8 Continuing Medical Education

s
Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and
therapeutic review*

Carmelia Matos Santiago Reis1 Eugenio Galdino de Mendonça Reis-Filho2

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/abd1806-4841.20187075

Abstract: Mycetoma is a chronic suppurative disease of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, characterized by a symptomatic
triad: tumor, fistulas and grains. It can be caused by fungi (eumycetoma) and bacteria (actinomycetoma), with similar
clinical features. Diagnosis is based on the clinical presentation and identification of the etiological agents in the tissue, by
mycological/bacteriological, histopathological and immunohistochemical tests. It is important to specify the fungal or bacterial
etiology, because the treatments are different. An approach that involves early diagnosis, the use of systemic antibiotics or
antifungal agents, including surgical removal of lesions, is the basis for the treatment of these diseases. In this review, the most
commonly used diagnostic methods and treatments will be discussed. Also, we will review the history of the disease through
epidemiological and etiological aspects.
Keywords: Antifungal agents; Fungi; Mycetoma; Mycology

INTRODUCTION
Mycetoma is a chronic suppurative infection of the skin and bacterial colonies or fungal hyphae, which will characterize the
subcutaneous tissues that affects the lower limbs in more than 80% grains. These structures are the fundamental elements of the dis-
of cases. 1 The disease is characterized by a symptomatic triad: swell- ease. The bacteria are represented by delicate filaments of about
ing of the affected area, multiple sinus formation, and a purulent 1μm or less, which are known as actinomycotic grains, while fun-
discharge containing grains.2-4 The grains represent microcolonies gi are formed by thicker and coarser filaments, measuring 2μm or
of the causative agent. The progression of the disease is slow and more in diameter, known as eumycotic grains. 4,5,7
painless, but may affect deep structures such as muscles, tendons, Managing such infections is still challenging and treatment
joints, fascia and bones. The skin shows a wooden fibrotic indura- should involve early diagnosis, the use of antibiotics or systemic
tion due to dermal sclerosis.3 Patients are otherwise in a good health antifungals, and surgical removal of the lesions. 4,8
condition with no satellite adenopathies. 2,5 In order to improve therapeutic results, healthcare profes-
The etiologic agents of mycetoma are aerobic and anaerobic sionals, especially dermatologists, must be aware of the epidemiol-
bacteria (actinomycetoma) and fungi (eumycetoma). In the tissue, ogy and clinical presentation of these infections.
these organisms are found in compact aggregates of filamentous

Received on 01.03.2017.
Approved by the Advisory Board and accepted for publication on 19.07.2017.
* Study conducted at Hospital Regional da Asa Norte (HRAN) and Hospital Universitário de Brasília – Universidade de Brasília (HUB-UnB) – Brasília (DF), Brazil.
Financial support: None.
Conflict of interests: None.

1
Dermatology Service. Laboratory of Medical Mycology of the University Hospital of Brasilia – University of Brasilia (HUB-UnB) – Brasilia (FD), Brazil.

2
Dermatologic Surgery Clinic and Vitiligo Clinic of the Regional Hospital of Asa Norte (HRAN) – Brasília (FD), Brazil.

Mailing address:
Eugenio Galdino de Mendonça Reis-Filho
E-mail: eugeniodermato@gmail.com

©2018 by Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia

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Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review 9

