The Writing Process

WRITING PROCESS
 Decide what to write about and gather information to support or explain what
INVENTION
you want to say.
ARRANGEMENT  Decide how you are going to organize your ideas.
 Write several drafts as you reconsider your ideas and refine your style and
DRAFTING & REVISING
structure.
 Focus on grammar and punctuation as well as on sentence style and word
EDITING
choice.
PROOFREADING  Correct spelling, mechanical errors, and typos and check your essay’s format.

INVENTION
Invention, or prewriting, is an important (and, frequently, the most neglected) part of the writing process. At this stage, you
discover what interests you about your subject and consider what ideas to develop in your essay.
When you are given a writing assignment, you may be tempted to start writing a first draft immediately. Before
writing, however, you should be sure you understand your assignment and its limits, and you should think about what you
want to say. Time spent on these issues now will pay off later when you draft your essay.

Setting Limits
 Length – pertains to number of words or page limit to be use in an essay.
 Purpose – pertains to an approach towards your audience. In general, you can classify your purposes for writing
according to your relationship to the audience.
 In expressive writing, you convey personal feelings or impressions to readers.
 In informative writing, you inform readers about something.
 In persuasive writing, you try to convince readers to act or think in a certain way.
 Audience – pertains to your readers. The flow of organizing your essay may vary on the kind of readers you have.
 Occasion – refers to the situation (or a situation) that leads someone to write about a topic.
 Knowledge – what you know (and do not know) about a subject determines what you can say about it. Different
writing situations require different kinds of knowledge.

Find something to say

 Brainstorming is a way of discovering ideas about your topic. You can brainstorm in a group, exchanging ideas with
several students in your composition class and noting the most useful ideas. You can also brainstorm on your own,
quickly recording every fact, idea, or detail you can think of that relates to your topic.
 Journal writing can be a useful source of ideas at any stage of the writing process. Many writers routinely keep a
journal, jotting down experiences or exploring ideas they may want to use when they write.

Grouping ideas
 Clustering is a way of visually arranging ideas so that you can tell at a glance where ideas belong and whether or
not you need more information.
 Informal Outline is just a list of your major points presented in a tentative order. While, Formal Outline includes
all the major divisions and subdivisions of your paper

Thesis and Support

The concept of thesis and support — stating your thesis and developing ideas that explain and expand it — is
central to college writing.
The essays you write will consist of several paragraphs: an introduction that presents your thesis statement,
several body paragraphs that develop and support your thesis, and a conclusion that reinforces your thesis and provides
closure. Your thesis holds this structure together; it is the center that the rest of your essay develops around.
Developing a Thesis
 Defining the Thesis Statement: A thesis statement is more than a title, an announcement of your intent, or a
statement of fact. Although a descriptive title orients your readers, it is not detailed enough to reveal your essay’s
purpose or direction. An announcement of your intent can reveal more, but it is stylistically distracting. Finally, a
statement of fact — such as a historical fact or a statistic — is a dead end and therefore cannot be developed into
an essay.
TITLE Speaking Out

ANNOUNCEMENT OF INTENT This essay will discuss a time when I could have spoken out but did not.
STATEMENT OF FACT Once I saw someone cheating and did not speak out.
As I look back at the cheating I witnessed, I wonder why I kept silent and
THESIS STATEMENT
what would have happened if I had acted.

 Deciding on a Thesis: No rules determine when you formulate your thesis; the decision depends on the scope of
your assignment, your knowledge of the subject, and your method of writing. Occasionally, your assignment may
specify a thesis by telling you to take a particular position on a topic. In any case, you should decide on a thesis
statement before you begin to write your first draft.
 Stating your Thesis: It is a good idea to include a one-sentence statement of your thesis early in your essay. An
effective thesis statement has three characteristics:
1. An effective thesis statement clearly expresses your essay’s main idea.
2. An effective thesis statement communicates your essay’s purpose.
To express feelings The city’s homeless families live in heartbreaking surroundings.
The plight of the homeless has become so serious that it is a major priority for
To inform
many city governments.
The best way to address the problems of the homeless is to renovate
To persuade
abandoned city buildings to create suitable housing for homeless families.
3. An effective thesis statement is clearly worded.

ARRANGEMENT
Now, before you actually begin to write, you have another choice to make — how to arrange your material into an essay.

