Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 1 of 10

Free Newsletter! • Suggestions! • Win! • About HSW • Contact Us • Home

Daily Stuff • Top 40 • What's New • HSW Store • Forums • Advertise!

Search HowStuffWorks & the Web

Click here to go back to the normal view!

How Corrective
Lenses Work
by Bob Broten

One of the most common sights almost anywhere in the world is -- eyeglasses! Since we
depend so much on the lenses inside those frames to improve our view of the world, you
might wonder just what goes into creating them.

In this edition of How Stuff Works, we will talk about how the eye focuses, how a lens works,
and finally, how the lens is made, including the steps involved in grinding and shaping plastic
lens blanks to fit an individual's prescription and frame.

How Your Eye Focuses

On the back of your eye is a complex layer of cells known as Definitions
the retina. The retina reacts to light and conveys that
information to the brain. The brain, in turn, translates all that
? diopter (D): the refractive
activity into an image. Because the eye is a sphere, the
power of a lens; the higher
surface of the retina is curved. the number, the stronger the
lens
When you look at something, three things must happen: ? refraction: bent light
? index of refraction: a ratio
? The image must be reduced in size to fit onto the retina. used to compare refractive
? The scattered light must come together -- that is, it must power
? plus lens (+): a lens that is
focus -- at the surface of the retina.
thickest at the center; moves
? The image must be curved to match the curve of the the focal point forward
retina. ? minus lens (-): a lens that is
thinnest at the center; moves
To do all that, the eye has a lens between the retina and the the focal point back
pupil (the "peep hole" in the center of your eye that allows ? aberrations: ghost images,
light into the back of the eye) and a transparent covering, or halos, waves or rainbows
caused by imperfections in
cornea (the front window). The lens, which would be the curve or lens surface
classified a "plus" lens because it is thickest toward the ? segment: the portion of a
center, and the cornea work together to focus the image onto lens added for reading
the retina. (bifocal or trifocal); it may be
added separately to the lens
Sometimes, for different reasons, the eye doesn't focus quite blank or formed as a blended
curve onto the base

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002
Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 2 of 10

right: ? focal point: a spot in space

(may be actual [plus lens] or
? The surfaces of the lens or cornea may not be smooth, assumed [minus lens]) where
causing an aberration that results in a streak of refracted light meets
distortion called astigmatism. ? generator: a compound
surface grinder used to grind
? The lens may not be able to change its curve to curves in the surface of the
properly match the image (called accommodation). lens
? The cornea may not be shaped properly, resulting in ? induced prism: a technique
blurred vision. that moves the optical center
away from the pupillary
Most vision problems occur when the eye cannot focus the center
image onto the retina. Here are a few of the most common ? base curve: a simple
spherical curve, the primary
problems: lens curve
? spherical curve: a curve that
? Myopia (nearsightedness) occurs when a distant object is the same in all directions,
looks blurred because the image comes into focus like a basketball cut in half
before it reaches the retina. Myopia can be corrected ? cylindrical curve: a curve that
with a minus lens, which moves the focus farther back. radiates along a straight line,
? Hyperopia (farsightedness) occurs when a close object like a pipe cut lengthwise
? compound lens: a lens
looks blurred because the image doesn't come into
having both a spherical and a
focus before it gets to the retina. Hyperopia, which can cylindrical component
also occur as we age, can be corrected with a plus lens. ? pupillary center: the point on
Bifocal lenses, which have a small plus segment, can a lens directly in front of the
help a farsighted person read or do close work, such as pupils
sewing. ? astigmatism: a condition
? Astigmatism is caused by a distortion that results in a caused by a distortion in the
second focal point. It can be corrected with a cylinder cornea that creates an
additional lens power
curve. ? optical center: a spot on a
spherical lens where light
In addition, lenses can be made to correct for double vision enters at a 90 degree angle
when the eyes do not work together ("crossed eyes"). The to the lens plane
lenses do this by moving the image to match the wayward ? lens blank: basic spherical
eye. lens. The lab grinds the back
of the blank to match the
prescription
Corrective lenses, then, are prescribed to correct for
aberrations, to adjust the focal point onto the retina or to compensate for other abnormalities.
Read more about vision in "How Refractive Vision Problems Work."

How a Lens Works

The best way to understand the behavior of light through a curved lens is to relate it to a
prism. A prism is thicker at one end, and light passing through it is bent (refracted) toward
the thickest portion. See the diagram below.