HISTORY Mycetomas are considered occupational diseases of indi-

The first reference to mycetoma dates from the Byzantine viduals who work in rural areas, such as farmers and shepherds, or
period (300-600 a.D.), with evidence from an adult skeleton whose that engage in activities related to the environment. 3,6,9,10
morphological bone structure was suggestive of a mycetoma infec- Mycetomas can affect all age groups, but it occurs more
tion. 6,7 However, the first written account of mycetoma was found commonly in young men aged between 20 and 40 years.1,2,9 Men are
in an ancient Indian religious book, Atharva Veda, where it was men- more likely to be affected than women, with the male to female ratio
tioned as “anthill foot”. In 1842, Gill, a French missionary, described ranging from 3:1 to 5:1.2,6
the first clinical cases of mycetoma in Madura, southern India, nam- Environmental factors associated to genetic or immunologic
ing it “Madura foot”. 3,4,6 In 1860, Carter used the term ‘mycetoma’, predisposition can play a role in increasing the susceptibility to the
being the first to describe the disease under this name. 4,6 In 1913, disease. 1,2,10
Pinoy observed that the disease was caused by two etiologic agents Mycetoma has no known vector or animal reservoir. 6,9,11
and divided the disease into two categories: actinomycetoma (bac- ETIOPATHOGENY
terial agents) and eumycetoma (fungal agents). 6 The first attempt to Mycetoma can be caused by fungi (eumycetoma) or bacteria
map the distribution of mycetoma throughout the world was made (actinomycetoma) with similar clinical features. 4,6 The disease most
by Abott in 1956. 6 He studied 1321 cases of mycetoma in Sudan likely initiates after a minor trauma that inoculates the causative mi-
during a period of two and half years. 3,6 New studies were then croorganism in the subcutaneous tissue. 1,6,7,11
carried out by other researchers in regions such as Congo, Somalia, Actinomycetoma can be caused by anaerobic agents (Acti-
Argentina and Mexico. 3,6 nomyces israelii) that are found in natural cavities of humans or other
EPIDEMIOLOGY animals, mainly in the mouth or tonsils, or by aerobic agents that
Although mycetoma is found worldwide, it is endemic in enter the human body via penetrating injuries. The most important
tropical and subtropical countries, mostly between the latitudes 15 o agents are: Nocardia (N. brasiliensis; N. asteroides; N. otitidis-caviarum;
south and 30 o north, known as the mycetoma belt. 1,2,6-8 N. transvalensis), Streptomyces somaliensis, Actinomadura (A. madurae;
The countries with the highest incidence of the disease are A. pelletieri), and new species of the genus Nocardia: N. harenae and N.
Sudan, Venezuela, Mexico, and India, but Sudan and Mexico have takedensis.11-13
the highest number of cases reported. 1,3,7,8 Cases have also been re- Approximately 50% of mycetoma are eumycetoma and the
ported in other African countries such as Egypt, Senegal, Maurita- most common species are Madurella mycetomatis (70% of cases), Mad-
nia, Kenia, Niger, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Chad, Cameroon, Djibouti, and urella grisea and Scedosporium apiospermum. Other causative agents
Somalia. 3,4,6 In Latin America, besides Mexico which has the highest include Acremonium falciforme, A. kiliense, A. recifei, Cylindrocarpon
number of cases reported, the disease has also been registered in nescens, C. destructans, Exophiala jeanselmei, Scytalidium dimidiatum,
Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, and Brazil. 3,4 Other countries that Aspergillus nidulans, Neotestudina rosatii, Leptosphaeria senegalensis,
have reported cases of mycetoma are the USA, Germany, the Neth- Pyrenochaeta romeroi and Phialophora verrucosa.13,14 The frequency of
erlands, Turkey, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Philippines, Japan, Sri these species depends on the geographical region and climatic con-
Lanka, and Thailand. 3,4,6 ditions. M. mycetomatis produces black grains and is typically found
The endemic areas are characterized by short rainy seasons in tropical regions, while S. apiospermum produces white grains and
with little daily temperature fluctuations, followed by long dry sea- is found in temperate regions. 4,9,14,15
sons with broad daily temperature fluctuations (45-60oC to 15-18oC). Once the fungus penetrates and inoculates in the subcuta-
1,2,4,8
Such extreme climatic conditions may contribute to the survival neous tissue, it stays indolent until extending to deeper tissues and
of the causative organism. 3,6,7 bones. Mycetoma can spread locally through the lymphatic system
The global incidence of actinomycetoma and eumycetoma and, rarely, through the blood stream. Oral and facial mycetoma are
varies from country to country and from region to region. Actino- uncommon. 11
mycetoma is more prevalent in drier areas and eumycetoma in hu- The typical clinical presentation is a painless subcutaneous
mid areas. 2,3,6 mass of slow progression forming multiple sinuses that drain pus
Actinomycetomas (bacterial agents) are more commonly and clusters of bacterial and fungal structures called “grains”. 4,9
found in South and Central America, whereas eumycetomas (fungal The host’s inflammatory response consists of a neutrophilic infil-
agents) are more common in Africa. Sudan is considered the most trate and the formation of granulomas that typically contain grains.
endemic country for mycetoma in the world. In Khartroum, capital of The clusters of fungal hyphae will vary in color according to the
Sudan, more than 7000 patients have been treated for mycetoma and, causative agent. 4,9 Untreated infections will eventually destroy the
in 70% of cases, the causative agent has been identified as the fungus tissues, including bones. The most frequent radiological finding in
Madurella mycetomatis. 1,6 In Mexico and Brasil, actinomycetomas are mycetoma is soft tissue swelling followed by bone sclerosis, bone
more prevalent and Nocardia brasiliensis is the main etiologic agent. 1,6 cavities and periosteal reaction. 11,16
Some of the microorganisms that cause the disease are After inoculation of the causative agent (fungi or bacteria)
found in the soil and can enter the human body via a thorn prick, a a subcutaneous infection develops. The is usually painless and pro-
wood splinter or a stone cut. 2,3,6 cesses slowly, over months and years. 4