Recognizing a Pattern
What happened? Why did it happen?
When did it happen? What caused it?
Narration Cause and Effect
Where did it happen? What does it cause?
Who did it? What are its effects?
What does it look like? How did it happen?
Description What are its characteristics? Process What makes it work?
What impressions does it make? How is it made?
What are some typical cases or
Exemplification What are its parts or types?
examples of it?
Comparison and How is it like other things? How can its parts or types be
Contrast How is it different from other things? separated or grouped?
Classification Do its parts or types fit into a logical
How can it be defined? and Division order?
How does it resemble other Into what categories can its parts or
Definition members of its class? types be arranged?
How does it differ from other On what basis can it be categorized?
members of its class?
Understanding the Parts of the Essay
No matter what pattern of development you use, your essay should have a beginning, middle, and an end — that is, an
introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
 The Introduction: usually one paragraph and rarely more than two, introduces your subject, creates interest, and
often states your thesis. You can use a variety of strategies to introduce an essay and engage your readers’
interest. Here are several options for beginning an essay (in each paragraph, the thesis statement is underlined).
1. Background Information: this approach works well when you know the audience is already interested in
your topic and you can come directly to the point. This strategy is especially useful for exams, where there is
no need (or time) for subtlety. Example below:
“With inflation low, many companies have understandably lowered prices, and the oil industry
should be no exception. Consequently, homeowners have begun wondering whether the high price of
home heating oil is justified given the economic climate. It makes sense, therefore, for us to start
examining the pricing policies of the major American oil companies.”
2. Definition: you can introduce an essay with your own original definition of a relevant term or concept. This
technique is especially useful for research papers or exams, where the meaning of a specific term is crucial.
“Democracy is a form of government in which power is given to and exercised by the people. This
may be true in theory, but some recent elections have raised concerns about the future of democracy.
Extensive voting machine irregularities and ‘ghost voting’ have jeopardized people’s faith in the
democratic process.”
3. Anecdote: you can begin your essay with a story that leads readers to your thesis.
“Three years ago, I went with my grandparents to my first auction. They live in a small town outside
of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where it is common for people to auction off the contents of a home when
someone moves or dies. As I walked through the crowd, I smelled the funnel cakes frying in the food
trucks, heard the hypnotic chanting of the auctioneer, and sensed the excitement of the crowd. Two
hours later, I walked off with an old trunk that I had bought for my thirty dollars and a passion for
auctions that I still have today.”
4. Question: you can begin with a question.
“What was it like to live through the Holocaust? Elie Wiesel, in One Generation After, answers this
question by presenting a series of accounts about ordinary people who found themselves imprisoned in
Nazi death camps. As he does so, he challenges some of the assumptions we have about the Holocaust
and those who survived.”
5. Quotation: If it arouses interest, it can encourage your audience to read further.
“The rich are different,” F. Scott Fitzgerald said more than seventy years ago. Apparently, they still
are. As an examination of the tax code shows, the wealthy receive many more benefits than the middle
class or the poor do.”
6. Surprising Statement: an unexpected statement catches readers’ attention and makes them want to read
more.
“Believe it or not, most people who live in the suburbs are not white and rich. My family, for
example, fits into neither of these categories. Ten years ago, my family and I came to the United States
from Pakistan. My parents were poor then, and by some standards, they are still poor even though they
both work two jobs. Still, they eventually saved enough to buy a small house in the suburbs of Chicago.
Throughout the country, there are many suburban families like mine who are working hard to make
ends meet so that their children can get a good education and go to college.”
7. Contradiction: You can open your essay with an idea that most people believe is true and then get readers’
attention by showing that it is inaccurate or ill advised.
“Many people think that after the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776, the colonists
defeated the British army in battle after battle. This commonly held belief is incorrect. The truth is that
the colonial army lost most of its battles. The British were defeated not because the colonial army was
stronger, but because George Washington refused to be lured into a costly winner-take-all battle and
 because the British government lost interest in pursuing an expensive war three thousand miles from
home.”
8. Fact or Statistic: you can begin with a fact or statistic.
“According to a recent government study, recipients of Medicare will spend billions of dollars on
drugs over the next ten years. This is a very large amount of money, and it illustrates why lawmakers
must do more to help older Americans with the cost of medications. Although the current legislation is
an important first step, more must be done to help the elderly afford the drugs they need.”
 The Body Paragraphs: The middle section, or body, of your essay develops your thesis. The body paragraphs
present the support that convinces your audience your thesis is reasonable.
 Each body paragraph should be unified. A paragraph is unified when each sentence relates directly to the
main idea of the paragraph. Frequently, the main idea of a paragraph is stated in a topic sentence.
 Each body paragraph should be coherent. A paragraph is coherent if its sentences are smoothly and
