA. As such, it explores the PD
team handball. Players should be trained accordingly, and required to support physical educators in facilitating and
on the senior level, they should be selected using the sustaining change.
appropriate information.
Training Teachers to Integrate Strategies to Develop
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New Developments in Team Games Pedagogy Social Competencies Through Playing (Modified)
Games
Professional Development for Game-Centered
Approaches: One Size Does Not Fit All L. Haerens, B. Mertens, V. Vonderlynck, and I. Tallir
Ghent University, Belgium
K. A. Parry (Leen.Haerens@UGent.be)
University of Wollongong, Australia
(kellyannparry@me.com) Research in education and physical education has
emphasized the need for continuing professional devel-
Implementing a game-centered approach (GCA) like opment programs that are aligned with best practices.
teaching games for understanding can be problematic Most teaching-games-for-understanding research has
and requires complex professional learning that focused on how students can acquire tactical and
considers a wide range of contextual factors within the technical competencies through playing (modified)
educational setting (Memmert et al., 2015). Yet teachers games.
attempting to implement GCA have been given little However, apart from executing the role of player,
support and have faced ridicule and even hostility in students can also learn through other roles such as referee,
physical education (PE) settings from PE practitioners, captain, or coach. By undertaking these roles, students are
coaches, parents, and the students themselves (Brooker not only able to acquire tactical insights, but they
et al., 2000; Light & Georgakis, 2005). At present, there simultaneously develop important social competencies
appears to be no effective model of professional such as taking the lead, accepting rules, effectively taking
development (PD) that supports teachers in implement- up tasks, listening to others, interacting in a confident and
ing GCA. empathic way, and providing and accepting feedback
Research into professional learning has shown that from others.
traditional “one size fits all” homogenous approaches to In the current study, it was investigated whether
PD, characterized by 1-day, 1-off, off-site workshops, is physical education teachers can be trained to effectively
inadequate and ineffective in supporting teachers to learn incorporate student roles (e.g., coach, referee, captain)
in ways that can enhance practice (Armour & into their regular game lessons. More specifically, we
Makopoulou, 2011; Armour & Yelling, 2004, 2007; developed and pilot-tested a framework that allows for
Casey, 2012). physical education teachers to gradually integrate these
Recent research has challenged this traditional model roles from the 1st to the last year of secondary school
of PD and has presented a consensus on the through a professional development program with 5
characteristics of PD deemed effective in enhancing physical education teachers. Data were collected through
teacher and pupil learning. Yet, we still know little about teacher and student interviews, observations, peer-group
how this research can inform practice, or more meetings, and document study.
specifically, how PD can be designed to support teachers Findings showed that the physical educators increased
to explore what GCAs look like in their own practice. their awareness of teaching strategies, they effectively
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S91

integrated them into their game-based lessons, and the reduce the mismatch between the formal state-of-the-art
integration of roles positively impacted students’ engage- curricula and the cultural, ideological practice of the
ment. Implications for game-based teaching as well as coaches.
professional development of teachers and coaches will be
discussed. Playness Pedagogy Compass

Pedagogical Innovation in Youth Sport: An Urgent and M. Hosta

Hard Mission Playness Ltd, Slovenia
(milan@playness.com)
C. E. Gonçalves and A. Martins
University of Coimbra, Portugal There are extensive research data regarding the
(cedgoncalves@gmail.com) changing behavior of preschool children related to
physical activity and free-play time in natural
Introduction: Research in sport pedagogy has led to environments. While physical and outdoor activity is
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diverse and innovative teaching approaches both in decline, the hours spent daily in front of the screen
theoretically and practically. However, research (TV, smartphone, tablet) are alarmingly increasing.
findings have had little impact on altering coaches’ Research conducted by Canadian nonprofit organization
behaviors. The present study aims to examine the ParticipACTION revealed that Canadian children
structure of practices for youth basketball teams and the spend an average of 7 hr and 48 min a day in front
perceptions of the coaches about pedagogical innovation. of televisions, video games, and computer screens.
Method: Twelve under-16 teams, ranging in ability According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
from local to elite (8 male and 4 female) participated in the number of overweight or obese infants and young
the study. Each team was video-recorded at all weekly children (aged 0 –5 years) increased from 32 million
practices during the competitive season using the globally in 1990 to 42 million in 2013. Data from the
reduced version of the Coach Analysis Intervention WHO’s Regional Office for Africa alone shows the
System (Stodter & Cushion, 2014). Twelve coaches (aged number of overweight or obese children increasing from
29 to 65 years old, with 9 to 35 years of experience), 4 million to 9 million during the same period.
participated in semistructured interviews about their By mapping out the fundamental principles of
concepts and use of pedagogical innovation. intervention that raise awareness of the importance of
Results and Discussion: No diversity in practice physical activity, the Playness Pedagogical Compass
structure was observed among the 12 coaches/teams. was created. It is a simple tool used to assess how
The only factor that influenced the sequence and well teachers are balancing their programs between
contents of the sessions was time to competition. Eight various developmental needs and pedagogical goals. The
of the coaches said they did not care about sport 4 cardinal directions of the Playness Pedagogical
pedagogy theories. The other 4 were aware of recent Compass are: somatics, playfulness, movement, and
theories, but in their opinion, “it does not work” because values. Somatics consists of methods of teaching
competition prevails over active learning. All coaches how we are physical bodies and the importance of
considered that every game with opposition in practice understanding our bodies. Playfulness, the 2nd point of
represents “decision-making training.” The findings the compass, represents the most celebrated mode of
corroborate previous research suggesting that coaches being. The 3rd point is movement. Movement is a basic
construct their knowledge embedded in their sport and principle of cognition through tactile-kinesthetic feel-
club culture and that coach education programs seem to ings. The final point of the Playness Pedagogical
have little relevance for coaches’ behavior change. Compass emphasizes the value-based importance
Competition seems to be the main factor that underpins of education. Values and relations among people are
the organization of practice sessions and coaches’ the key to enabling humane virtues to flourish and
decisions. bringing meaning into life. The presentation will
Conclusions: To challenge actual coaches’ beliefs and explore the definitions of these 4 cardinal points and
behaviors is a necessary and demanding task. The existing will show how pedagogues might employ them to better
coach education programs need to evolve to eliminate or understand their teaching.
 S92 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Global Initiation to Team Sports Emotional Intelligence Learning Package (CEILP) on

the status, acquisition, and short-term and long-term
C. G. Herrero1 and V. E. M. Blas2 retention of emotional intelligence (EI) in athletes and
1 sports personnel consequent of exposure to the CEILP as
Secondary School, Alonso Quijano, Alcalá de Henares-
Madrid, Spain; 2Secondary School, Antonio Hellin Costa, an activation tool for EI acquisition. This study
Spain investigated the inclination to acquire EI as a
(cgherrero.c@gmail.com) psychological criterion for wellness attainment in
participants after exposure to the CEILP. EI implies
The present works presents the implementation of an the intimate transaction of inner and outer forces,
innovative pedagogical practice to teach sports in a physical and social, that fuse to lead man to behave as he
school-based physical education context. The aim is to does. The study adopted self-regulation theory for its
develop students’ tactical awareness, ability, and will- theoretical base and conceptualized EI as an acquired
ingness to cooperate by introducing a different approach skill in occupational and career dispensations, job
for teaching sports. This global approach addresses sports performance, and satisfaction. The study employed a
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initiation and maximizes learning and active participation mixed-method research design. Thus, the quasiexperi-
where game time is vital in each lesson to facilitate the mental research design 1-group, pretest-posttest (GP-O-
acquisition of different competencies and their future T-O) was mixed with a focus-group discussion. The
implementation in real game situations and competition. Emotional Competence Inventory, an 18-question
This global approach to sports initiation helps students to instrument that assesses the handling of emotions in
develop their understanding of games by focusing on the life and work settings (Boyatzis, 1994), was employed to
essential components of technical and tactical elements in assess participants’ entry emotional status (pretest) while
the main forms of cooperation-opposition to address the the Self-Assessment Questionnaire (Boyatzis et al., 1996)
common skills and strategies (similarities with different a 28-question item was adapted and used to collect
games) and for better play. Teachers will teach concepts inclination to EI (posttest) data. A matched-pairs t test
that are transferable to more than 1 game to allow the indicated a pretest descriptive result (N ¼ 10;
versatility of the practicing child and adolescent, to M ¼ 30.70, SD ¼ 5.83) as well as posttest (N ¼ 10;
improve students’s all-around game play, to enable M ¼ 42.90, SD ¼ 7.40) and inferential, t(9) ¼ – 4.199,
students to enjoy game playing and make them never stop p ¼ .002. Findings indicated significant preparedness for
playing, thereby establishing a playful, active, practical, acquisition and retention of EI by participants as regards
and motivating methodology through the game, which wellness attainment at the workplace. It was rec-
reduces the time of pause and organization, to ensure full ommended that EI skill training should be extended to
utilization of time practice in each session. This new all cadres (rank and file) of personnel in the Ministries of
teaching style has proved to be an excellent learning Sports, Youth, and Social Development.
environment for every student to be an active learner
(thinking and decision making), where participating
Synergistics Are Observable Within and Across Multiple
seemed satisfying and significant (greater knowledge and
Levels of Skill Analysis
understanding of invasion games).

W. Smith
Psychosocial Factors Affecting Team Performance University of Auckland, New Zealand
(wayne.smith@auckland.ac.nz)
Effect of an Emotional Intelligence Learning Package
on Sports Directors’ Inclination Toward Emotional This presentation proposes an integrated approach to
Intelligence Acquisition and Retention teaching skills and argues against polarizing compari-
sons that are often made between individual skill
I. A. Oyewumi practices and Game Sense approaches. Previously, I have
Lagos State University, Nigeria written that skill may be defined as the expression of the
(akinloyeakinloye@yahoo.com) relational dynamics (synergies) that emerge from
nonlinear, self-organizing, interacting system com-
This is a preliminary report of a longitudinal study ponents, and I argue that this can be observed at
designed to examine the efficacy of the Concise multiple levels. For analytical purposes, these levels may
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S93

be described as intrinsic, individual, and interactive. providing a common scaffold, with the added complex
Each level of analysis offers insight into the complex system perspective for each of the components (called
system synergies involved in skillful performance. Often, rules in RTG), for teaching and learning provides a
when focusing on coordination dynamics in game promising alternative to the more common teaching of
contexts, the focus is still on the individuals’ actions and sports in silos.
not the relational dynamics between individuals, and
this focus limits our understanding of the true nature of Developing Sport Team Culture and Collective
skill. Therefore, any analysis of skill should involve more Leadership
than what can be observed at the level of the individual/
environment interface.
A. J. Martin and L. McCarthy
Massey University, New Zealand
Reinventing the Game (RTG) and the Learning of (A.J.Martin@massey.ac.nz)
Games
This presentation summarizes and reflects on the team
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B. Singh culture and collective leadership themes highlighted

CHIJ Secondary School, Singapore through analysis of interviews with high-performing
(balbindersingh@chijsec.edu.sg) New Zealand sport teams (e.g., the All Blacks). The
rationale for the research was based on Edgar Schein’s
One way of approaching teaching of games is to be wholly (2010) 3-level theoretical model of organizational
game-specific in the teaching process. In the reinventing culture integrating artifacts (rites and rituals, symbols,
the game (RTG) approach, lessons will be from the and stories), values and beliefs, and core assumptions.
perspective of breaking down a game (or building up a The findings from content analysis of semistructured
game—inventing), while keeping in focus the different interviews with captains and coaches indicate the pride
components of similar game types. The novel element of in the All Blacks legacy, pride in selection, and pride in
this approach is the scaffolding of all learning and winning, which are also constant factors in their
teaching to the identified 4 fundamentals: the passing, success. Symbols, such as the jersey with the silver fern,
movement, scoring, and interception components of any as well as rituals like the haka have become increasingly
game for net/wall, invasion, and striking & fielding. These important. The learning culture and learning leadership
fundamentals are combined with the field-of-play within the All Blacks instills a commitment to total
constraint to get students to understand and play better honesty in self and team reflection. Team leadership
in games within and across categories, thereby enhancing has moved beyond the traditional view to a more
long-term learning and using teaching games for shared-influence process. The development of a
understanding (TGfU) underpinnings. An ex-post factor collective leadership approach and a learning culture
qualitative study was done on the perception of games establishes a more formalized identity and culture that
learning among a group of 14 for 2 years in a single-sex is performance-driven (Johnson, Martin, & Watson,
school. The responses were recorded through a self- 2014). The presentation will also highlight how these
developed survey looking into perceptions of game findings can be transferred to regional and school
appreciation and learning. In 2012, the Secondary 2 environments. Examples will be provided of the
students, the whole cohort of 14-year-olds, were given a development stages of team building involving setting
survey to look at their perception of games learning after “great expectations” and integrating team rituals (e.g.,
about 0.5 years of existing physical education lessons. songs) and team values (e.g., trust, respect, spirit, pride,
In 2013, 3 classes were exposed to explicit the RTG and commitment), which are consistently reinforced.
approach. The other 8 classes were exposed to various Examples are also provided of the development of a
levels of RTG processes mentioned earlier and also relied collective “senior” leadership approach, which is
on existing TGfU approaches. The students were then focused on reinforcing a sense of pride and unity
given a similar self-evaluation in September 2013. The throughout the team. Leaders are actively encouraged to
results show that such an approach indeed has the engage as role models for other team members.
potential to impact students’ understanding, appreciation, Individual performance outcomes are also linked to
and thus future involvement in sports. The approach of team aims and objectives.
 S94 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Decision Making in Association Football game. Sports officials interact with players in a dynamic
environment under conditions of extreme pressure
Expert Perception and Decision Making in Assistant because their decisions might have a direct impact on
Referees: From Increased Understanding to Improved the outcome of a game. Recently, football’s lawmakers
Performance have given the green light to use video technology to
support referees. Therefore, we examined the impact of
K. Put, J. Wagenmans, J. Spitz, and W. F. Helsen video speed on the decision-making process of association
University of Leuven, Belgium football referees.
(koen.put@faber.kuleuven.be) Method: A group of 88 experienced Union of European
Football Associations top-class referees assessed 60 video
In today’s highly competitive sporting environments, clips of foul-play situations using an online video
stringent requirements are imposed on athletes and platform. For each situation, referees had to consider a
players. Evidently, they must possess a myriad of technical decision (no foul, indirect free kick, direct free
outstanding mental, physical, technical, and tactical skills. kick, penalty kick) and a disciplinary decision (no card,
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In addition, deliberate practice of domain-specific yellow card, red card) both in real time and slow motion.
perceptual-cognitive skills, such as anticipation, pattern Accuracy scores were calculated as the total number of
perception, and efficient visual search behavior, is decisions that corresponded with the reference decision of
required to enable efficient and correct decision making an expert panel.
under pressure. Results: Decision-making accuracy for the technical
Besides athletes and players, match officials are also decision was higher in slow motion (67%) compared with
subject to increasingly high demands. In this respect, the real time (56%), particularly for corner-kick situations.
current presentation will focus on maximizing the There were no differences in the accuracy scores for the
performance of assistant referees in association football. disciplinary sanction across video speeds. Further analysis
Five experimental studies will be discussed, all aiming to of the weighted mean, however, revealed that situations
improve assistant referees’ perceptual-cognitive skills, were assessed more “conservatively” in slow motion
which are considered particularly important for an compared with real time. Specifically, this means that
appropriate assessment of offside situations. slow motion results in more red cards compared with real
Although these findings predominantly relate to time.
assistant referees, the current methodology can also be Discussion: The impact of slow motion on the
applied to other groups. For example, some parts of the perception of foul play depends on the specific situation
design can be implemented to train the perceptual and and the type of decision. Our results show that situations
cognitive decision-making skills of elite athletes, referees, are assessed differently in slow motion and real time, and
physicians, and pilots. Although the impact and effects of this has important implications for the introduction of
certain decisions may be domain-specific, the influence of video technology. Specific guidelines and protocols for the
external factors (stress, time pressure, incomplete use of slow-motion replays are discussed.
information) is equally prominent across all domains.
Future research, therefore, should translate the present
findings to other research domains in which making The Effect of Manipulating Task Constraints and Player
correct decisions under pressure is of great importance. Numbers in Small-Sided Games in Field Hockey