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10 Reis CMS, Reis-Filho EGM

In malnourished patients and patients with associated ill- Culture is paramount to identify the causative organisms
nesses (e.g. malaria, HIV/AIDS, leishmaniasis, diabetes mellitus etc.) of mycetomas. The purulent discharge sampled should be centri-
a more intense and faster progression of the disease may occur.4,7,17 fuged, sedimented and washed many times with saline to eliminate
contaminants. 4,5,17
DIAGNOSIS Colony growth should be checked daily and suspected
The diagnosis of mycetoma is based on clinical presentation colonies should be replicated in new media to promptly identify the
and identification of the etiologic agents. Clinical diagnosis is char- etiologic agents. Eumycetoma grow slower than actinomycetoma,
acterized by a symptomatic triad: a subcutaneous mass (tumefac- thus fungal cultures should be kept for up to six weeks before being
tion), draining sinuses and grain discharge. 1,7,17 discarded as negative.5,17,19
The most specific diagnostic tool is the examination of the Macroscopic and microscopic features of the most common
grains discharged from sinuses. Both spontaneous drainage and etiologic agents found in Brazil are described below:
manually expressed material from sinus should be carefully exam- Grains from Nocardia brasiliensis (aerobic actinomycete) mea-
ined macro and microscopically to visualize the grains.4,9 The sam- sure approximately 0.1-0.2mm in diameter, are irregular in shape,
ples can be obtained from any open sinus or by deep surgical biopsy of soft consistency and a white-yellow color; on direct examination
(Table 1). 4,9 clubs are often not visualized. Grains are cultured in media such as
MYCOLOGIC/BACTERIOLOGIC DIAGNOSIS Sabouraud agar, chocolate agar, and Czapeck-dox agar at room tem-
Macroscopic and microscopic features of the grains perature and at 37oC. After the first week, small white colonies can be
Mycological and bacteriological examination are very im- observed; occasionally, colonies are covered by a thin and short white
portant for the correct diagnosis.4,9,18,19 aerial mycelium related to the fragmentation of bacterial filaments.
The grains eliminated vary in size, color and texture; on di- Colonies release a strong odor of “wet soil”. In Gram-stained smears,
rect examination, grains are used for a fast yet temporary identifica- N. brasiliensis has branched bacterial filaments that fragment into coc-
tion of the etiologic agents. 4,9 Over 30 species have been identified coid and bacillary structures; they are gram-positive and partially ac-
as causative agents of mycetoma, but the grains of many of these id-resistant by the Kinyoun method (Figure 01).5,14
agents have overlapping morphological characteristics, therefore, Nocardia asteroids grows well on Sabouraud agar, chocolate
cultures are needed to properly identify the causative agent. agar, and Czapeck-dox agar at 25-37oC. Initially, the colonies have
Grain size varies in diameter: in eumycetoma, such as those an elevated, glabrous, ridged, and granular surface; color is usu-
caused by Actinomadura madurae, Actinomadura pelletieri and by spe- ally orange, but can range from yellow to pink. On Gram-stained
cies of the genus Madurella (especially Madurella mycetomatis), grain smears, branched, delicate, and twisted filaments of 1μm are ob-
diameter is usually ≥ 1-2mm; in actinomycetoma, grains are smaller served fragmenting into bacillary and coccoid structures. 5,14
and hardly visualized. Grain color of the most common species are On direct examination, Actinomadura madurae shows round
shown in Table 1. 5,14 or oval white-yellow grains that are insoluble in KOH 20% and ace-