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002
Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 3 of 10

A lens can be thought of as two rounded prisms joined together. Light passing through the
lens is always bent toward the thickest part of the prisms. To make a minus lens (above on
the left), the thickest part, the base, of the prisms is on the outer edges and the thinnest part,
the apex, is in the middle. This spreads the light away from the center of the lens and moves
the focal point forward. The stronger the lens, the farther the focal point is from the lens.

To make a plus lens (above on the right), the thickest part of the lens is in the middle and the
thinnest part on the outer edges. The light is bent toward the center and the focal point moves
back. The stronger the lens, the closer the focal point is to the lens.

Placing the correct type and power of lens in front of the eye will adjust the focal point to
compensate for the eye's inability to focus the image on the retina.

Determining Lens Strength

The strength of a lens is determined by the lens material and the angle of the curve that is
ground into the lens. Lens strength is expressed as diopters (D), which indicates how much
the light is bent. The higher the diopter, the stronger the lens. Also, a plus (+) or minus (-) sign
before the diopter strength indicates the type of lens.

Plus and minus lenses can be combined, with the total lens type being the algebraic sum of
the two. For example, a +2.00D lens added to a -5.00D lens yields:
[+2.00] + [-5.00] = -3.00 or a 3.00D minus lens

Lens Shapes
Two basic lens shapes are commonly used in optometry: spherical and cylindrical.

? A spherical lens looks like a basketball cut in half. The curve is the same all over the
surface of the lens.
? A cylindrical lens looks like a pipe cut lengthwise. The direction of a cylinder curve's
spine (axis) defines its orientation. It will only bend light along that axis. Cylinder curves
are commonly used to correct astigmatism, as the axis can be made to match the axis
of the aberration on the cornea.

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002
Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 4 of 10

Making a Lens
To make a lens, the first thing you need is a lens blank. Blanks are made in factories and
shipped to individual labs to be made into eyeglasses. The raw lens material is poured into
molds that form discs about 4 inches in diameter and between 1 and 1 1/2 inches thick. The
bottom of the mold forms a spherical curve on the front face. A small segment with a stronger
curve may be placed in the mold to form the segment for bifocals or progressive lenses.

How to Read the Prescription

Most prescriptions have four parts:

? the base (spherical) strength and type (plus or minus).

? the cylinder strength and type.
? the cylinder axis orientation (in degrees with 90 degree vertical; an "x" means "at").
? the strength of bifocal segment ("plus" indicating "in addition") and type.

A short form prescription from the optometrist or ophthalmologist might read:

2.25 -1.50 x 127 plus +2.00

This means:

? a +2.25D spherical base curve (plus lens).

? a -1.50D cylinder at 127 degrees (a minus cylinder lens is added to the base curve).
? an additional bifocal segment of +2.00D.

Total power of the lens with the cylinder is +2.25 + (-1.50) = +0.75D. At the segment, the
power is (+0.75) + (+2.00) = +2.75D. And in case you've ever wondered, OD means right eye
and OS, left eye.

An Overview of the How the Lens Is Made

In the lab the patient's full prescription gives these exact details:

? The total power (in diopters) the finished lens must have.
? The strength and size of the segment (if needed).
? The power and orientation of any cylinder curves.
? Details such as the location of the optical center and any induced prism that may be
needed.

The lab technician selects a lens blank that has the correct segment (called an add) and a
base curve that is close to the prescribed power. Then to make the power match the
prescription exactly, another curve is ground on the back of the lens blank.

? In most labs the equipment is designed to grind minus curves, so a strong, plus lens
blank is usually selected.
? If the base curve is too strong, then a minus curve is ground in the back of the lens,
which reduces the total power of the lens.

For example, a very common lens blank is +6.00 diopters. If the prescription calls for a total of
+2.00 diopters, a -4.00 diopter curve is ground on the back: (+6.00D) + (-4.00D) = +2.00D.

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002
Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 5 of 10

(See the illustration below.) If it is needed, the cylinder curve is also ground at the same time.

If the prescription calls for a minus lens, the +6.00 diopter lens blank can still be used. To
create a lens with the strength of -2.00 diopters, a -8.00 diopter curve is ground on the back:
(+6.00D) + (-8.00D) = -2.00D. (See the illustration below.)

The Steps Involved in Making Prescription Lenses

Corrective lenses can be made with glass or plastic, but nowadays, plastic is the most
common. While several different types of plastic are used in making lenses, all of them follow
the same general manufacturing procedures. Most of the steps outlined also apply to glass,
although a few important differences are noted at the end.