E. A. Timmerman,1,2 G. J. P. Savelsbergh,3,4 and

Technology and Refereeing: Video Assistance in Real D. Farrow1,5
Time or Slow Motion? 1
Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living,
Melbourne, Australia; 2Hockey Australia; 3Vrije
J. Spitz, J. Put, and W. F. Helsen University Amsterdam, The Netherlands; 4University of
University of Leuven, Belgium Professional Education Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
5
(jochim.spitz@kuleuven.be) Australian Institute of Sport, Australia
(ewoutt@hotmail.com)
Introduction: The primary task of officials in team sports
is to control competitive matches so they are played in a Small-sided games (SSGs) are widely used by coaches as a
fair and safe way and in accordance with the laws of the training drill to improve technical skills, decision making,
 PEER-REVIEWED ORAL PRESENTATIONS S95

and the physical capacity of athletes. The structure of videos of the Dutch national soccer team failing in scoring
these SSGs can be manipulated in many ways, and penalty kicks and joy by videos of the German national
previous research has shown that manipulating the soccer team scoring penalty kicks. Additionally, partici-
number of players and field size in basketball and soccer pants judged each stimulus according to valence, arousal,
influences players’ behavior (Casamichana & Castellano, joy, schadenfreude, and sadness, and they were also
2010; Klusemann et al., 2012). However, as coaches videotaped. Results show that strong emotional reactions
manipulate more than just the number of players and field were triggered in a sport context. Electromyograhy results
size, more understanding is needed about the influence of revealed that participants could not resist a smile when
these different task constraints on player behavior. watching the Dutch soccer team messing up penalty kicks.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the Schadenfreude expressions did not differ from joy with
effect of manipulating task constraints and the number of regard to involved facial muscles (increase of Musculus
players on game performance of children in field hockey. zygomaticus major and M. orbicularis oculi activity,
A total of 14 field hockey players aged 10.2 years to 14.8 decrease of M. corrugator supercilii activity, no activity
years (40% girls) completed 24 matches of 2 7.5-min change of M. frontalis medialis). Smiles were stronger in
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halves where task constraints (1-goal game, 2-goal game, response to the outgroup’s failures compared with the
cage hockey [indoor hockey sideboards were placed on ingroup’s successes, but according to self-report, partici-
the sidelines], or possession game) and number of players pants felt more pleasure when the German team scored.
(3 players per team or 6 players per team) were These results show that schadenfreude is associated with a
manipulated. Match performance was determined by spontaneous and honest smile, a so-called Duchenne
using notational analysis (SportscodeTM). A 2-way smile. In a follow-up study, participants had to judge
analysis of variance with repeated measures (with task whether the videotaped participants experienced joy or
constraint and player numbers as within-participant schadenfreude. Results indicated that joy and schaden-
factors) was used to determine the effect of task freude can be differentiated by an observer. Possibly,
constraints and player numbers on player behavior. schadenfreude can be differentiated from joy by an
Results revealed that reducing the number of players led asymmetric smile or body posture, which will be
to a significant increase in technical actions performed by investigated in future studies. These results have
young field hockey players (i.e., number of passes, important implications for research on the nature of
number of dribbles) and that the possession game differed (social) emotions.
the most from the 1-goal, 2-goal, and cage hockey games.
It seems that the removal of a goal led to more teamwork Training Science
and less individual actions. The discussion will focus on
the practical implications of SSGs for the acquisition of The Problem of Strategies of Volitional Control of
technical skills in field hockey. Movement for Movement Quality and Movement
Creativity
The Face of Schadenfreude: Facial Reactions to Failures
of a Rival Sport Team D. Temme, T. Temme, and D. Ercenk-Heimann
German Sport University Cologne, Germany
L. Boecker and S. Topolonski (d.temme@dshs-koeln.de)
University of Cologne, Germany
(lea.boecker@uni-koeln.de) The current research examines experimental improvisa-
tion processes to investigate the role of volitional control
Schadenfreude is defined as the pleasant emotion that strategies in both the quality (fluency, economy) and
arises in response to another person’s misfortune. creativity of movement execution.
Schadenfreude can also be experienced at the intergroup Forming the theoretical foundations of this work are
level—for instance, in response to the failure of a rival the concept of human movement as a process (Hossner,
soccer team. To investigate which facial expression people 2015; Schürmann & Temme, 2015; Temme, 2015), the use
show when experiencing schadenfreude and whether this of volitional control for successful writing (Mai &
expression differs from pure joy, we recorded facial Marquardt, 1996), the deactivation of functions of
expressions via facial electromyography. We tested 32 movement monitoring during jazz improvisation (Limb
soccer-interested men. Schadenfreude was induced by & Braun, 2008), and the synchrony and fluency of
 S96 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

movement in group improvisation (Noy et al., 2011). and after the survey. All participants did a 20-m linear
By means of our proposed research paradigm, we want to sprint, a pendulum sprint, and a specific tennis agility
explore how conscious and unconscious strategies of sprint. The 2nd part of the diagnostic is the leg curl, leg
movement control manifest themselves in movement extension, countermovement jump (CMJ), and drop
behavior. We hypothesized that strategies of volitional jump (DJ) test.
movement control do not enable—but rather disturb— Results: Most of the results of the survey are still being
movement behavior and movement quality. The 1st step reviewed. So far, it looks like there is a significant
of our approach was a theoretical study (philosophy, difference between the IVO participants and the control
pedagogy) about concepts of movement and movement group relating to the results of the leg curl, leg extension
control. Our findings are able to bring those concepts into tests, the CMJ, and the DJ test. All results will be available
question, which conceives movement as an action. for the conference.
Through the lens of activity theory (Leont’ev, 2012), we Discussion (Assumption): The results show that you
see movement as a process that runs by itself. This can improve the strength of leg muscles (and speed) with
concept of process is connectable with our qualitative specific speed training. By using the tensile strength tool
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movement observations (Laban). We found that strategies IVO, you can get better results in comparison with the
of (self-)instruction lead to different ways of moving: results without resistance.
Participants who work with control strategies of making
movement(s) tend to show less fluency and creativity than Systematic Training of the Opening Shots in Tennis
do those participants who use strategies/self-instructions
of “free floating” or “let-go.” In the 2nd step, we want to
create a context in which strategies of volitional R. Grambow
German Sport University Cologne, Germany
movement control are suppressed and strategies of “free
(r.grambow@dshs-koeln.de)
floating” are provoked: Concerning the fluency and
creativity of movement, we compare shared improvisa- Introduction: In men’s world-class tennis, 80% of all
tions as a context of dynamic adaption with contexts of points are finished after a maximum of 8 strokes. Within
lead and follow. The different strategies of movement these points, only serve and return cover 45% (Weber
control are also relevant for movement learning and et al., 2010) of what underlines their importance.
creativity in sports. However, not only the length of the rallies seems to be
statistically significant, but also the position of the 3rd
Survey About the Effect of Speed Training for shot.
Tennis Players With and Without New Tensile Methods: The test sample contains 15 matches (Round
Strength-Training Equipment Called IVO 16, quarterfinal, semifinal, final) from Wimbledon 2008
(Grambow, 2009). The results are categorized in
D. Meffert placement, frequency, success rate, and direct service
German Sport University Cologne, Germany winners. Additionally, the player’s position hitting the 3rd
(d.meffert@dshs-koeln.de) shot is analyzed by frequency and success rate.
Results: Comparing all men’s matches starting with
Introduction: The meaning of speed in tennis is without Round 4 up to the final of Wimbledon 2008, 35% of all
doubt (Ferrauti et al., 2014). A player with an outstanding points are finished after serve and return and 62% after
speed ability has an advantage in comparison with others. 4 shots (Grambow, 2009). Within these matches, the
The maximum speed of a player is just as important as serving player hits the 3rd shot of the rally nearly half the
the skill to stop and speed up (Fernandez-Fernandez time (48%) in an offensive position and is winning
et al., 2010; Kovacs, 2006). The goal of the study is to the point 66% of the time. The 3rd shot is taken 40% in a
show the effect of training with a tensile strength tool neutral position and 12% in a defensive position. The
called IVO. winning percentages drop to 47% (neutral) and 26%
Procedure: Twenty tennis players (mostly students, (defensive).
only men) took part in this study. Ten participants always Discussion: Because the majority of rallies are finished
used the training tool, and 10 did not. The study lasted 6 or decided in the early stages (serve and return plus the
weeks with training 3 times weekly. One training session opening shots), the training should focus a lot on these
lasted 20 min. There was a specific diagnostic test before parts of the game.
 PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS

Influence of Some Social Characteristics of People With changes in cognitive representations and their relation-
Intellectual Disabilities for Practicing Sport and Physical ship to skill acquisition. In this study, we compared the
Activity in the Republic of Macedonia effects of action observation and motor imagery on the
development of mental representation structure and
I. Anastasovski, L. A. Velichkovska, V. Zivkovic, and golf-putting performance during the early learning stage.
A. Spirkosvki Forty novices were randomly assigned into 1 of 4
Faculty of Physical Education, Sport and Health, groups: action observation, motor imagery, physical
Macedonia practice, and no practice. Tests were conducted before
(prof.anastasovski@gmail.com) and after 3 days of practice and then after a 2-day
retention period. The tests measured the mental
We explored the impact of some social features for representation structure of the putting as well as the
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practicing sport and physical activity for people with accuracy and consistency of putting performance.
intellectual disabilities in the country. The survey Results showed that the 3 practice groups (i.e., action
respondents were people with intellectual disabilities observation, motor imagery, and physical practice)
who provided answers to questions from a questionnaire. significantly improved both the accuracy and consist-
The 101 respondents to the survey were Macedonian ency of their putting performance on the postpractice
citizens who are categorized as persons with intellectual and retention tests compared with their pretest
disabilities, regardless of their gender, ethnic, religious, performance. The no-practice group did not show any
socioeconomic, and residential background and their improvement in putting performance over test sessions.
diagnosis established on the basis of medical analysis. Moreover, it was found that the mental representation
On the official figure of people with intellectual disability structures of all 3 practice groups changed during
in Macedonia, this research surveyed 2% of the same practice, resulting in more elaborate and structured
population, which represents a relevant number for representations of the putt. Interestingly, with regard to
successful interpretation of the results. In the ques- the ease of use of action observation and motor imagery,
tionnaire, participants were given opportunities to express the results of the postexperimental questionnaire showed
their social and socioeconomic data including: age, that the use of action observation was significantly more
socioeconomic status, residential status (urban or rural), efficient to reduce one’s mental workload compared with
ethnic affiliation, and diagnosis of disability. One can the use of motor imagery. Taken together, these findings
generally conclude that the state and its institutions, be it confirm the results of previous studies on the learning
state or any local authority in turn, must pay very close effects of the 2 cognitive interventions. However,
attention to this issue or give institutional opportunities they also contribute further evidence that mental
for persons with intellectual disabilities for practicing representation plays a crucial role in controlling motor
sport and physical activity in the country. skill performance and that ease-of-use action obser-
vation may be superior to motor imagery as a cognitive
Mental Representation and Cognitive Intervention: intervention.
A Systematic Comparison on the Effects of Action
Observation and Motor Imagery on the Development of ‘Dyed in the Wool’ Competition and the Adaptation of
Mental Representation Structure and Skill Performance Performance Routines in Self-Paced Tasks