Table 1: Morphological and physiological characteristics of etiologic agents

Etiologic agent Grain features Optimal Tº Essays
Casein hydrolysis (+) Growth in
White-yellow, 1mm, presence of clubs and
Nocardia brasiliensis 25ºC and 37ºC gelatin 0.4% (+)
filamentous formations; Gram(+) and BAAR (+)
Decomposes in tyrosine crystal
Does not hydrolyze casein (-), does
White-yellow, 1mm, presence of clubs and
Nocardia asteroides 25ºC and 37º C not grow in gelatin 0.4% (-), does not
filamentous formations; Gram(+) and BAAR (+)
decompose tyrosine (-)
Actinomadura madurae White-yellow, round or oval 37ºC Gelatin (-)
White-yellow, 20mm, irregular shape, with Assimilates glicose, maltose,
Acremonium kiliense 26 ºC to 30ºC
fragmented hyphae peptone (+)
Hyaline white, 2.0 to 4.0mm, multiple shapes, soft, Starch hydrolysis, proteolytic
Scedosporium apiospermum 37ºC
with septate hyphae and chlamydospores activity in gelatin medium
Assimilates glicose, maltose,
Black, 1 to 2mm, oval or irregular shape, large
Madurella grisea 26 to 30ºC saccharose, galactose, urea (+),
hyphae and chlamydospores
peptone (+) and asparagine
Assimilates lactose, glicose, maltose,
Madurella mycetomatis Black, large, 5mm or more, interlacing 37ºC galactose, urea, peptone, asparagine
and saccharose (-)

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Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review 11

tic acid. It grows at room temperature, with best development at in Czapeck-dox agar, potato agar and cornmeal agar at tempera-
37oC. Cultures are grown in vegetable broth, glycerol-gelatin and tures of 26-30ºC; colonies have a velvety aspect and a white-grey
Lowenstein-Jensen media; colonies are protruding, round, and color. The conidiophores have a smooth wall, with hyaline, unicel-
white-yellow that later become pink or red-raw. 5,14 lular and straight conidia in the apical portion, kept together by a
Madurella grisea has black, oval or irregularly shaped grains mucilaginous substance.5,14
that measure ≥ 1-2mm; growth is slow and may reach 17-25mm On direct examination, Scedosporium apiospermum has hyaline
in diameter in 30 days at temperatures ranging between 26-30oC. white grains measuring 2-4 mm in diameter that vary in shape. Grains
Colonies are ridged and cerebriform with irregular and hardened are soft and have septate hyphae and chlamydospores. Their colonies
edges; it has a grey to olive-green color that later becomes blackened grow well at room temperature and at 37ºC in cornmeal agar, potato
with a velvety surface. The microculture of colonies shows septate agar, Sabouraud agar, and Czapeck-dox agar. Colonies are dark-gray,
and sterile mycelia measuring 1-3μm in diameter with rare have isolated annelloconidia formed at the apex of the annellophores
chlamydospores and large moniliform hyphae (3-5μm). It grows and pyriform aleuriospores that are distributed in the apices of sim-
well in Sabouraud agar and potato agar. 5,14 ple or branched conidiophores. S. apiospermum is the anamorph (or
Madurella mycetomatis has black, big grains of 5mm or asexual) form of the species Pseudallescheria boydii (Figure 3). 5,14
more (Figure 2). Initially, colonies are yellow or brown with a Tables 1 and 2 show the morphologic and laboratory features
ridged surface and are frequently covered by a short aerial gray of the etiologic agents more frequently isolated in mycetomas.14
mycelium. Colonies grow well on potato agar, cornmeal agar,
Sabouraud agar, and Czapeck-dox agar at 37oC. Colonies have HISTOPATHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS
moniliform dematiaceous hyphae and chlamydospores of 25μm; Grains can be visualized with hematoxylin & eosin staining
after two months, black sclerotia measuring 1μm in diameter (H&E) and by special staining techniques, such as the Periodic-ac-
formed by polygonal mycelia are observed. It has two types of id-Schiff (PAS) and Grocott-Gomori silver staining. Actinomyceto-
sporulation: simple and branched conidiophore and innumerous ma should also be investigated using Gram staining.4,5
chlamydospores. Madurella mycetomatis was found to assimilate Histopathology shows granulomas of epithelioid cells and
lactose but not saccharose. 5,14 multiple giant cells. In the eumycetoma, the grains are characterized
Acremonium kiliense has white-yellow irregularly shaped by clusters of branched hyphae radially arranged that occasionally
grains with 20 mm and fragmented hyphae. Colony growth is fast forms vacuoles. Pink, sharp, large hyphae can be seen, surrounded