A lab, even an automated one, follows 12 steps to make prescription lenses:

Step 1: The technician chooses a lens blank of the desired material with the proper base
curve and, if needed, add power.

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002
Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 6 of 10

A lens blank will be ground to match the

patient's prescription.

Step 2: If the prescription calls for a cylinder, a line is marked on the front of the lens to define
180 degrees, and then another line is drawn that matches the axis of the second curve. If
there is a segment, the segment edge is used as the 180 degree line. Often the optical center
of the lens is made slightly above the segment edge, and the line is marked the appropriate
distance. (Note: When there is no segment or induced prism, the lens may be left unmarked
and the cylinder axis determined after the lens is ground.)

Step 3: Since the front of the lens will be left as is, it is covered by a special tape to protect it.

A lens blank is marked, left, to show where the cylinder axis will be.
The technician puts a protective covering, right, over the front of the
lens blank to keep it from being damaged.

Step 4: Depending on the type of equipment, the lens must be prepared to fit onto the
generator, which is commonly a compound surface grinder capable of grinding two curves at
once. A chuck receiver (called a block) is placed on the front of the lens over the protective
tape. If there is a cylinder curve, the lens is oriented so the cylinder axis matches the cylinder
sweep axis of the generator. The center of the block will become the optical center of the lens.
Depending on the equipment, the lens may be held in place by special adhesive pads, with a
special alloy that "glues" the lens to the block or with plastic.

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002
Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 7 of 10

A compound grinder, called a generator,

grinds the required curves into the back of
the lens blank. The two large dials on the
console set the spherical and cylindrical
curves that will be ground into the lens.

On the left is a chuck receiver, called a lens block, which must be

attached to the front of the lens so it can be mounted in the
generator. On the right, the lens blank, attached to the lens block, is
inserted in the generator. The generator has pins that align the lens.

Step 5: The lens is inserted in the generator. The lens might need other processing besides
the compound curves produced by the generator, so the lens may also be tilted in the chuck.
This tilt will offset the optical center (called induced prism) often used to allow thinner lenses
or to accommodate special requirements of the prescription.

Step 6: The curves are set on the machine and the

lens is generated (ground). This step may either be
fully automated or operated by hand, where the
operator manually sweeps the quill (grinding
wheel) across the lens, gradually advancing the
lens until the desired lens thickness is achieved.
Lens thickness is determined by curve type (plus
or minus), lens material (some plastics are tougher
and may be ground thinner), or other
considerations (safety glasses, for instance, are
made thicker than lenses for everyday use). If the
lens gets too hot during the operation it may warp
or tear, so it is cooled by water, which also washes The lens is ground within a rubber-lined
grinding chamber. The cone-shaped quill, or
away the cut material (called scarf). grinding wheel, is at the center. The quill has

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002
Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 8 of 10

Step 7: The lens is taken off the generator and a diamond cutting surface along its outer
placed in a special sanding machine (called a edge and is angled so only the outside edge
cylinder machine ) to remove any marks left by touches the lens.
the generator. To do this, sandpaper is glued to a block with reversed, matching curves (a
+2.00 base/+2.50 cylinder, for example, to match -2.00/-2.50 generated curves), and the lens
and block are rubbed together. Meanwhile the lenses are kept cool and cleaned with water.
Following the sanding operation, the lenses are polished on an identical machine, except that
felt polishing pads washed with polishing compound are used instead of sandpaper and
water. When this step is completed, the lens is optically clear without visible scratches.

A cylinder machine, left, can sand two lenses at the same time. Air
pressure holds the lens and the sanding block together, and a timer
switches the machine off at a preselected time. After sanding, the
lenses are polished, right, so they are perfectly clear without any
scratches. Liquid polish flows over the lenses and into a reservoir to
be recirculated.

Step 8: The block is removed from the lens, and the lens is washed and inspected.
Sometimes special coatings may be applied to the lens. At this point the lens blank has had
additional curves ground in the back of the lens and it has been polished. However, the large
diameter blank still has to be sized and shaped to fit into the frame selected by the patient.
Several methods are used, depending on the equipment, but they are all based on the
following description.