logically connected to one another. Coherence can be strengthened in three ways. First, you can repeat
key words to carry concepts from one sentence to another and to echo important terms. Second, you can
use pronouns to refer to key nouns in previous sentences. Finally, you can use transitions, words or
expressions that show chronological sequence, cause and effect, and so on.
SEQUENCE OR ADDITION
again first, ... second, ... third next also furthermore
one … another and in addition still besides
last too finally moreover
TIME
afterward as soon as at first at the same time before
finally immediately in the meantime later meanwhile
simultaneously since soon subsequently then
earlier next until eventually now
COMPARISON
also in comparison in the same way likewise similarly
CONTRAST
although
instead nevertheless nonetheless on the contrary
in contrast
on the other hand... still whereas yet
on the one hand ...
conversely despite even though however
but
EXAMPLES
for example for instance
in fact thus namely
specifically that is
CONCLUSIONS OR SUMMARIES
as a result
in conclusion therefore in short thus
in summary
CAUSES OR EFFECTS
as a result because
consequently therefore since
so then
 Each body paragraph should be well developed. A paragraph is well developed if it contains the support
— examples, reasons, and so on — readers need to understand its main idea.
 Each body paragraph should follow a particular pattern of development. In addition to making sure your
body paragraphs are unified, coherent, and well developed, you need to organize each paragraph
according to a specific pattern of development.
 Each body paragraph should clearly support the thesis statement. No matter how many body paragraphs
your essay has — three, four, five, or even more — each paragraph should introduce and develop an idea
that supports the essay’s thesis. Each paragraph’s topic sentence should express one of these supporting
points.
  Conclusion: Since readers remember best what they read last, your conclusion is very important. Always end your
essay in a way that reinforces your thesis and your purpose. Like your introduction, your conclusion is rarely longer
than a paragraph. Regardless of its length, however, your conclusion should be consistent with the rest of your
essay — that is, it should not introduce points you have not discussed earlier. Frequently, a conclusion will restate
your essay’s main idea or review your key points. Here are several strategies you can use to conclude an essay:
1. You can conclude your essay by reviewing your key points or restating your thesis.
“Rotation of crops provided several benefits. It enriched soil by giving it a rest; it enabled farmers
to vary their production; and it ended the cycle of “boom or bust” that had characterized the prewar
South’s economy when cotton was the primary crop. Of course, this innovation did not solve all the
economic problems of the postwar South, but it did lay the groundwork for the healthy economy this
region enjoys today.”
2. You can end a discussion of a problem with a recommendation of a course of action.
“Well-qualified teachers are becoming harder and harder to find. For this reason, school boards
should reassess their ideas about what qualifies someone to teach. At the present time, people who
have spent their lives working in a particular field are denied certification because they have not taken
education courses. This policy deprives school systems of talented teachers. In order to ensure that
students have the best possible teachers, school boards should consider applicants’ real-world
experience when evaluating their qualifications.”
3. You can conclude with a prediction. Be sure, however, that your prediction follows logically from the points
you have made in the essay. Your conclusion is no place to make new points or to change direction.
“Campaign advertisements should help people understand a political candidate’s qualifications and
where he or she stands on critical issues. They should not appeal to people’s fears or greed. Above all,
they should not personally attack other candidates or oversimplify complex issues. If campaign
advertisements continue to do these things, the American people will disregard them and reject the
candidates they promote.”
4. You can end with a relevant quotation.
“In Walden, Henry David Thoreau says, ‘The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation.” This
sentiment is reinforced by a drive through the Hill District of our city. Perhaps the work of the men and
women who run the clinic on Jefferson Street cannot totally change this situation, but it can give us
hope to know that some people, at least, are working for the betterment of us all.”
CHECKLIST: What NOT to do
In an Introduction
 Don’t apologize. Never use phrases such as “in my opinion” or “I may not be an expert, but. . . .” By doing so, you
suggest that you don’t really know your subject.
 Don’t begin with a dictionary definition. Avoid beginning an essay with phrases like “According to Webster’s
Dictionary. . . .” This type of introduction is overused and trite. If you want to use a definition, develop your own.
 Don’t announce what you intend to do. Don’t begin with phrases such as “In this paper I will . . .” or “The purpose of
this essay is to. . . .” Use your introduction to create interest in your topic, and let readers discover your intention
when they get to your thesis statement.
 Don’t wander. Your introduction should draw readers into your essay as soon as possible. Avoid irrelevant comments
or annoying digressions that will distract readers and make them want to stop reading.
In a Conclusion
 Don’t end by repeating the exact words of your thesis and listing your main points. Avoid boring endings that tell
readers what they already know.
 Don’t end with an empty phrase. Avoid ending with a cliché like “This just goes to prove that you can never be too
careful.”
 Don’t introduce new points or go off in new directions. Your conclusion should not introduce new points for
discussion. It should reinforce the points you have already made in your essay.
 Don’t end with an unnecessary announcement. Don’t end by saying that you are ending — for example, “In
conclusion, let me say. . . .” The tone of your conclusion should signal that the essay is drawing to a close.