A C

Figure 1: A) Actinomycetoma -
Nocardia brasiliensis.
B) After clinical and surgical
treatment.
C) Actinomycetoma grain on
histopathology (Hematoxylin & eosin,
X40). D) Typical colony of Nocardia
B D brasiliensis

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12 Reis CMS, Reis-Filho EGM

by a basophilic component (H&E stain). The grains show round, MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS
sometimes oval or kidney-like configurations. 4,5,7 Recently, Molecular Biology techniques have become increas-
In actionmycetoma, the delicate filaments are involved by ingly important in the identification of genera and species. 5 However,
an antigen-antibody complex forming an eosinophilic fringe (clubs), due to the lack of standardized techniques and the high cost, molecu-
similar to the Splendore-Hoeppli phenomenon, that are found lar diagnosis should be considered a complementary diagnostic tool
around the grains. 4,5,7 and not a replacement for the conventional methods.1,14
Histopathology is useful to confirm the clinical diagnosis RADIOLOGICAL IMAGING DIAGNOSIS
and distinguish eumycetoma from actinomycetoma, but it does not Several imaging techniques can be used to determine the
identify the causative agent.3,7 Histological sections reveal a granu- extent of lesions, including conventional X-rays, ultrasonography,
loma containing grains located in microabscesses.5,7 magnetic resonance and computed tomography.5,7,15 These radiolog-
ical images are essential for surgical planning.20

A B E

C D F
Figure 2: A) Eumycetoma – Madurella mycetomatis. B) After deep surgical debridement. C) 30 days after surgical procedure. D) Six months
after surgical procedure. E) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the tumor. F) Patient after mycological and clinical cure

A B

C D E F

Figure 3: A) Eumycetoma – Scedosporium apiospermum. B) Eumycetoma grain on histopathology (Hematoxylin & eosin, X40). C and D) After
clinical and surgical treatment. E) Cultures in specific media. F) Strands of hyphae and conidia - Synnema (Lactophenol cotton blue X20)

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Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review 13

Table 2: Etiologic agents, macroscopic and microscopic features and culture media for the colonies
Etiologic agent Macroscopic characteristics of colonies Culture medium Microscopic characteristics of colonies

Nocardia brasiliensis White, wrinkled on the surface, yellow or Chocolate agar Fine filaments, 1μm, that fragments
orange underneath. Odor of “wet soil”. Sabouraud agar into bacillary structures
Czapeck-dox agar
Nocardia asteroides White, wrinkled on the surface, yellow or Chocolate agar Fine filaments, 1μm, that fragments
orange underneath. Odor of “wet soil”. Sabouraud agar into bacillary structures
Czapeck-dox agar
Actinomadura madurae Glabrous, serous, ridged colony with grey Vegetable broth Branched, long and twisted filaments,
folds and flat border Glycerol-gelatin smaller than 1μm in diameter. Gram +
Lowenstein-Jensen
Acremonium kiliense Slow growth, short, white-grey to pink aerial Sabouraud agar Hyaline hyphae, simple conidiophore
mycelium, violet reverse Czapeck-dox agar and apical conidia clustered into a
Potato agar circle kept together by mucilaginous
Cornmeal agar substances
Scedosporium apiospermum Fast filamentous growth, cottony dark-grey Sabouraud agar Isolated annelloconidia formed at
mycelium Chocolate agar the apex of annellospores. Pyriform
Czapeck-dox agar aleuriospores distributed in the apices
of simple or branched conidiospores.
Strands of conidiospores form coremia.
Madurella grisea Grey to olive-green, circular with irregular Sabouraud agar Dematiaceous septate mycelia with
edges, ridged surfaces and dark reverse Potato agar rare chlamydiospores; presence of
sclerotia (AB)
Madurella mycetomatis Yellow or brown, ridged surfaces Sabouraud agar Moniliform, dematiaceous hyphae and
Potato agar chlamydospores, 25μm in diameter;
Cornmeal agar simple and branching conidiophores;
Czapeck-dox agar multiple chlamydospores