T. Kim, C. Frank, and T. Schack K. Velentzas

Bielefeld University, Germany Bielefeld University, Germany
(ksresearch77@gmail.com) (k_velentzas@gmx.net)

Despite increasing comparative studies on neurophysio- Introduction: Optimal performance in training and
logic mechanisms and the motor-learning effects of competition is significantly related to performance
action observation and motor imagery, the 2 cognitive routines (Lidor, 2009; Velentzas, Heinen, & Schack,
interventions have not yet been compared in terms of 2011). However, no studies have scrutinized the

q 2016 SHAPE America

 S98 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

adaptation of such strategies in critical competitive perspective (basket at the top; 08 orientation) or upside
situations. The present study aims to address this gap down (basket at the bottom; 1808 orientation). Twenty
by analyzing the use of routine depending on prior playing patterns were presented in each of the
performance. orientations in a randomized order. Dependent variables
Method: Twenty-eight female gymnasts from 3 were the observation time (information-processing
different competitive levels participated in this study demand) and the radial error between the target
(near experts, N ¼ 9; intermediate, N ¼ 9; novices, positions and the actual executions (spatial accuracy)
N ¼ 10). The task of handspring on vault was chosen. measured by video analysis for 3 positions (screen, catch,
Eight sets of 2 video sequences were presented in a and shot position). Observation time was significantly
random order, and the 1st vault was classified as longer for the 1808 orientation (M ¼ 13.73 s, SD ¼ 5.87;
successful or unsuccessful. The participants were asked p ¼ .001, d ¼ 1.71) and for the 08 orientation
to report their routines (think-aloud protocols) simul- (M ¼ 8.68 s, SD ¼ 3.36). Furthermore, the analysis-of-
taneously on video. variance Orientation (08, 1808) £ Action (screen, catch,
Results: The analysis of the routines’ use frequency shot) interaction for spatial accuracy showed a main
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reveals no significant differences between groups, effect of orientation ( p ¼ .023, h2p ¼ .45), as the radial
x 2 (2) ¼ 0.189, p . .05 (cognitive); x 2 (2) ¼ 0.115, error for the 1808 orientation (M ¼ 129.6 cm,
p . .05 (behavioral). A more specific analysis shows SD ¼ 20.5) was significantly higher compared with the
significant differences between the 3 groups concerning 08 orientation (M ¼ 112.3 cm, SD ¼ 14). The effects are
the use of process-regulatory strategies after an explained by mental rotation processes that are
unsuccessful 1st handspring, x 2(2) ¼ 7.95, p ¼ .036. necessary to transform the instructional perspective
Discussion and Conclusion: The results of the present into the players’ perspective on the court. Accordingly,
study are partly in line with previous research or coaches should align tactic boards to players’ on-court
assumptions showing that athletes tend to adapt their viewing perspective.
routines to regulate the movement execution after
unsatisfactory performance in the 1st trial. However, Technique Feedback in Basketball: Individual
effort must be invested to clarify the effects of routine Diagnostic System Based on Cognitive Representation
adaptation on the optimization of learning and
performance (e.g., tennis serves or basketball free
throws). L. Vogel
Bielefeld University, Germany
(ludwig.vogel@uni-bielefeld.de)
Mental Rotation of Tactical Instructions in Basketball
Increases Processing Demand and Execution Inaccuracy Technique performance is a central topic in motor
learning in sport games, but it is also a crucial factor for
T. Koopmann, D. Krause, Y. Steffemann-Weinrich, and successful performance during sport competitions.
J. Baumeister Building on the assumption that mental representations
University of Paderborn, Germany are the cognitive base for motor actions, we will present a
(willykoopmann@web.de) cognitive diagnostic system for the jump shot in
basketball. We will show how to measure and analyze
Coaches in sport games use tactic boards to present individual cognitive structures of the jump shot. Based on
instructions in time-pressure situations like timeouts, the results, we give insight into how the information can
often with a tendency toward high demands in visual- be used in technique training.
spatial transformation (e.g., mental rotation; Schul et al., Therefore, the cognitive representation can be
2014). We assume that the use of these tactics impedes compared on an individual level and on a group level.
information processing as well as execution accuracy. Thus, it is possible to contrast expert or biomechanical
In a within-subjects design, 10 novice students reference structures with the individual structure of
(Mage ¼ 23.4 years, SD ¼ 1.43) were instructed with an athlete. Furthermore, this study investigates the
static visual tactical instructions on a laptop screen cognitive representation of the jump shot of 15 basketball
showing basketball-playing patterns for a single player novices in reference to an expert. The results show
either with low spatial disparity to the players’ on-court significant differences between the expert and the
 PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS S99

novices. The expert shows a well-structured and can affect the visual control of basketball players during
functionally organized cognitive structure, whereas the execution of shots.
novices’ cognitive representations were organized less The study was supported by Grant No. RSA2 018 52
functionally. In summary, we present an approach to use from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher
cognitive representations to enrich technical training in Education, under Contract No. 0012/RS2/2013/52.
game sports.
Analysis of the Teaching– Learning Process and
Gaze Control in Basketball Jump Shots and Free Throws Procedural Tactical Knowledge in Mini-Basketball

T. Zwierko,1 M. Popowczak,2 M. Wozniak,1 and J. C. Pérez-Morales,1 G. M. Praca,2 and P. J. Greco1

A. Rokita2 1
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil; 2Federal
1
University of Szczecin, Poland; 2University School of University of the Valleys of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri,
Physical Education, Poland Brazil
(teresa.zwierko@univ.szczecin.pl) (jkperezmorales@gmail.com)
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Introduction: Visual control is 1 of the main factors The aim of this study was to analyze the teaching–
influencing the efficiency of basketball shooting. Proper learning (TL) process and the development of
visual fixation toward the hoop and backboard during procedural tactical knowledge (PTK) in mini-basketball
shooting is necessary for preprogramming various training sessions. Eleven children aged 10 to 12 years
movement parameters (e.g., direction, force, velocity, old participated in this study. The basketball TL process
timing, and eye –hand coordination). The main aim of the proposed by a physical education teacher with 10 years
study was to examine the relationship between gaze of experience was assessed. Eighteen training sessions
behavior and shooting efficiency in static and dynamic were recorded and analyzed to determine the time spent
conditions. on and the frequency of use of the task conditions
Materials and Methods: Thirteen elite and near-elite proposed by the teacher. PTK was assessed before and
basketball players performed the dynamic 60-s 2-point after the training sessions during game-test situations.
jump shot test. In this study, the fatigue protocol by The tactical parameters to measure PTK were (a)
Pojskić et al. (2011) was used. Before and after the jump offering and orienting (OO) and (b) recognizing spaces
shot, test players performed 2 free throws. During the test, (RS), both subdivided in convergent and divergent. The
heart rate was recorded at 1-s intervals. A mobile experts in the evaluation of PTK presented an internal
binocular eye-tracking system (SensoMotoric Instru- consistency of .88, measured using the Cronbach’s
ments [SMI] ETG 2w, Germany) was used to record the alpha coefficient. Cohen’s Kappa coefficient for
numbers of fixation points, gaze-stabilizing fixation interobserver reliability was, on average, .86 for the
points (quiet eye), and total fixation time during the task conditions observed during the training sessions.
static and dynamic shot tasks. SMI BeGaze software was The total duration of the observed training sessions
used for data analysis. was 1,267.46 min, distributed into conversation with
Results: The initial results showed that players’ the players (226.49 min), isolated activities of skill
shooting efficiency depended on the fixation duration training (249.82 min), small-sided games and tactical
(r ¼ .791, p , .01) and frequency of fixation (r ¼ 2.665, intelligence games (TIGs; 639.93 min), and 5-v-5 games
p , .05). Highly skilled players had a lower frequency of (151.22 min). Regarding the task conditions, the
fixation on the hoop during shooting than did near-elite frequency of use of isolated activities of skill training
players ( p , .05). After the intensive dynamic 60-s 2- (27.34%) and TIG (39.31%) was predominant. The
point jump shot test, the increase in free-throw frequency nonparametric Wilcoxon test showed an increase in
of fixation ( p , .01) and the decrease in free-throw PTK from pretest to posttest in the OO convergent
duration of fixation ( p , .05) were observed. (Z ¼ 22.822, p ¼ .005) and in the OO divergent
Conclusion: It was concluded that gaze behavior (Z ¼ 2 2.259, p ¼ .024) parameters. The proposed
during the preparation and execution of the shot leads activities of TL observed in the training sessions favored
to higher levels of accuracy. Moreover, physical effort the development of the parameter OO, which evaluates
 S100 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

the tactical behavior of the player in attack without change the number of players unequally between the
the ball. teams to create situations of numerical superiority. This
context is particularly useful to represent tactical
The Effect of Competitive Anxiety and Complexity of situations in which a zone defense must be adopted by
Task on the Processing Efficiency and Performance the players to reduce the opponent’s chance to score
Effectiveness of Table-Tennis Players goals. However, the influence of offensive numerical
superiority on the tactical behavior of soccer players is
still inconclusive. This study aimed to compare the
M. G. Moghadam and S. M. Zadkhosh tactical behavior of under-17 soccer players when
University of Tehran, Iran
playing SSGs with an additional player inside the pitch
(mohamadzadkhosh@gmail.com)
(4 v 3) or 2 support players at the sides (3 v 3 þ 2).
The aim of this study was to examine the processing Eighteen youth male soccer players participated in a 3-
efficiency theory in sport skills with different levels of week data collection period in the respective configur-
complexity. Sixteen table-tennis players were tested using ations. Tactical behavior was analyzed through the
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table-tennis tasks with low and high complexity and 2 System of Tactical Assessment in Soccer, a protocol that
levels of anxiety. The test included 2 decision-making allows for the tactical behavior assessment related to
tests in which ball color signified the target to which the fundamental tactical principles. Chi-square tests with
ball should be hit. Cognitive anxiety was manipulated significance levels of .05 were used to analyze the data.
through a competitive ranking structure and prize money. Results showed that the 4-v-3 game allowed players to
Participants’ accuracy in hitting targets was taken as a perform more offensive coverage and offensive unity
measure of performance effectiveness, while probe principles when attacking, while the 3-v-3 þ 2 game led
reaction time (PRT) and perceived mental effort the athletes to perform more width and length and
(RSME) were recorded as measures of efficiency. Data penetration principles. Similarly, the 4-v-3 game
were analyzed using separate factorial repeated-measures demanded more actions of defensive coverage from
analysis of variance for each variable in which anxiety the defenders. In summary, both configurations allowed
(low and high) and complexity (low and high) were players to perform a consistent number of actions
within-participant factors. The result showed that anxiety without the ball, and the specific behaviors observed can
had no significant effect on performance effectiveness in be used to better adjust the game representation to
both tasks ( p . .05). There was a significant increase in teacher intentions within the TGfU unit.
PRT in both tasks under high- versus low-anxiety
conditions, but this increase in RSME values was only Covered Distance and Activity Profile of African
found in tasks with low complexity ( p , .05). In total, the Professional Soccer Players According to the Playing
results provide support for processing efficiency theory. Position: Reports From Soccer World Cup 2014

Soccer Small-Sided Games Manipulated by Represen- I. Hassan

tation: The Additional Player Effect Zagazig University, Egypt
(dr.ibrahim.univ@gmail.com)
G. Praça,1 J. Morales,2 M. V. Silva,2 and P. Greco2
1
Federal University of the Valleys of Jequitinhonha and Some researchers have suggested that the distance
Mucuri, Brazil; 2Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil covered during high-intensity running in matches is a
(gibson_moreira@yahoo.com.br) valid measure of physical performance in soccer because
of its strong relationship with training status. In addition,
Manipulating games by representation is a useful the activity profile of African professional soccer players
strategy in teaching games for understanding (TGfU) during match play could be helpful as a good indicator of
units because it allows players to develop specific tactical training.
contents in line with practitioners’ levels of proficiency. The purpose of the current study was to describe the
In this sense, small-sided games (SSGs) with different activity profile during soccer-match play, including the
pitch sizes, numbers of players, and specific rules are total covered distance, number of sprints, top speed, and
commonly used in TGfU units in many sports, time spent in different activities during matches among
including soccer. In these games, it is possible to African professional soccer players who participated in
 PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS S101

the 2014 Men’s Soccer World Cup, and the difference specific players of both teams are allowed; (b) include
between the playing positions. several goals or targets per team; (c) implement areas
All data were obtained from the international soccer that do not allow aiming for the target or goal; (d)
federation website (FIFA). The participants were restrict individual players’ movement with the ball; (e)
professional soccer players from 5 African teams. The assign different players with varied ball handling and/or
analyses included all matches that were played during the movement options; (f) replace intensive body-involving
1st round (3 matches for every team). The results showed forms of defense with symbolic defense actions; (g)
a significant difference in total covered distance introduce alternative forms of catching and stopping the
(F ¼ 17.50, p ¼ .01), covered distance in ball possession game’s object; (h) stipulate indirect target actions; (i) do
(F ¼ 12.03, p ¼ .01), covered distance not in ball not place targets at the end of the playing field, but on it;
possession (F ¼ 18.79, p ¼ .01), sprint number and (j) create low, small-area, or adjustable targets, play
(F ¼ 3.12, p ¼ .05), and time spent in low, medium, without a goalkeeper, and design high obstacles for wall/
and high activities (F ¼ 10.19, 12.62, and 6.71, respect- net games.
ively; p ¼ .01). The results showed significant differences
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between playing positions for all parameters except the