Step 9: The lens blank is shaped on a linear lathe

(called an edger) using either a ceramic or
diamond grinding wheel or stainless steel blades.
The lens must again be prepared to accept a
chuck, but since only the edge is being cut, a much
gentler system is used. A small chuck receiver is
placed where the geometrical center of the finished
lens will be, and the lens is then oriented on the
180 axis. Usually, only an adhesive pad is needed
to hold the receiver on the lens. The lens is
chucked in the edger and held in place by a
pressure pad that presses on the opposite side of
the lens (like holding a very large coin between
your thumb and forefinger at its center).

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002
Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 9 of 10

Step 10: A pattern in the shape of the frame is The lens is mounted into an edger. The
inserted in the edger. Patterns are commonly edger's chuck turns slowly as the lens is cut
plastic and may either be supplied by the frame to shape.
manufacturer or made in the lab. Newer edgers do not use patterns; instead, the shape is
determined by a probe that measures the frame and stores the information in a computer,
which in turn controls the edging operation. As it operates, the slowly turning lens is brought
into the fast turning cutting surface, which is either a grinding wheel or steel blades, until a
guide contacts the pattern, which is rotating to match the lens. If the frame has a complete rim
surrounding the lens, a bevel, or ridge, is cut along the edge of the lens that will fit into a
groove in the frame; otherwise, the edge is left flat.

The lens is cut to fit a frame. On the left are frame patterns. On the
right, a red pattern is used in the edger to determine the final shape
of the lens.

Step 11: The lenses, now cut to fit the frame, are prepared for inserting into the frame.

? If the lenses are to be tinted, the dyeing is done at this

point. Special dyes are kept in heated containers and the
lenses are immersed. The density of the tint is determined
by how long the lenses are left in the dye. Lenses may be
only partially tinted (fade), tinted different colors at top and
bottom, or tinted a custom color by combining different
colors. Also, special UV blocking dyes may be applied in
the same way. Lens that need to be tinted are
? If the frame is rimless, a groove is cut along the edge of dipped in hot dye.
the lens to receive the string that holds the lens to the
frame. Any sharp edges are trimmed and smoothed and, if desired, the edge is polished
on a buffing wheel.

Step 12: The lens is inserted into the frame. Fit and orientation is
double checked, any worn screws or hinges are replaced as
needed, and the frame is made square. The finished eyeglasses
are then thoroughly cleaned and packaged for delivery to the
patient.
A technician checks the
finished lenses for scratches Glass lenses are ground and polished much the same way as
and imperfections. plastic except that diamond cutting surfaces are used, and some
details may vary. The blanks are made of relatively soft glass

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002
Howstuffworks "How Corrective Lenses Work" Page 10 of 10

and must be tempered, either by chemicals or heat, to strengthen them before inserting into
the frame.

Advances in automation are rapidly changing how lenses are made. For example, the vast
majority of labs now use computers to determine curve parameters and lens choice, and
equipment is available that will combine several steps or even do the entire operation
automatically.

Lots More Information!

? How Your Eyes Work
? How Refractive Vision Problems Work
? Center for Optics Manufacturing
? Specialty Lens Corporation's Technical Page Discussing Placement of Optical Center in
Progressive (no-line) Lenses
? Gerber Coburn equipment manufacturers
? Basic Lens Physics
? Brief History of Optics
? Tutorial on Converging Lenses
? How Light Works
? How Sunglasses Work

About the Author

Bob Broten is an American Board of Opticianry-certified optician and certified laboratory
technician at Lenscrafters Inc. in Portland, Ore. He holds a bachelor's degree in biology and
did extensive research in fish vision while pursuing his degree.

Author's note: I am indebted to Erik Schopp, A.B.O-certified optician and general manager of Lenscrafters #671
and Dr. Dawne R. Griffith, O.D. with Dr. Robert D. Forbes & Associates, for their invaluable assistance in
reviewing this article. Optics and optometry are complex subjects beyond the scope of this article. In presenting
the basic principles of these two disciplines, I've oversimplified somewhat for the sake of brevity. For this I
apologize. Any errors in fact or theory are entirely mine. I encourage interested readers to seek professional
advice, as this article is a brief overview and not intended as a guide to diagnoses. Also, I am grateful to
Lenscrafters store #671 in Portland and to Joshua Boyd, lens technician, for help in taking the photos used with
this article.

Join HSW! || Newsletter || Suggestions || Link to HSW || Hiring

Win! || Store || About Us || Contact Us || Privacy || Home
Frequently Asked Questions || Advertising

Copyright © 1998-2002 Howstuffworks, Inc. All rights reserved

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lens.htm/printable 5/6/2002