Over the last years, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has Effective treatment of actinomycetoma began in the 1940s
been considered as a diagnostic and planning tool for the treatment and 1950s with sulphonamides and diaminodiphenyl sulfone
and prognosis of the disease.5,15,20 The changes observed will guide (Dapsone - DDS), achieving cure in some cases. In the 1960s, tri-
the surgeon in the removal of the affected tissue and during fol- methoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) became the standard
low-up. The images should be reviewed every 6 months.15,20 treatment for actinomycetoma. However, in patients resistant to
TREATMENT TMP-SMX, other antibiotics were used, such as streptomycin, isoni-
Treatment of mycetoma depends on a correct diagnosis. It is azid, rifampicin and minocycline. 8,22
important to define the fungal or bacterial etiology because the treat- Currently, the first-line treatment for actinomycetoma is
ments are different.1,4,5,8. Actinomycetoma is treated with antibiotics, amikacin (15mg/kg/day) during three weeks combined with TMP-
which can be used isolated or in different combinations, depending SMX (40/8mg/kg/day) every 12 hours during five weeks. One to
on the severity, extension and location of the lesions. 4,8 However, four 5-week cycles are recommended. Renal and audiometric moni-
we believe antibiotics combined with surgical procedures have the toring is compulsory before, in between and after the cycles. 8
best therapeutic response. Eumycetoma is treated with systemic an- In refractory cases or those with allergies to the combina-
tifungals and surgical excision.4,8,16 Eumycetomas may affect deeper tion, TMP-SMX should be replaced by amoxicillin-clavulanate
tissues, leading to wide surgical excisions and sometimes amputa- and amikacin should be replaced by netilmicin. During pregnancy,
tions. 17 In our routine, stepwise surgical procedures are carried out monotherapy with amoxicillin-clavulanate is indicated. In cases re-
every 150-180 days to remove the infected tissue while maintaining sistant to TMP-SMX, amikacin is associated to a carbapenemic, such
the clinical treatment. This has avoided limb amputations in our pa- as imipenem or meropenem. 8
tients (42 cases). Patient follow-up is continuous: every four months In 26 years treating mycetoma patients, we have observed
during the first two years, until complete clinical and radiological recurrences and refractory responses to monotherapies and to the
cure is reached; every six months to control for relapsing lesions combinations described above. For the last five years, we have
through laboratory and radiological investigations. chosen to treat actinomycetomas with a combination of antibiot-

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14 Reis CMS, Reis-Filho EGM

ics and surgical procedures. Currently, TMP-SMX (8/40mg/kg/ Ketoconazole has a limited therapeutic response in eumy-
day every 12h) is prescribed continuously, combined with 3-week cetomas, with doses ranging between 200-400mg/day for 8 to 24
cycles of amikacin (15mg/kg/day) and imipenem (1500mg IV). Six months of continuous use. Ketoconazole it is not recommended as
to eight cycles are recommended with a 60 to 90-day interval be- first-line treatment and its use for prolonged periods should be
tween cycles; TMP-SMX is maintained until the end of the last cycle. avoided due to its side effects, such as liver and adrenal toxicity. 4,8
Imipenem can be replaced by meropenem with similar results and Fluconazole has also been reported as ineffective in the
TMP-SMX can be replaced by doxycycline (100mg every 12h) or treatment of eumycetomas. 4,8
amoxicillin-clavulanate. Kidney, liver and auditory functions should New drugs belonging to the azole class have a broad spec-
be monitored before, during and after treatment cycles. Radiological trum, good bioavailability and low toxicity. In mycetoma, they are ef-
controls with MRI are done every six months. 17 fective for the prolonged treatment of outpatients. However, there are
It is important to perform sensitivity tests to antibiotics to limited studies in vitro and in vivo. Voriconazole and posaconazole
confirm strand sensitivity, thus optimizing their use. 18 were assessed in a small number of patients with promising results.
Eumycetoma is a neglected disease with few studies tar- Nonetheless, despite the good in vitro activity, prolonged treatment
geting its treatment, thus prospective clinical studies are needed to seems to be needed. Isavuconazole and fosravuconazole had ex-
evaluate the therapeutic potential of the existing antifungals. 8,17,22 cellent results in vitro, but no reports in vivo. Prospective studies are
Itraconazole is the most commonly used drug for the treat- needed necessary to evaluate these antifungals.4,8
ment of eumycetoma. Its bioavailability is variable and absorption High-dose terbinafine (1000mg/day) for periods ranging
is related to stomach acidity and food intake. Existing reports indi- from 24-48 weeks was effective against eumycetomas caused by
cate a favorable clinical response to its prolonged use, especially if Exophiala jeanselmei: 55% of patients showed a significant improve-
followed by surgical excision.4,8 ment while 25% were cured. However, terbinafine was not effective
We believe the best treatment is itraconazole 200mg/VO ev- in deep infections due to S. apiospermum.4,8
ery 12h for two years combined with surgical procedures every 150- There are no clinical data about the efficacy of echinocan-
180 days. Maintenance should be done with 200mg/day for 8-10 dins in eumycetomas. 4,8
years, with laboratory and radiological controls.
For almost three decades, amphotericin B was the only sys- SURGICAL TREATMENT
temic antifungal available. It was not widely used for eumycetoma Surgical treatment is indicated both for small local lesions,
due to its toxicity and the need to be administered parenterally for and for massive compact lesions in order to reduce the mycetoma
prolonged periods. There is a report of its use in a case series in Su- load and provide a better response to clinical therapy.9,19,22 Antimi-
dan with disappointing results.8 crobials should be used 3-6 months prior to surgery in order to form
a fibrous capsule around the lesions, making surgical dissection and
excision easier.1,4