total sprint number during the game. Behavioral Regulation in Coaches: A German Version of
Algerian players had the highest total covered distance the Coach Motivation Questionnaire (CMQ-G)
and spent the most time in high activity during match
play, while the players from Ghana had the highest C. Zepp,1 P. Schaffran,2 M. Kellmann,2,3 C. Mallett,3 and
number of sprints. The results based on playing positions J. Kleinert1
1
demonstrated that midfielders had the best values in the German Sport University Cologne, Germany;
2
covered-distance parameters, while forward players had Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany; 3University of
Queensland, Australia
the best values in sprint number and top speed during
(c.zepp@dshs-koeln.de)
matches.
The organismic integration theory (OIT) is used as the
Rule Changes in Competitive Ball Games to Increase theoretical model for understanding motivation in
Game Participation of Players With Low Playing Skills several contexts, such as sport and coaching (Hagger &
Chatzisarantis, 2007). The OIT describes 6 different forms
M. Kolb of behavior regulation (i.e., amotivation as well as external,
University of Vienna, Austria introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regu-
(michael.kolb@univie.ac.at) lation). McLean, Mallett, and Newcombe (2012) devel-
oped the Coach Motivation Questionnaire (CMQ) to
A key issue in physical education (PE) is the high level assess these different behavioral regulations in coaches.
of heterogeneity regarding abilities and motor skills of The present study presents preliminary results on the
students. In individual sports, this issue can be addressed validation of a German translation of the CMQ. The
by methodical-didactic alternatives (e.g., internal differ- sample includes 233 coaches (72.5% male; Mage ¼ 37.3
entiation) offering motor tasks of variable degrees of years, SD ¼ 13.7 years) from 32 different individual and
difficulty. In team sports, internal differentiation is a team sports. Whereas 28.7% of the participants had
particular challenge. Sports games do not only require experience in coaching for up to 5 years, 24.9% had
equal teams for a balanced competition, but they also experience of up to 10 years, and 46.4% had experience
require a minimum of individual differences in of more than 10 years. The original version of the
performance within the teams. Observations during PE measurement has been linguistically adapted after a
demonstrate that in teams with highly varying playing translation and back translation. Five subscales of the
skills, strong players often dominate and play with each CMQ show good internal consistencies (Cronbach’s
other. Thus, the inclusion of weaker players is limited alpha ¼ .76 –.88), whereas the subscale of Introjected
and may result in loss of motivation. Experiences from Regulation was not found to be internally consistent
practice show that participation of students with lower (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .60). According to the criteria of Hu
playing skills can be improved through basic rule and Bentler (1999), fit indexes of an initial confirmatory
changes in competitive sports games. For example: (a) factor analysis (CFA) were not strong, x(194) ¼ 441.87,
Separate the playing field into zones in which only p , .001 (chi square/degree of freedom ratio [CMIN/DF]
 S102 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

¼ 2.28, Comparative Fit Index [CFI] ¼ .91, Tucker-Lewis ethnographic approach was adopted using audio-recorded
Index [TLI] ¼ .90, standardized root mean square residual field notes and a personal diary as the instruments for
[SRMR] ¼ .09, root mean square error of approximation data collection. The results illustrate how the coach
[RMSEA] ¼ .07). After an exploratory factor analysis, 4 mentor strategically uses her mentor –mentee relationship
items were deleted, leading to 3 items in each subscale. The to reshape the narrative used with mentees to “think
subsequently executed CFA showed satisfactory results, x like a digital game designer” in the coaching context.
(120) ¼ 235.43, p , .001 (CMIN/DF ¼ 1.96, CFI ¼ .95, The intention of this study is not to offer a prescriptive
TLI ¼ .94, SRMR ¼ .07, RMSEA ¼ .06), with convincing model of practice, but to raise the awareness of the
standardized estimates. The theory-based development of real-life challenges of changing the way coaches think
the CMQ was supported in a revised German translation and act.
of the measurement tool. Further studies are needed to test
the translated measure against convergent and discrimi-
Joint Action Imagery: The Influence of Mental Practice
nant criteria.
on the Functional Structuring of Tactical Skill
Representations in Skilled Futsal Players
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Mentoring Grassroots Youth Participation Coaches

Toward a ‘Good Digital Game Design Features’ G.-L. Linstromberg,1 L. Hennig,2 T. Heinen,2
Coaching Approach: An Ethnographic Account T. Schack,1,3and C. Frank1,3
1
Bielefeld University, Germany; 2Hildesheim University,
A. Price Germany; 3Cluster of Excellence Cognitive Interaction
St. Mary’s University, United Kingdom Technology, Germany
(amy.price@stmarys.ac.uk) (cornelia.frank@uni-bielefeld.de)

In recent years, game-centered approach (GCA) research While research on imagery and motor skill learning is
has been well populated with studies that enhance the vast, research on imagery and tactical skill learning is
theoretical underpinnings of coaching of games. Never- scarce and lacks systematic approaches and their
theless, there has been limited attention paid to how evaluation (Guillot et al., 2009; Memmert et al., 2009;
GCA models such as teaching games for understanding Westlund et al., 2012). In the present study, we
(TGfU) can be merged with alternative fields of game developed an approach to practice joint action by way
studies to make games accessible. This study acknowl- of imagery and evaluated its impact on tactical skill
edges similarities between a coach and a digital game development. Specifically, the impact of a joint action
designer using the notion that “good game designers are imagery intervention on representations of team-specific
practical theoreticians of learning” (Gee, 2013, p. 21) and tactics in skilled futsal players was investigated. Players
that the rationale for TGfU and rationale for digital video were assigned to 1 of 2 groups: a mental practice group
games are similar—to attract and sustain participation and a (no mental practice) control group. The mental
and performance through challenging and enjoyable practice group practiced 4 team-specific tactics (i.e.,
practice. counterattack, play making, pressing, and transitioning)
This study aims to capture the author’s experiences of by repeatedly imagining joint actions during specific
implementing “good digital design features” (Gee, 2013) game situations for 3 times a week during the course of
into her practice as a coach mentor for the English 4 weeks. Players were tested prior to and after the
Football Association, where she mentors grassroots intervention for their representations of team-specific
(youth participation) football coaches from 1 local futsal tactics and employed structural-dimensional
football club. The coaching climate for mentees at their analysis of mental representations (Schack, 2012). Results
grassroots club involved a focus on technical outcomes, revealed well-structured representations for both groups
with a high amount of coach instructional feedback. As a before and after the intervention, reflecting 4 team-
result, players have become acclimatized to a coach- specific tactics. Importantly, the mental practice groups’
centered environment, where players do not develop their representations were more similar to those of an expert
decision-making skills, which was the rationale for after the intervention as compared with the control
Bunker and Thorpe’s (1982) TGfU. group. This study extends recent findings on expert–
To capture the coach mentor’s experiences, thoughts, novice differences (Lex et al., 2015), indicating that joint
and reasoning throughout the season (9 months), an action imagery can have a significant impact on players’
 PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS S103

tactical skill representations in long-term memory. understanding of how teachers can successfully
Consequently, practitioners may consider implementing implement CPIs in a secondary PE department. The
micro-sessions of imagery within their tactical training findings have been categorized into 5 major themes:
sessions to help foster representations of team-specific curricular and pedagogical innovations; cultural change;
tactics in team sports. Future research should investigate leadership and support; relationships and collaboration;
joint action imagery interventions and their impact and barriers to implementing change. This study provides
on different levels of joint action organization to more a starting point for future research, debate, and reflection
thoroughly understand tactical skill development and to on encouraging cultural changes that make PE depart-
deliver most effective interventions on the way to tactical ments relevant in the 21st century.
expertise and game intelligence (Memmert et al., 2015;
Raab et al., 2007). Sports Education in Brazil: Motriz Publications and
References to TGfU
Enacting Change in a Secondary Physical Education
Department M. V. Euzebio, I. Scremin, and F. R. Costa
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University of Brasilia, Brazil

S. McGinley and G. Kanavos (iuri.screminedf@gmail.com)
University of British Columbia, Canada
(steve.mcginley@ubc.ca) This study aims to analyze the Brazilian academic work
produced on physical education about teaching
This poster explores enacting change in a physical methods, while emphasizing the teaching games for
education (PE) department and the successful understanding (TGfU) method and the responsible
implementation of curriculum and pedagogical inno- authors. For now, we used as a research source the
vations (CPIs). The focus examines how to initiate publications available on Motriz, an important scientific
effective pedagogical change using CPIs such as: journal for educational purposes in the physical
teaching games for understanding (TGfU), sport education field. The describing keywords we used on
education, physical literacy (PL), personal and social the journal’s searching tool were “teaching games for
responsibility, movement education, and inventing understanding”; “TGfU”; “métodos de ensino”; “ensinar
games. The educational significance includes assistance para a compreensão”; and “pedagogia do esporte.” We
with the successful implementation of PE innovations have found 19 articles, among which 12 refer to
for the 21st century. The cultural transformation pedagogical or methodological aspects. These articles,
cultivates an environment that will embrace inno- published from 2004 to 2012, reinforce the learning of
vations. This poster attempts to describe the experiences tactical aspects and the orientation to team sports
of secondary PE teachers enacting curricular and instruction based on the ecological perspective. Three
pedagogical change in a secondary PE department. publications establish comparisons between the appli-
The following thematic sections are explored: knowing, cation of diverse teaching methods and the learning
learning, and teaching; TGfU, PL, and PE; pedagogical of the technique and game comprehension. Another 4
change in PE; PE culture and curriculum innovation; articles introduce pedagogic proposals to team sports
technology as a change agent; PE department cultural education and even suggest the use of a didactic book in
change; phenomenology as methodology; and move- physical education classes. The game analysis based on
ment. Collaborative teacher inquiry was the method- its complexity is also a topic of research. The University
ology used in this investigation of the experiences of of Campinas is represented in the authorship of 5
teachers. PL was the influence that brought the teacher articles and provides the biggest contribution to this
participants on board and motivated the participants as journal about the theme. In the 2000 decade, a period of
they strongly believed in the lifelong benefits. The experimental studies, the first comparative studies were
setting for enacting change was in a secondary PE produced on the effectiveness of traditional method-
department. “George” and “Steve” are coresearchers, along ology and ecological proposals. The concept of TGfU
with 5 other teacher participants. Data were collected appears in the introduction of the “family of games”
through blogs, field notes, temperature checks, and idea, concerning the transfer of knowledge acquired
questionnaires. Our study has provided us with an between various modalities. Among the works referring
 S104 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

to TGfU consulted by researchers, we can highlight highlight Bunker and Thorpe (1982), Thorpe, Bunker,
Bunker and Thorpe (1982), Bunker and Thorpe (1989), and Almond (1984), Hopper (2002), Griffin and Butler
Werner, Thorpe, and Bunker (1996), Griffin, Mitchell, (2005), Pearson, Webb, and McKeen (2005) and
and Oslin (1997), Griffin, Butler, Lombardo, and Curtner-Smith (2006). This study allows us to infer
Nastasi (2003), and Griffin and Patton (2005). The that TGfU is not yet well systematized within Brazilian
research articles observed present affinity and under- physical education, however; it is employed in the
standing about the TGfU method in theoretical and intellectual production of this field.
experimental aspects.

(Re)framing Physical Education Instruction for Students

Sports Education in Brazil: Movimento Publications and With Cognitive Disabilities Using the Teaching Games for
References to TGfU Understanding (TGfU) Model in Canadian High Schools

I. Scremin, M. V. Euzebio, and F. R. Costa J. I. Anokwuru

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University of Brasilia, Brazil University of British Columbia, Canada

(iuri.screminedf@gmail.com) (joann.anokwuru@alumni.ubc.ca)

This study aims to analyze the Brazilian academic work Beyond the constraints of the classroom, physical
produced on physical education about teaching methods, education (PE) affords the teacher the use of indoor and
while emphasizing the teaching games for understanding outdoor space, specialist equipment, individual and group
(TGfU) method and the responsible authors. For now, learning, and the instructional curriculum approach for
we used as a research source the publications available physical activities. These spaces and an accurate
on Movimento, a scientific journal for educational curriculum model provide students with opportunities
purposes and holder of the best qualification in the to thrive academically and develop physical fitness.
physical education field for the past 10 years. The The purpose of my research is to introduce the
describing keywords we used on the journal’s searching teaching games for understanding (TGfU) model as a
tool were “teaching games for understanding”; “TGfU”; pedagogical approach that can facilitate inclusive PE.
“métodos de ensino”; “ensinar para a compreensão”; Physical educators will take into consideration the
and “pedagogia do esporte.” We have found 48 articles, cognitive, psychomotor, affective, and strategic instruc-
among which 11 refer to pedagogical or methodological tional approaches in the TGfU model to inform their
aspects. The 1st article, originally from Portugal, was planning. The students with cognitive disabilities will
published in 1999. This theme only reappeared in 2008, have the opportunity to access the curriculum through
with Brazilian authors analyzing the different dimen- problem- solving skills and aptitude in physical activities
sions of sports education. The article discusses several by constant individual training and experience. TGfU
topics: historical perspective of sports education, is proposed as an instructional approach for physical
pedagogic and didactic models, professional qualifica- educators because the model provides excellent strategies
tion, and analysis of the impact on the teaching practice. (environment and tasks) for the inclusion of every level
In general, these articles present the evolution of sports of competence, including students with cognitive
education apprehension, focused on technique, and disabilities. The following research questions will guide
nowadays enable the development of cognitive aspects this study: How does the use of TGfU pedagogy
by the student, while importing the adoption of principles affect the learning of students with cognitive
ecological teaching models. The studies show that the disability in PE programs? In a TGfU PE class, what
most acquainted model between teachers and coaches is affordances of learning and skills are offered to students
the technical model, a reflex of the teacher qualification with cognitive disabilities? What happens to learning in
still based on traditional education. Among the PE classes when students with cognitive disabilities
ecological models, the most mentioned was the are included in planning through assessment in TGfU
“situational” model, which presents features that are lessons?
similar to TGfU. Among the works referring to TGfU The proposed study will be conducted using critical
consulted by researchers to organize their studies, we can action research (CAR), emerging from the need to
 PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS S105

involve teachers, students, and researcher in planning, required for performance. We recommended focusing
thinking, and acting out the process. The data will be on the mini educational group method in the educational
gathered through classroom observation, interviews, complex in learning attack serving and blocking in
students’ self-reflection, and videography. CAR is volleyball.
envisioned to facilitate learning within the PE classroom
for students with cognitive disabilities using the TGfU
approach. Interviews and videos will be analyzed using Individual Training Control and Intervention in Young
the induction method to convey themes embedded in Elite Volleyball Athletes
the excerpts.
M.-T. Fleddermann, H. Heppe, E. Eils, and K. Zentgraf
University of Münster, Germany
The Impact of the Educational Complex With Manner (m.fleddermann@uni-muenster.de)
Mini-Educational Groups in Attack-Serving Skill Learn-
ing in Volleyball for Students The increase in performance parameters is a central
issue in high-elite sports, especially for young athletes.
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M. A. H. Ahmed1,2 and A. M. J. Ahmed1,2 To ensure optimal development of motor performance,

1
University of Babylon, Iraq; 2The Ministry of Education, the use of individual training programs seems beneficial
Iraq (Vaeyens et al., 2008). One concept for goal setting is the
(mazin772001@yahoo.com) SMART principle (Locke et al., 1990), which defines
desirable goals as Specific, Measurable, Attractive,
The sciences and experts in the educational field depend Realistic, and Terminated. The aim of this study was to
on a rule that every individual alone has experience, determine if and how much young elite athletes benefit
educational background, and techniques of their own, from SMART guidance of individual performance in
which distinguish them from others, so these individuals athletic parameters.
need educational materials that help them to perform the Data were collected from 9 well-trained, competitive
tasks according to their abilities and educational level and female volleyball athletes on a national level who
to achieve their ambition. were aged 15 to 18 years old. They participated in
Self-learning is considered one of the most effective assessments of motor performance using a pretest–
teaching means because this technique gives freedom to posttest design (pre1, pre2, post1) including sprint (5 m,
the learner for positive and effective participation in an 10 m, 20 m), jumping (countermovement, drop, volley-
educational activity. ball attack, block jump), tapping, agility, and endurance
The aim of the study was to identify the impact of using tests. From pre2 to post1, each participant completed
an educational complex with manner mini-educational an individualized training intervention (2– 3 times per
groups in learning attack serving in volleyball. The week) in addition to team training for 11 weeks.
researcher has used an experimental method consisting of SMART-based training aimed to increase 3 perform-
2 equal groups (experimental and control groups). Each ance parameters with descending priority. From pre1 to
group includes 12 students. The experimental group used pre2, participants performed nonindividual team
the educational complex, which includes several illustra- training.
tive and educational methods of skill such as transpar- Results show that 8 of 9 participants improved their
encies, skill illustration pictures, and video display (audio 1st priority, mainly set on jump height (cm) and
and visual). contact time (ms) with increments greater than 6%.
Learning is in the form of small educational groups, In Priority 2, 3 participants increased their sprint (s)
and each group includes 4 students. The learning and jumping performance greater than 6%. In the 3rd
program continued for 8 weeks. Every week involved 2 priority, 3 participants reached rates greater than 6%.
educational programs that lasted 90 min each. The From pre1 to pre2, there was no 6% increase in any
researcher concluded that the use of the mini educational parameter.
group method in the educational complex had a Results show that participants increase their athletic
significant impact in learning attack serving in volleyball performance via individualized programs, but only 1
and assisted the students in discovering their physical, participant increased her performance in all priorities.
skill, and cognitive abilities, while also saving the time Overall, the results indicate that elite youth athletes
 S106 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

benefit from adequately guided individual interven- The Relationship Between Investing the Time of the Main
tions; however, setting 2 or more priorities seems to Part in Lessons of Team Sports (Basketball, Volleyball,
induce interference or suboptimal trends in other and Handball) and Direct and Indirect Teaching
parameters.
M. H. Kazr and M. Al-Rubaei
Evaluation of Exercise ‘Field’ Tests (6-Min Walk, Shuttle Babylon University, Iraq
Test, Step Test) in Assessing Exercise Capacity in COPD (babylonbf@yahoo.com)
and Heart Failure Populations: A Systematic Review
Purpose: This study was conducted to identify the
relationship between investing the time of the main part
M. H. Kazr and A. H. Hadi
in lessons of team sports (basketball, volleyball, and
Babylon University, Iraq
(babylonbf@yahoo.com) handball) and direct and indirect teaching.
Methodology: Three male students in the Department
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to evaluate of Physical Education & Sport Sciences at the University
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the reliability and validity of the 6-min walk field test of Babylon, aged 19 years old, were randomly selected to
(6MWT), the incremental shuttle field test, and fixed- participate in this study. A descriptive method approach
height step field test with respect to their ability to was used to collect data. The Anderson Questionnaire for
predict exercise capacity in patients with chronic Observation was applied to assess the students’ activities
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and heart by 3 referees from the academic staff. For data analyses,
failure. we calculated means and standard deviations, as well as
Methods: A systematic review was achieved via 6 ratios of direct to indirect teaching and time teaching to
databases to assess pertinent Arabic-language full-text lost time teaching.
articles published from January 1, 1990, to November Results: The results showed different behaviors
30, 2013. Participant characteristics, validity, interven- between team sports (i.e., handball, basketball, and
tions, and predictive and reliability values for each volleyball), while arithmetic means for some of the
article with deference to exercise capacity as defined by behaviors of the same sports were convergent.
peak oxygen (VO2peak) levels were extracted and Conclusions: This study showed that the ratio of the
compared. Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy time distribution of students’ behaviors in the main part
Studies scores were determined for each study. of the sports team lessons varied. Furthermore, handball
Results: Eleven studies met the selection criteria. gained the highest percentage in direct teaching in
Comparison of the studies investigating reliability shows comparison with indirect teaching, followed by basketball
that the 6MWT has good reproducibility. The 6MWT and finally volleyball.
presented high correlation with VO2peak levels and
the ability to estimate VO2 (exercise capacity) reliant on Position-Specific Psychological Profiles in Female Team
distance walked, in contrast to the shuttle test, which Handball
demonstrated moderate correlation with VO2peak
levels. Cutoff distances vary from 350 m to 510 m J. Weber,1 M. Wegner,1 and V. Popa2
depending on the study; if total distance walked remains 1
Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Germany;
equal or less than these values, the 6MWT and shuttle 2
Romanian Handball Federation, Romania
field test (SWT) retain their strong predictive value, (hlif@hotmail.de)
whereas the fixed-height step test demonstrated
moderate correlation with VO2peak levels. The duration Motivation, volition, and action control influence hand-
is variable (90 s – 10 min), but the step height (23.0– ball performance and might as well play a role in talent
50.8 cm) and stepping rate (22.5–35.0 steps/min) remain selection, because biological factors as predicators are
constant throughout the test. seen as controversial (Gonçalves et al., 2012). Positive
Conclusion: The field tests (6MWT, SWT, and step feedback in psychological coaching promotes perform-
test) have good reliability, high validity, and a significant ance (Popa, 2006). Position-specific psychological
ability to predict exercise capacity in patients with demands have to be specified as already accomplished
COPD and chronic heart failure. in other team sports (Hughes et al., 2012) to provide
 PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS S107

optimal conditions for coaching. Differences between actions (e.g., goals, assists, or blocks) were analyzed with
positions and the connection between expertise and analytic software. According to Brack (2002), the playing
position specialization concerning psychological factors actions were transformed into a single technical-tactical
have to be questioned. score. Spearman rank correlations coefficients (r) and
Five hundred ninety-two female players from German common variances (R 2) were computed for statistical
leagues have been tested via motivation questionnaires analyses.
(Elbe & Wenhold, 2005), volition questionnaires The level of core strength endurance (r ¼ .51, R 2 ¼ 26
(Wenhold, Elbe, & Beckmann, 2009), and action-control %) and shuttle run test distance (r ¼ .63, R 2 ¼ 40%) were
questionnaires (Hakemp-Sport, Beckmann, & Wenhold, largely correlated with the technical-tactical playing
2009). Additionally, a player’s biography was used to performance across the tournament. No further large
assess expertise. Position-specific differences and corre- correlations were found (r , .25, R 2 , 6%).
lations of expertise and psychological factors as well as While body height, power, and agility in particular are
specialization were checked. believed to play key roles in elite team handball, our
Differences were found regarding action control when findings show that only capacities associated with
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performing and lack of activation, while factors and endurance were highly correlated with the technical-
specialization correlated characteristically with expertise tactical playing performance in elite junior players. One
per position. The context of specialization and perform- explanation may be that players with better endurance
ance has to be researched further to provide optimal capacities were more frequently involved in technical-
coaching conditions and positional selection. tactical actions across the tournament or that they had
experienced less physiological stress during play, thereby
Endurance Capacities are Correlated With the Techni- potentially favoring the players to execute technical-
cal-Tactical Playing Performance in Elite Junior Team- tactical actions successfully more often. Whether our
Handball Players findings allow conclusions for competitive matches
remains unanswered and should be investigated in further
studies.
J. Brochhagen,1 C. Baumgarten,1 J. Bauer,2 J. Freiwald,1
and M. W. Hoppe1
1
University of Wuppertal, Germany; 2Bergischer Decomposing Performance Factors in Jump Throws
Handball Club, Germany Reveals Subgroups of Handball Players With Specific
(joana.brochhagen@uni-wuppertal.de) Training Recommendations

To participate in elite team handball, it is accepted J. M. Jäger,1 D. Büsch,2 and H. Müller1

that certain anthropometric characteristics and physical 1
Justus-Liebig-University Gießen, Germany; 2Institute
capacities are required. However, their associations with for Applied Training Science, Germany
technical-tactical playing performance, which may have a (joerg.jaeger@sport.uni-giessen.de)
direct impact on match outcomes, are unknown. There-
fore, this study investigated the relationships between The jump throw is one of the most applied techniques
various anthropometric characteristics, physical in team handball. Therefore, analyzing underlying
capacities, and technical-tactical playing performance in performance factors is important because they may
elite team-handball players. provide a basis to adjust training interventions. The aim of
Nine male junior team-handball players (aged 18 ^ 1 this study was to decompose the performance factors in
years) competing in the German Bundesliga were tested jump throws and to find subgroups of athletes. Each group
for several anthropometric characteristics (body height, is expected to benefit most from specific training contents.
mass, and fat) and physical capacities (30-m speed and One hundred thirteen male handball players (Mage ¼
22-m agility, counter movement jump and squat jumps, 15 ^ 0.38 years, Mheight ¼ 184 ^ 7.1 cm, Mmass 74.83 ^
one-repetition maximum bench press and core strength 9.31 kg) participated in this study. From each athlete,
endurance, and interval shuttle run test distance). The standing reach height (SRH), jumping reach height with a
players were also video-recorded during a preseason countermovement jump (JRH), ball height with a
tournament that involved 5 matches against opponents handball-specific single-legged jump and straight arm
who were all competing in the German Bundesliga. The (BHJ), and ball release height during a jump throw (BHT)
number of successful and unsuccessful technical-tactical were measured. Performance factors were derived as
 S108 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

differences between these measures (JRH – SRH ¼ UJA For example, wing and back players should specialize in
for unspecific jump ability; BHJ – JRH ¼ SJT for specific passing/catching and dribbling. Specialization, therefore,
jump technique; BHT – BHJ ¼ STT for specific throwing is a relevant factor in female team handball when it comes
technique). A hierarchical cluster analysis (Euclidean to handball technique, while a basic level for passing and
distance and Ward’s linkage method) was used to find catching is needed in all positions. Therefore, all positions
groups of athletes based on the derived and scaled should be well trained regarding technical ability with a
difference measures (UJA, SJT, STT). special emphasis on wing and back players.
The dendrogram shows a clear distinction of 4 groups of
athletes. Mean values within each cluster reveal (a) 1 group Core Demands on the Goalkeeper Position in Female
with high UJA values, (b) 1 with low UJA values, (c) one Team Handball
with high SJT but low STT, and (d) 1 with low SJT but high
STT. These results may be interpreted with respect to
consequences for training, because (a) and (b) are groups L. van Maanen-Coppens,1 J. Weber,2 and M. Wegner2
1
Total Fysio, The Netherlands; 2Christian-Albrechts-
that are primarily characterized by strength aspects while
University Kiel, Germany
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the properties of Groups (c) and (d) affect technical (lindacoppens@live.nl)

aspects of performance. In the next step, intervention
studies with different foci will be performed to confirm Team handball requires position-specific training regard-
this approach. ing constitutional, physical, coordinative, technical,
psychological, and tactical aspects. In female team
Technical Performance Demands on the Different handball, the demands structure is not sufficiently
Playing Positions in Team Handball specified yet, particularly not for goalkeepers. Youth
players who lack physical fitness, technical ability, or
J. Weber,1 M. Wegner,1 and B. Chittibabu2 tactical ability might be positioned in the goal to keep
1
Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Germany; them out of the field (Matthys, 2012). This practice leads
2 to further deficits for which the team cannot compensate
Annamalai University, India
(hlif@hotmail.de) later. In various handball-specific tests, goalkeepers
perform worse than field players (Zapartidis et al.,
This study analyzes the technical demands in female team 2009). Nevertheless, several of the tested goalkeepers play
handball on different playing positions. Position-related in high leagues and therefore apparently do match the
differences in the technical requirements for team demands of the game. On that account, position-specific
handball are not sufficiently specified to date. Wings demands for goalkeepers have to be clarified. For this
and goalkeepers are sometimes put in their position to purpose, 654 female players from German leagues (91
keep young and inexperienced players away from the goalkeepers) were tested using a complex test battery that
more important positions in the middle of the court like assesses common handball performance indicators. Two
pivots, center backs, and half backs. Further, female team kinds of correlations were calculated: correlations
handball is underrepresented in research. To make use of between expertise and factor values as well as between
the full potential of all players, position-specific training expertise and specialization regarding each factor
should be applied. This study investigated handball- (quantified using a suitable formula). In summary, the
relevant technical basic factors and their position-specific test battery only identified few performance demands
development. Six hundred fifty-four female handball regarding goalkeepers (e.g., both handedness, good sprint
players from German leagues at all levels were tested performance more than 30 m, throwing speed, psycho-
cross-sectionally concerning technical ability (time logical factors, and technical skill). This finding could
needed for 20 passes against a wall, time needed for mean that the demands for goalkeepers have to be made
slalom-dribbling parcours). The handball-specific exper- more concrete in future testing. For selected factors,
tise of the players was used as an independent variable. goalkeepers should practice harder to adjust to the
Performance differences between the positions, measured performance results of the field players (e.g., sit-ups, Half
by a formula quantifying the deviations between positions Cooper test, throwing speed, wall passing, and others).
(specialization), are seen as a dependent variable. The Coaches should implement these findings in their training
chosen factors significantly differ between positions, and routine while a test battery for goalkeeper core demands
expertise correlates with specialization in some positions. remains to be established.
 PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS S109