B C

Figure 4: A) Clinical aspect of the symptomatic triad: tumefaction, sinuses and grains. B) Surgical procedure demonstrating debridement.
C) MRI of the foot

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Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review 15

Surgical intervention for mycetoma can cause morbidity, de- After debridement, the surgical field should be thoroughly
formities and disabilities, particularly in the advanced stages of the irrigated with saline to remove any grains that are left or infected tis-
disease.8,17,20,23 sue. Finally, the surgical field should be rinsed and irrigated method-
In general, bacterial mycetoma is likely to have good response ically with iodine solution and hydrogen peroxide multiple times to
rates to clinical treatment, in contrast to fungal mycetoma, that requires remove and destroy hyphae and grains that have been left behind.20
prolonged medical treatment and surgery. 8,20 In large lesions, the wounds are left to secondary intention
Radiological examination is important for surgical planning. healing, with the formation of fibrous tissue, or are closed with a
Ultrasound guided surgery can be useful to determine the precise loca- skin graft in a later stage, after the development of a good granula-
tion, size and the extension of the lesion. 17 tion tissue.20
Careful surgical dissection, with safety margins, is neces- Early movement and physical therapy are compulsory for
sary for an appropriate excision of the infected tissue, avoiding re- better surgical results, avoiding joint rigidity and reducing deformi-
currence of the disease (Figure 4).17,20,23 ties and disabilities.8,20
Indications for surgery: the ground rule in our service is The use of hydrogen peroxide on post-operative wounds is
to treat all mycetoma surgically. Small, well defined lesions require recommended.20
fewer surgical interventions; however, in individuals that are not re-
sponding well to the clinical treatment, a greater number of surgical CONCLUSIONS
procedures is needed in order to reduce the dense, compact fungal In view of the prolonged treatment and devastating conse-
load found in the lesions. Surgery can be a life-saving procedure in quences of mycetomas, with the need for aggressive treatment and
late stages of the disease, which can involve secondary bacterial in- mutilating surgeries, more attention from the professionals that
fection, sepsis,and massive bone involvement.1,8,20 Commonly, bones treat the disease should be given, considering all aspects that fo-
are studded with multiple cemented cavities containing grains and cus on a better quality of life for those affected. Knowledge gaps
fibrous tissue. The debridement of the bone must be done carefully, must be bridged and awareness on mycetoma must reach health
removing grains and fibrous tissue from the cavities. 8,20 professionals who work in primary care, so they can diagnose
In mycetoma, the infection usually spreads along the tissue and refer patients to specialists early. Guidance and preventive
levels forming deep pockets that are not easily detected. These pock- measures promoting the use of adequate shoes and clothing
ets should be identified precisely to reduce post-operative recur- should be offered to those who work in rural areas. q
rence. All damaged tissue must be debrided.8,20

An Bras Dermatol. 2018;93(1):08-18.