Position-Specific Conditional Demands in Female Team Six hundred fifty-four female handball players with
Handball varying skill levels were tested concerning their tactical
skills, measured using video-based testing (Wegner et al.,
J. Weber,1,2 M. Wegner,1,2 and S. Fatulescu1,2 2010). Players had to name the most promising action
1 following the playing situations in the videos and were
Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Germany;
2
Sanconfind, Romania given points accordingly. Playing expertise was measured
(hlif@hotmail.de) via the players’ biographies.
There are positional differences regarding tactical skills
Conditional demands for female handball players are not and correlations between expertise and specialization for
yet sufficiently specified, particularly not in respect to back players. Specialization regarding tactical skill there-
position-specific performance (Weber, 2015). For optimal fore is a limiting factor for match performance. Half backs
match preparation, individualized training taking the displayed the best results followed by center backs, wings,
specific demands of every position into consideration is pivots, and goalkeepers. Considering expertise gathered
necessary. Consequently, the aim of the study was to gain during youth training, several different expertise factors
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insight into position-specific demand profiles of female per position correlated positively with tactical skills. When
team handball players to establish training recommen- testing for correlations between physical fitness, consti-
dations for each position. tutional factors, and tactical skills, the correlations in some
Data from 652 female handball players from Germany positions were negative. This finding could indicate that
were analyzed using a test battery assessing handball- less fit players are not able to gain sufficient tactical
relevant factors. Conditional, constitutional, technical, experience because they are positioned in the wing, pivot,
tactical, biographical, and psychological parameters were or goalkeeper position where they do not have to organize
tested using handball-specific tests. the game in the center of the court. To ensure optimal
For conditional factors, significant differences development of tactical skills in all players, specialization
( p , .001) between positions were observed for several in team handball should not start too early, and selection
parameters (effect sizes ranging from 0.126 to 0.693). according to constitutional parameters at an early age
An interesting finding that emerged was that position- should be discouraged (Visnapuu & Jürimäe, 2008).
specific specialization was correlated with playing level.
Following from this finding, it is possible to derive
Hybrid Teaching Model (TGA 1 BS) in Badminton:
practical interventions such as, for example, half back
Tactical and Technical Performance Under Different
players specializing regarding their throwing speed.
Practice Distributions
Specialization is therefore linked to success in female
team handball. However, a number of basic factors are
important in all positions. For the goalkeeper position, L. M. C. Aburachid,1 S. R. Silva,1 L. M. S Morimoto,1
the demands could not be specified in this study. and P. J. Greco2
1
Federal University Mato Grosso, Brazil; 2Federal
University Minas Gerais, Brazil
Tactical Demands in Female Team Handball on the (lagusmar@ig.com.br)
Different Playing Positions
Introduction: In sport pedagogy, area intervention studies
1 1
M. Wegner, J. Weber, and B. Chittibabu 2 with different models of teaching revealed impacts on
1
Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Germany; learning (Hastie, Ojedab, & Luquinc, 2011; Metzler &
2 Hathaway, 2006). The study aimed to analyze the tactical-
Annamalai University, India
(mwegner@email.uni-kiel.de) technical performance of school children after applying a
hybrid teaching model under different practice distributions.
Team handball requires well-developed tactical abilities. Method: The sample consisted of 27 students
The influence of position-specific issues on the tactical (Mage ¼ 12.37 ^ 0.49 years) divided into 2 groups (G1,
skills of female players is still unclear, while players differ double session 1 time per week; G2, isolated session 2 times
in other performance factors according to position. per week) without experience in badminton. We evaluated
Consequently, specialization regarding tactical skills has tactical and technical performance via the Game Perform-
to be researched. Position-specific training and selection ance Assessment Instrument (Oslin, Mitchell, & Griffin,
should be applied to make use of all players’ full potential. 1998). The hybrid teaching model used contents of the
 S110 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

tactical game approach (Griffin, Mitchell, & Oslin, 1997) Although the results do not show any significant
and ball school (Roth, Kröger, & Memmert, 2002) invested changes, it is obvious that all results showed a tendency
in 16 training sessions. to support the former hypothesis. One reasonable
Results: Both groups had greatly improved after explanation for not reaching a significance level could
treatment for the variables Skill Execution Index and be the size of the analyzed sample. To build up a secured
game performance (G1, p ¼ .02 and .02; and G2, p ¼ .009 base for further decision, samples in future studies should
and .003, respectively). For the Decision-Making Index be enhanced in number of analyzed matches and the
(DMI), G1 and G2 did not improve. The analysis between focus has to be spread to all Olympic badminton
groups in the posttest did not reveal significant differences disciplines (men’s singles, women’s singles, men’s
for any variables. The DMI results in this study stand in doubles, women’s doubles, mixed doubles).
contrast to those of French et al. (1996) and Hastie,
Sinelnikov, and Guarino (2009). Physiological Demands of Elite Ultimate Frisbee
Conclusion: It is not possible to say what the most
efficient practice distributions are. Little pedagogical
M. Zimlich, L. Rüger, S. Wörrlein, and O. Hoos
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intervention time may have contributed to the students’

University of Würzburg, Germany
rallies, which was more motivating due to its cooperative
(matthias.zimlich@uni-wuerzburg.de)
nature. The practical implications of the results are
discussed. Introduction and Goal: Ultimate Frisbee (UF) is a fast-
growing team sport worldwide, but to date, physiological
Impacts of an Experimental Scoring System in and physical demands of UF have only been addressed on
Badminton on Selected Aspects in Men’s Singles low playing levels (Krustrup & Mohr, 2015; Scanlan et al.,
2015). Therefore, our study assessed cardiovascular
D. Hoffmann and C. Offermann loading during an elite UF game and examined the
German Sport University Cologne, Germany relationship between cardiovascular loading and inter-
(d.hoffmann@dshs-koeln.de) mittent running performance (IRP).
Methods: Ten male elite German competitive UF
The present study deals with the results of the Badminton players (Mage ¼ 25.7 ^ 4.5 years) performed a YoYo IR1
World Federation’s (BWF) test session regarding an Test (m and HRpeak) and a regular UF game in which
experimental badminton scoring system with best-of-5 heart rate (HR) was recorded continuously. Distribution
games to 11 points without setting. The testing took place in HR zones (Z1, 50–60%; Z2, 60–70%; Z3, 70– 80%;
from August 1, 2014, to November 2, 2014, and included Z4, 80–90%; Z5, . 90%) and summated HR zone scores
Level 3 and Level 4 tournaments (BWF, 2014). (SHRZS) were calculated, and differences between the 1st
In this study, 2 tournaments with the experimental half (H1) and 2nd half (H2) as well as correlations with
scoring system until 11 points (T11) are compared with 2 YoYo IR1 performance were analyzed.
tournaments until 21 points with setting possible (T21). Results: Elite UF players showed a moderate-
The chosen tournaments are comparable concerning to-high cardiovascular loading (HRpeak ¼ 100 ^ 1%;
place and time. HRmean ¼ 80 ^ 4%; SHRZS ¼ 354.4 ^ 38.1 a.u.) with
Five men’s singles were checked per tournament. HR distributions of Z1 ¼ 2 ^ 4%, Z2 ¼ 11 ^ 7%,
The focus of the match analyses was concentrated on the Z3 ¼ 29 ^ 9%, Z4 ¼ 44 ^ 9%, and Z5 ¼ 13 ^ 11%.
following categories and hypotheses: (a) number of rallies SHRZS was significantly ( p , .05) higher in H1
per match, increasing in T11; (b) total playing time, (358.0 ^ 43.7 a.u.) compared with H2 (339.5 ^ 41.3
decreasing in T11; (c) pure playing time, decreasing in a.u.). Correspondingly, a significant interaction effect for
T11; (d) time of rally, increasing in T11; and (e) number HR (Zones £ Halves, F ¼ 3.1, p ¼ .04, eta2 ¼ .25) with
of shuttle contacts per rally, increasing in T11. a shift toward lower HR zones was detected. YoYo IR1
The number of rallies per match decreased from 82.1 in performance (2,024 ^ 246m, HRpeak ¼ 193 ^ 10
T21 to 68.0 in T11. The total playing time decreased from S/min) was not correlated with cardiovascular loading.
average of 42:56 min to 36:36 min, and the pure playing Discussion: IRP of elite German UF players is well
time decreased from 11:50 min to 10:38 min. The time of above lower-class UF players (Krustrup & Mohr, 2015).
rally increased from 8.48 s to 9.38 s, and the number of Furthermore, regardless of IRP, cardiovascular loading
shuttle contacts per rally increased from 9.27 to 9.80. seems slightly lower in elite UF players compared with
 PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS S111

lower-class UF players (Krustrup & Mohr, 2015) and games for understanding (TGfU) model. This poster
players of other field sports (Alexandre et al., 2012), presentation summarizes the related research work
but they show similar signs of fatigue. based on the China National Knowledge Infrastructure
database, Airiti Library database, and Taiwan thesis
Kinematic Trends Observed at the Hip During Dynamic database. By using research methods including
Jump Movements: Proficient Versus Nonproficient literature survey, statistics, expert consulting, and
Jumpers clustering analysis, we divide the history of the TGfU
research in China during the past 20 years into several
stages. We also analyze the distribution feature and
A. Eagles, M. Sayers, and D. Lovell developing trend of the geographic regions, research
University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
institutes, authors, publications, funding, and academic
(a.n.eagles23@gmail.com)
factors that have made significant contributions to the
Objectives: The object of this study was to determine if TGfU research field. From the analysis, 4 key research
differences exist in hip kinematics during counter- themes are identified: theoretical research of TGfU,
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movement jumping. experimental research on ball-game TGfU education,

Methods: Fifteen semiprofessional soccer players experimental research on TGfU Game Sense, and
(Mage ¼ 22.2 ^ 4.1 years) volunteered to participate in teacher education research on TGfU. We have the
the study. Participants completed 6 countermovement following important findings: (a) The TGfU research
jumps with landmark body markers for the motion became more and more rational during the past 20
capture system analysis. Participants’ kinematic hip data years in terms of quantity; (b) the theoretical TGfU
were then analyzed. research in China has a small number of publications
Results: Joint motion data analysis revealed that those and tends to be localized; (c) the TGfU research in
participants who achieved greater jump heights main- China is more focused on the learning effect than in
tained a position of external rotation and abduction the affection—there is only 1 study on Game Sense
bilaterally at the hip during the descent and accent of the about a case study of college students’ volleyball; and
jump. Participants who achieved lower jump heights (d) there is a lack of teacher education research on
incurred a level of hip adduction and/or internal rotation TGfU in China.
during the jump.
Conclusions: Kinematic differences exist at the hip The Role of Affordances in Developing Children’
joint between proficient and nonproficient jumpers. The Manipulative Movement Skills: An Application of the
position of some external rotation and abduction appears Challenge-Point Framework
favorable for force production in countermovement
jumping. Given that many sporting activities involve M. Balali1 and S. H. Parvinpour2
1
jumping movements, hip kinematics could offer further Farhangian University, Iran; 2Kharazmi University, Iran
insight into talent identification. (shahabpr@gmail.com)

China TGfU Academic Development Process of Infor- The purpose of the present study was to investigate
mation Science Theory: In 1994 – 2014 in a Range of predictions of the challenge-point framework (Guadag-
Journals and Dissertations noli & Lee, 2004) by comparing 2 groups of
challenging and nonchallenging games in developing
manipulative fundamental movement skills. Thirty 4-
H. Zeng,1 A.-Q. Liu,2 Y. Zhang,3 H. Tao,4 and Q.-Q. Dong5,6 to 6-year-old children were selected from a kindergar-
1
Hubei University of Arts and Science, China; 2National
ten in Tehran and were grouped according to pretest
Taiwan Sport University, China; 3Central China Normal
University, China; 4Hubei University of Education, scores. The specific games were used and were
China; 5Guangzhou University of Education, China; designed for developing manipulative skills in both
6
Wuhan Sports University, China groups. The task difficulty of these games, however,
(274839781@qq.com) was increased in the challenging group, while it was
kept constant in the nonchallenging group. The
In the past 2 decades, Chinese physical education intervention lasted 8 weeks with 2 sessions each week
researchers have done enormous work on the teaching lasting 42 min each. Children’s manipulative skills were
 S112 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development education with regard to team and racket sports) in
(2nd Version) before and after the intervention. The the long term.
results of a multivariate analysis of variance showed
that improvement of groups in the total score of A Pilot Application of TGfU in Sailing: Effects on Game
manipulative skills and all subscales was not significant. Performance, Knowledge, and Adherence
Only catching was significant. In total, the challenge-
point theory’s predictions in a kindergarten setting
and on development of manipulative skills in healthy M. T. Morales-Belando and J. L. Arias-Estero
Catholic University of Murcia, Spain
children failed to be proven. However, more improve-
(mdltmorales@alu.ucam.edu)
ment in the challenging group in catching shows that
this method is more effective in developing complex The purpose of the present work was to determine
skills. whether an intervention with the teaching games for
understanding (TGfU) approach led to improvement in
‘Higher, Faster, Stronger?’ An Empirical Study on the game performance, knowledge, and adherence. The
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Pedagogical Content Knowledge of German PE participants were 9 sailors (Mage ¼ 8.44, SD ¼ 1.24
Teachers years) from randomly selected organized boat race
clubs. This study followed a quantitative approach.
S. Meier We designed 12 TGfU sessions of 60 min each that
German Sport University Cologne, Germany were validated for sailing by 3 experts. Also, the coach
(s.meier@dshs-koeln.de) was trained in the approach. The participants were
assessed on what and how they decided was executed in
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is considered a relation to the wind, other boats, and racing rules
central cognitive component of the professional before and after the intervention sessions (pretest and
competence of teachers (Shulman, 1986). Approaches posttest). Decision making, skill execution, game
to the conceptualization and measurement of PCK for performance, and game involvement were collected
prospective and professional teachers have been using the Game Performance Assessment Instrument
developed increasingly in recent years with a consider- while performing a race; the game knowledge was
able emphasis on mathematics as a subject. In recent assessed with an ad-hoc questionnaire; and the
times, other subjects have also moved into focus. enjoyment, perceived competence, and intention to be
In comparison, corresponding work in the area of physically active were measured with 2 psychological
teacher research for the subject of physical education scales. We verified the treatment according to the TGfU
(PE) is still at the beginning (Blömeke & Paine, 2008). premises. We found nonparametric statistically signifi-
Therefore, the aim of this study is to capture cant improvements in decision making ( p ¼ .03), skill
theoretically and empirically PCK of prospective PE execution ( p ¼ .01), game performance ( p ¼ .001), and
teachers, representing the basis for a PE lesson that, for game involvement ( p ¼ .02). The participants reported
example, initiates a deeper understanding of team and high scores in game knowledge, enjoyment, perceived
racket sports. For this purpose, a theoretical education competence, and intention to be physically active when
and didactic area-dedicated test instrument will be practicing sailing. The outcomes seemed to support the
designed, prepiloted in smaller samples, and then premise of TGfU, given that participants significantly
didactically and empirically optimized and piloted in a improved after the intervention in the variables related
broader sample (including a contrast population). to performance. This result was important because it
Samples of different stages of training and expertise serves as a teaching framework for coaches and
will be selected. Through the piloting of the test determines the “what” and “how” of tasks, provides
instrument to a wider sample, a contribution to the feedback, and gives guidance for the behavior of
PE teaching theory in the field of teacher profession children and coaches. However, the results were not
research will be presented. Actually, the pilot of the conclusive because we did not have a control
study can be discussed by dimensional analysis. Finally, group. We showed it is necessary for participants to
the test instrument will be suitable for comparative be aware of the reasons for their decision making to
studies (e.g., to assess the effectiveness of PE improve their performance and motivation in the real-
educational-learning opportunities in PE teacher game context.
 PEER-REVIEWED POSTER ABSTRACTS S113

Effects of the Lifestyle Modification Program on Blood that allow students to be more successful at complicated
BDNF and Its Associated Factors in Korean Collegiate skills. As students begin to develop their skills in a given
Students task, it can increase the amount of active participation and
“promote enjoyment for participants.” Some research
J. Lee,1 B. Kang,1 and C. Park2 suggests that TGfU is an effective approach to increasing
1
Sahmyook University, Korea; 2Potsdam University, fun in sport. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the
Germany relationship between sport participation motivation and
(galleb@gmx.de) the TGfU approach among novice handball players.
We compared motivation to participate in sport in a
Background: Multiple epidemiological studies have docu- group of 19 student novice handball players (aged 10–12
mented that both vegetarian diet and moderate exercise years old) in Tehran City, Iran, who have been trained in
indicate various mental and physical health benefits, the TGfU approach for 3 months, to 20 participants who
respectively, but the combined effects of the both interven- have being trained based on a traditional technique-based
tions on mental health have not been extensively studied yet. approach for the same time period. We used the Sport
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Aim: To clarify the combined effects of a vegetarian Participation Motivation Questionnaire for evaluation of
diet and physical activities on mental and physical health, sport participation motivation status of the participants.
we tried to analyze the influence of the physical exercise An independent t test was used to compare sport
program and regular vegetarian diet for 10 days on blood participation motivation level between the 2 groups. The
brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) level, mood results revealed a significant difference between the 2
status, and physical fitness factors by the profile of mood groups in sport participation motivation level: The TGfU
states (POMS) test in Korean collegiate students. group had significantly higher sport participation
Methods: A total of 54 Korean collegiate students motivation compared with the other group ( p , .05).
(Mage ¼ 18.0 ^ 1.0 years) including 36 men and 18
women were included in this study. They performed the
regular physical activity program with vegetarian diets and Effect of the TGfU Approach on Motor Development
were staying at the residential building together for a total and Social Maturity of Elementary School Students
of 10 days. Variables including body composition, physical
fitness factors, POMS score, and blood BDNF level were A. Gholami and M. Naimikia
measured twice before and after the intervention. Sport Sciences Research Institute of Iran, Iran
Results: Our program showed the beneficial effects of (amingholami91@gmail.com)
improvement of physical fitness and weight loss. Especially,
the blood BDNF level was significantly increased in the The teaching games for understanding (TGfU) approach
both females (t ¼ 22.761, p ¼ .013) and male students was developed to tap into children’s inherent desire to
after the intervention (t ¼ 23.392, p ¼ .002), respectively, play. If TGfU, as a new pedagogical model in physical
suggesting the beneficial contribution of this intervention education (PE), is to become a movement that will broaden
on the mental health of Korean collegiate students. the scope of PE, it must be anchored in sound research that
Conclusion: These data suggest that our program may be explores its influences on different domains. Of significant
a useful tool for the mental and physical health importance in the delivery of learning opportunities
improvement of Korean collegiate students. Further within a TGfU structure is the notion that it has the
studies using larger sample sizes will be needed to replicate potential to enhance development of psychomotor,
the health-benefit effect of this intervention. cognitive, affective, and social skills. The purpose of this
study was to examine the effect of the TGfU approach in
Relationship Between Sport Participation Motivation soccer on the motor and social development of Grade 4
and Teaching Games for Understanding Among Novice elementary school students (10 years old) compared to the
Handball Players technique-based approach. Two Grade 4 classes (each 15
students) from an elementary school in Tehran City, Iran,
M. Naimikia and A. Gholami were selected as the experimental and control groups.
Sport Sciences Research Institute of Iran, Iran The experimental group was followed for 10 soccer units,
(amingholami91@gmail.com)
which were taught using the TGfU approach in 5 weeks
The teaching games for understanding (TGfU) approach (2 sessions per week). At the same time, the control group
breaks games skills down into step-by-step movements was trained based on a traditional technique-based
 S114 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

approach. The Movement Assessment Battery for same experience in swimming were assigned to 2 groups
Children (2nd Edition) and the Vineland Social Maturity of dyad or individual training. After receiving instructions
Scale were used to evaluate motor development and social and observing some perfect performances of the skill, 1 of
maturity of participants, respectively. An analysis of each dyad entered the water and the other 1 stayed
covariance (ANCOVA) statistical method was used to outside. The 1 outside (just like a coach) gave feedback to
confirm the results when there were significant differences the partner after each trial. After some trials, they
at the baseline level (pretest score was used as a covariate). exchanged their roles. Children in the individual-training
The ANCOVA results revealed a significant difference group all entered the water and simultaneously performed
between the experimental and control groups in both the skill after having gotten instructions and making
motor development and social maturity variables ( p , perfect model observation. Thus, 50% of practice trials in
.05). The findings of this study showed that the the dyad group were physical and 50% were observa-
experimental group that was taught with the TGfU tional, while all of the practice trials in the individual
approach had significant main effects in motor and social group were physical. Practice trials were marked in a
development compared with the group taught the checklist by the instructor. Swimming lessons were
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traditional technique-based approach. facilitated in some way according to pedagogical

principles of TGfU for both groups. All participants
Effects of Dyad Training on Children’s Learning of came back to the pool for a retention test 1 week after the
Front-Crawl Swimming end of the 8-session intervention. In the retention test,
each child swam 10 m individually, and their performance
S. H. Parvinpour1 and M. Balali2 was filmed for later analyses. Results showed that the
1
Kharazmi University, Iran; 2Farhangian University, Iran dyad-training group was significantly better than the
(shahabpr@gmail.com) individual-training group ( p , .05). Thus, we can
conclude that dyad training not only increases the
Swimming lessons were based on games that included efficiency of a practice condition, but also enhances its
pedagogical principles of teaching games for under- effectiveness and therefore is a good method for
standing (TGfU) like representation and exaggeration for optimizing the practice condition with the use of
both groups. The aim of the present investigation was to observational learning. Also, dyad training is a coopera-
examine the effects of dyad training on learning front- tive learning method that is compatible with TGfU
crawl swimming. Twenty 7- to 10-year-old boys with the principles.
 SELECTED PRACTICAL WORKSHOPS

Note: Only English abstracts considered. highlight TGfU as a vehicle to support games learning
at the different levels of education as they relate to:
Playing With Purpose: Engaging Learners in Game Play elementary education, secondary education, and teacher
Through a Check, Connect, Reflect Approach education.

J. Sheppard1 and E. McGinley2

1
University of the Fraser Valley, Canada; 2Moscrop Lacrosse: Learning to Play the Game Quickly and
Secondary School, Canada Enjoyably
(joanna.sheppard@ufv.ca)
W. Piltz
The teaching games for understanding (TGfU) model University of South Australia, Australia
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enables students to explore their understanding of (wendy.piltz@unisa.edu.au)

gamelike situations and the tactical decisions they will
have to make within game play. But one must remember This workshop will demonstrate an engaging, success-
that the learner is at the heart of the TGfU model. orientated progression for learning to play lacrosse
Educators who design situated-learning experiences to featuring collaborative challenges and enjoyable game
meet cognitive and physical learning as well as students’ play. Participants will experience and critique the various
personal and social connectedness to the game experience learning tasks in an integrated manner to clarify and
a more active learning environment. probe the what, how, and why of the progression. This
This active workshop will explore British Columbia process will enable participants to identify strategies for
(BC), Canada’s newly redesigned education curriculum engaging in and maintaining positive learning states.
and the positive correlation and applications of the TGfU The session will address ways to adjust the context to
games model that can be practically implemented at all differentiate learning opportunities for the diversity of
3 levels of physical education learning (elementary, participants, and it will demonstrate how to harness the
secondary, and postsecondary). By developing a “know, power of collaborative learning. The framework outlined
do, understand” model of teaching, students learn 3 main in this session has been successfully implemented with
conceptual competencies to guide their learning in the novice participants of all ages from primary school
physical education environment: communication, think- children to adults in South Australia, emerging from
ing, and personal and social learning. The 3 levels of core professional expertise and grounded in decades of real-
competencies as stated by the BC Curriculum (2015) are world practice.
as follows: The noncontact game of lacrosse provides the ideal
context for learning all aspects of skilled play.
† Physical and cognitive learning: Through students’ Participants will play the game and explore how the
competency as thinkers, concepts and content can specific “shape” of the game creates positive opportu-
transform a new understanding. nities for learning. Consideration will be given to
† Social learning: the set of abilities that students how the game can be focused and adjusted to
use to impart and exchange information, accommodate players with minimal experience and
experiences, and ideas to explore the world then how it can be extended with variations to the
around them. game and specific rule conditions to challenge more
† Personal learning: the abilities students need to advanced players.
thrive as individuals to understand and care about Participants will also experience a range of individual
themselves and others and to find and achieve their and partner challenges with novel variations and
purposes in the world. combinations to assist in the development of technical
ability, communication, and agility. Attention will be
Through active participation in invasion-game play drawn to the process of creating the opportunity and
as well as discussion of student-centered research and engaging individuals and teams in a self-managed,
educational experiences, this practical workshop will reflective system.

q 2016 SHAPE America

 S116 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

Hockey: Sport-Specific Warm-Up in Field Hockey the main path of perception is the visual. That is why
coaches should be able to vary selectively the visual cues
A. Krause of the training environment during perception training
University of Freiburg, Germany depending on the performance level.
(anne.krause@sport.uni-freiburg.de) Innovative and intelligent light-emitting diode (LED)
equipment offers possibilities for adaptations of the
Background: With the increasing popularity of field environment’s complexity in real time. Goals and vests
hockey, the importance of injury prevention in amateur with attached LED lights can be used to change team
and professional hockey players constantly rises. membership or goal constellation during training in real
With the focus on no-contact events, most common time, which demands players’ constant vigilance and
injuries in hockey involve the lower extremities as well cognitive flexibility. The adaptation can be applied
as the lower back (Dick et al., 2007). In contrast, manually or be controlled via smartphone app. Using
correctly implemented warm-up programs have been such applications, the coach is equipped with more
considered to enhance performance (Bishop, 2003; capacity for observation and coaching.
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Zech et al., 2014). Whereas field hockey involves During the workshop, the following content will be
several dynamic and highly specific movement pattern shown: (a) training control in mini-football (eFUNiño)
components during practice and games, goal-oriented with the help of LED equipment; (b) driving of different
warm-up should be considered regarding the respective game scenarios without external verbal advice; and (c)
sport. presentation of complex training goals with different light
Aim: Therefore, the overall aim is to point out the scenarios throughout the vests and goals (e.g., diagonal
relevance of sport-specific warm-up programs to provide play, training with spatial restrictions).
an approach for long-term no-contact sport injury
prevention in field hockey. Tennis Australia Hot Shots Program Adhering to the
Lecture Content: In the current lecture, the state of the Guiding Principles of the Game Sense Approach
art of hockey-specific warm-up exercises and insight into
the possible practical implementation will be provided.
The emphasis will be on a variety of neuromuscular M. Hewitt1 and S. Pill2
1
Tennis Australia, Australia; 2Flinders University,
training components, focusing on the functionality of
Australia
exercises and targeting lower-limb stability as well as (mhewitt@tennis.com.au)
sensorimotor control. Components such as strength,
agility, and balance will be included, with a special focus The instructional practices of tennis teaching/coaching
on hockey-specific movement control. With the approach internationally have traditionally been characterized by
of a successive increase in level of intensity as well as high levels of explicit verbal instruction with a
exercises with and without additional equipment, an particular emphasis on developing technique in
overview on possible examples of application will be isolation prior to the tactical aspects of the game.
provided. However, in recognizing that players should be exposed
to planned activities that foster development in 4
eFUNiño: Innovative Training Control via LED central domains—the physical (technique), social
Equipment in Soccer (interaction), cognitive (decision making), and affective
(fun and enjoyment) domains—Tennis Australia has
developed the Hot Shots Program, which acknowledges
J. Denis,1,2 D. Poimann,1 and M. Lochmann2
1
Friedrich-Alexander-University, Germany; 2Sports the benefits of incorporating a more game-based
Innovation Technologies GmbH & Co. KG, Germany teaching approach for tennis. Learning is positioned,
(dino.poimann@fau.de) at least initially, within modified games to emphasize
understanding of the way rules shape game behavior,
Training’s effectiveness depends in big part on the tactical awareness, decision making, and the develop-
optimal fit of the training’s demands and the players’ ment of contextualized stroke mechanics (technical
performance level. For effective training in perception and skill). This workshop will present a variety of tennis
quickness of action, constant, controlled adaptation of the games and play practices from the Tennis Australia Hot
training environment’s complexity is needed. In football, Shots Program adhering to the guiding principles of
 SELECTED PRACTICAL WORKSHOPS S117

the Game Sense approach, where players develop their Playing Football TOGETHER: A Pupil-Centered
technical skills with understanding by being actively Approach to Teaching Football in Physical Education
involved in game play in an inquiry environment
distinguished by the pedagogical use of questions to C. Heim and U. Frick
shape the complementarity of technical and tactical Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany
game development. (c.heim@sport.uni-frankfurt.de)

Inventing Games Through Democracy in Action and Even though football is enormously popular among
Adaptation children, few things in physical education in schools are as
difficult as initiating and especially maintaining a match
in which all children are included. The reasons for this
J. Butler
difficulty are manifold. First, there is hardly any other sport
University of British Columbia, Canada
in which the pupils’ pre-experience differs so much,
(joy.butler@ubc.ca)
resulting in a level of play that is more heterogeneous than
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During the inventing games (IG) process, students create in any other ball game. Second, in comparison to games in
their own games based on the 4 teaching-games-for- which the ball can be controlled with the hand, ball control
understanding games categories (target, striking, net/wall, with the foot is an added difficulty, especially for children
and invasion games). Because students invent their own and youth with little or no experience. Third, the ball flies
games, they are able to design them in a way that makes through the air with a higher frequency and at a higher
them accessible to their particular level of cognitive, speed than in other ball games, which not only adds to the
psychomotor, and affective ability. After playing their difficulty of controlling (stopping) the ball, but can also
games, students discuss ways in which rules, dimensions induce fear of the ball especially in inexperienced players.
of play, objects, equipment, and number of players can be As a result, children with football experience often
developed to make playing more inclusive and enjoyable dominate the game even more than experienced players in
for all. The games evolve as students explore them other ball games such as handball or basketball, while
through play and reflection. Through encouraging inexperienced children hardly have a chance to actively
learners to invent their own games, teachers can help participate in the game.
learners to develop respect for equal justice and for free In this workshop, we will present a child-centered
and open inquiry. In this way, students come to approach to teaching football in physical education aimed
understand their responsibility to protect individual and at reducing the aforementioned problems. The teaching
collective rights and freedoms. When it comes to teaching unit centers on dividing classes into small teams, each
democracy, it is important to pay close attention to the led (and coached) by an “expert” player. The teams stay
entire context in which learning takes place, because by together throughout the whole unit, while identifying and
definition, the notion of democracy applies to individuals practicing skills needed to improve individually and as a
as they operate within the community. team. We present worksheets and group tasks designed to
In this practical session, we will explore learning develop an understanding for common elements of the
progressions, group roles, and environmental constraints game and basic tactics needed for success. Our aim is to
that can be used in IG by applying a democratic process put the responsibility for the game into the hands of the
to student learning. IG fosters participation by working children and allow them to make their own adaptations to
in small groups, with an emphasis on cooperation to maximize the level of challenge and fun.
create optimum challenging conditions for all players
through trial, review, negotiation, and redesign. In IG, Questioning in Game-Centered Approaches to
players focus on creating play as a shared experience, Teaching and Coaching
where winning results in a game change (adaptation
to challenge the winner) to create a closer game in S. Harvey
the next game encounter. We all start with more or less West Virginia University, United States
an advantage in game situations, but rarely do we (Stephen.Harvey@mail.wvu.edu)
examine how we can create equal opportunity for
success within the learning situation, within a demo- The purpose of this workshop presentation is to share 3
cratic structure. questioning methods that can be employed during the
 S118 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

teacher’s/coach’s employment of a game-centered pation of the players. The use of psychokinetic games is a
approach (GCA). These methods are (a) the debate of didactic strategy that stimulates the development of
ideas, (b) the GROW model (Goal, Reality, Obstacles/ cognitive skills such as perception, anticipation of
Opportunities, and Way forward), and (c) the reflective movement, attention, and concentration as well as the
toss. It is hoped that presenting these 3 methods will aid coordination of individual and collective actions.
teachers and coaches at the upper elementary school, Psychosocial processes are also taken into account. The
middle school, and high school levels in transitioning to a single player is not only the object of training, but the
questioning approach and, in the process, help them to subject of the training process (Glassauer & Nieber, 2003).
develop their pedagogical content knowledge, which is
a key requirement of using a GCA. The workshop Innovative Strategies for Challenging and
presentation will also demonstrate how the teacher/coach Transforming Coaching and Teaching Practice
becomes a coparticipant (Davis & Sumara, 2003) in
learning within a GCA that empowers learners to take
responsibility for their learning. W. Piltz
University of South Australia, Australia
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(wendy.piltz@unisa.edu.au)
Development of Cognitive Skills Through Psychokinetic
Games This practical-based session will demonstrate how the
play-practice processes of “shaping” and “focusing” the
E. Arias, W. Valencia, and O. Larrera play are applied to engage players in games-based
University of Antioquia, Colombia contexts to facilitate learning. While basketball is the
(elkinariasde@gmail.com) activity, the emphasis is on the key principles for reflective
coaching applicable in many sports.
Sports games are characterized by variability. During the This session will highlight the importance of teaching
game, an ongoing and rapid change of ball possession, through the game by exploring the design of authentic
tasks, opponents, and game situations exists. This rapid challenges engaging players to play and adapt. Attention
change requires from the players a high degree of will be directed to strategies for differentiating the context
development of cognitive skills. They should perceive the to cater to a diverse participation. The sport educator
game, act properly, detect the required tasks, and weigh needs to scan a dynamic environment, analyze what is
the possible solutions appropriate for the situation. happening, and adjust aspects of the context accordingly
“Psychokinetic games” have been designed to train or alternatively to empower groups to personalize the
cognitive skills and collective coordination as required in play through variations in the task, individual, or
sports games. Based on a modular (Hossner, 1995) and environment.
incidental learning (Kröger & Roth, 1999) approach, The concept of “focusing” the play or “teaching in the
characteristic game situations in sports games were game” will be demonstrated as a strategy for accelerating
identified. The typical tasks include coordinative actions learning and drawing attention to specific aspects of
performed under various information requirements and skilled play. Weighted, numbered go-for-goal games will
time-pressure conditions. By implementing psychokinetic provide the context in which to focus the play to develop
games during training, special attention is paid to the “game sense” defined by Launder and Piltz (2013, p. 16) as
individual and their impact on the collective actions. “the ability to use an understanding of the rules, tactics,
The game begins with a simple passing task, and after strategy and of oneself (and of one’s teammates) to
each pass, players change the field’s formation, relocate overcome the problems posed by the sport or by one’s
themselves, and pay attention to the next pass. The passes opponents.” These games are ideal for focusing on the
are carried out with orientation changes; anticipating the tactical aspects of game sense as players adopt attack roles,
position of the partners and the correct dosage of the with and without the ball, as well as defending.
strength and speed of the ball are required. With the The session will also demonstrate strategies for
insertion of 2 or more balls, the degree of complexity is “enhancing” the play to promote player engagement.
further elevated, because all the balls and all players This enhancement includes embedding a variety of
should be in motion simultaneously and continuously. feedback loops within the learning context to maintain
This simultaneous and continuous motion places high engaged states through adjustment, adaptation, and
demands on the attention, concentration, and antici- learning.
 SELECTED PRACTICAL WORKSHOPS S119

This workshop will integrate theory with practice to the form of a structured and flexible framework to guide
provide sport educators with the best opportunity to reflect teachers and children to play games in many different
on, challenge, and transform their practice. and shared ways. Secondly, it encourages fostering
interactions among children and teachers to enable
Coaching for Understanding at an Elite Level: ideas and activities to be shared and tinkered with to
Theory to Practice generate new possibilities in games teaching and learning.
This emphasis on generating new possibilities is
consistent with Esposito’s (1995) definition of play as an
J. Lambert encounter with possibilities. Generating new possibilities
University of Brighton, United Kingdom
emerges from children and teachers coexploring and
(j.lambert@brighton.ac.uk)
cocreating game experiences that are meaningful to both
The teaching games for understanding (TGfU) approach while enabling children to experience and learn game-
has not been widely adopted in coaching, especially at related concepts such as game structure and game design.
an elite level. There are various reasons for this resistance I draw on the play concepts of inside-out and outside-in
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including occupational socialization in professional sport perspectives to argue that this teaching approach
and the reactionary nature of the governing bodies that simultaneously values both perspectives. The inside-out
control traditional games. Based on many years of action perspectives of players relate to the focus on meaningful
research and reflective practice, this presentation argues game experiences, while the outside-in perspectives of
that situated learning based on modified games, which games education relate to the focus on learning game
espouse constructivist learning theories, provides a highly structure and design. I share examples from my research
suitable coaching model for use in elite sport. The benefits that have contributed to the development of this approach
to high-level performers in terms of improved decision and invite you to consider new possibilities for games
making, contextual skill application, and developing education in the early years.
players who are not coach-dependent will be identified,
explained, and demonstrated.
Opportunities for Integrating Attention Training in
This practical presentation will exemplify how TGfU
Daily Practice
can, through the use of a facilitative and democratic
coaching style, empower soccer players to apply high-
order skills effectively, solve their own complex problems, D. J. Poimann1 and M. Lochmann1,2
1
Friedrich-Alexander-University, Germany; 2Fraunhofer
and make correct decisions on the field. The coaching
Institute, Germany
session will challenge players to address specific tactical
(dino.poimann@fau.de)
situations and will be followed by a critical discussion on
the efficacy of such an approach. Attention plays a crucial role in sports games. It is one of
the mental foundations for a successful player because it
Teaching Games in the Early Years: Weaving has an impact on many parts of the game like performing
Complexivist and Play Discourses under pressure, creativity, perception, decision making,
and the development and execution of techno-motoric
H. Hussain skills. One reason attention has become more and more
National Institute of Education, Singapore important is the increasing pace of sports games during
(hanin.hussain@nie.edu.sg) the last decade. Consequently, attention is an important
factor for a player’s development and performance.
This practical workshop invites you to consider a teaching Outside of the field of sports, there is evidence that
approach that draws on and supports complexivist and attention training at a young age can boost attention.
play discourses in fostering young children’s learning in, First, results of my own scientific work and my experience
through, and about games in the early years (3– 8 years as a sports psychologist indicate that attention can be
old). The approach focuses on supporting children to trained very effectively at a young age in football. Hence,
learn the nature of games as socially constructed activities training at a young age should have a positive impact
with some explicit rules on which players have agreed. on the development and therefore later performance of
It is underpinned by complexivist discourse in 2 ways. players. Therefore, it seems reasonable to train the ability
Firstly, it emphasizes creating an enabling constraint in of attention regularly from an early age onward. However,
 S120 TGFU CONFERENCE SUPPLEMENT

there seems to be too little time in daily practice to carve and vigilance—and its meaning for team sports will be
out additional time for extra attention training. The aim discussed. Then some practical football drills—for
of this practical workshop is to illustrate how to integrate example, warm-up, passing, and shooting—and the
basic and situation-specific attention training into daily possibilities of integrating attention training will be
practice at all age levels. demonstrated. Furthermore, different styles of coaching
First, a short theoretical framework of the main and its effects on attention will be exemplified. At the end,
concepts in attention research will be given—including there will be room for discussion about further ideas and
focus of attention, selective attention, divided attention, transfer to other sport games.
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