16 Reis CMS, Reis-Filho EGM

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1. Zijlstra EE, van de Sande WWJ, Welsh O, Mahgoub ES, Goodfellow M, Fahal AH. 16. White EA, Patel DB, Forrester DM, Gottsegen CJ, O’Rourke E, Holtom P, et al.
Mycetoma: a unique neglected tropical disease. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16:100- Madura foot: two case reports, review of the literature, and new developments
112. with clinical correlation. Skeletal Radiol. 2014;43:547-53.
2. Bonifaz A, Tirado-Sánchez A, Calderón L, Saúl A, Araiza J, Hernández M, González 17. Zein HA, Fahal AH, Mahgoub el S, El Hassan TA, Abdel-Rahman ME. Predictors of
GM, Ponce RM. Mycetoma: Experience of 482 Cases in a Single Center in Mexico. cure, amputation and follow-up dropout among patients with mycetoma seen at
PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e3102. the Mycetoma Research Centre, University of Khartoum, Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop
3. Van de Sande WW. Global Burden of Human Mycetoma: A Systematic Review and Med Hyg. 2012;106:639-44.
Meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2550. 18. Yousif BM, Fahal AH, Shakir MY. A new technique for the diagnosis of mycetoma
4. Nenoff P, van de Sande WW, Fahal AH, Reinel D, Schöfer H. Eumycetoma and using fixed blocks of aspirated material. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2010;104:6-9.
actinomycetoma - an update on causative agents, epidemiology, pathogenesis, 19. López-Martínez R, Méndez-Tovar LJ, Bonifaz A, Arenas R, Mayorga J, Welsh O, et
diagnostics and therapy. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2015;29:1873-83. al. Update on the epidemiology of mycetoma in Mexico. A review of 3933 cases.
5. van de Sande WW, Fahal AH, Goodfellow M, Mahgoub el S, Welsh O, Zijlstra EE. Gac Med Mex. 2013;149:586-92.
Merits and Pitfalls of Currently Used Diagnostic Tools in Mycetoma. PLoS Negl 20. Suleiman SH, Wadaella el S, Fahal AH. The Surgical Treatment of Mycetoma. PLoS
Trop Dis. 2014;8:e2918. Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10:e0004690.
6. Lichon V, Khachemoune A. Mycetoma : a review. Am J Clin Dermatol. 21. Buonfrate D, Gobbi F, Angheben A, Marocco S, Farina C, Van Den Ende J, et al.
2006;7:315-21. Autochthonous cases of mycetoma in Europe: report of two cases and review of
7. Venkatswami S, Sankarasubramanian A, Subramanyam S. The Madura Foot: literature. PLoS One. 2014;9:e100590
Looking Deep. Int J Low Extrem Wounds. 2012;11:31-42. 22. Mencarini J, Antonelli A, Scoccianti G, Bartolini L, Roselli G, Capanna R, et
8. Welsh O, Al-Abdely HM, Salinas-Carmona MC, Fahal AH. Mycetoma Medical al. Madura foot in Europe: diagnosis of an autochthonous case by molecular
Therapy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e3218. approach and review of the literature. New Microbiol. 2016;39:156-9.
9. Mattioni S, Develoux M, Brun S, Martin A, Jaureguy F, Naggara N, Bouchaud O. 23. Brufman T, Ben-Ami R, Mizrahi M, Bash E, Paran Y. Mycetoma of the Foot
Management of mycetomas in France. Med Mal Infect. 2013;43:286-94. caused by madurella mycetomatis in immigrants from sudan. Isr Med Assoc J.
10. Tomczyk S, Deribe K, Brooker SJ, Clark H, Rafique K, Knopp S, Utzinger J, et 2015;17:418-20.
al . Association between Footwear Use and Neglected Tropical Diseases: A
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e3285.
11. Fahal AH. Mycetoma: a thorn in the flesh. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2004;98:3-11.
12. Gooptu S, Ali I, Singh G, Mishra RN. Mycetoma foot. J Family Community Med. J
Family Community Med. 2013;20:136-8.
13. Buonfrate D, Gobbi F, Angheben A, Marocco S, Farina C, Van Den Ende J, et al.
Autochthonous cases of mycetoma in Europe: report of two cases and review of
literature. PLoS One. 2014;9:e100590.
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How to cite this article: Reis CMS, Reis-Filho EGM. Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review.
An Bras Dermatol. 2018;93(1):8-18.

An Bras Dermatol. 2018;93(1):08-18.

Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review 17

QUESTIONS s
1. Which of the following microorganisms causes eumycetoma: 8. The disease that is not a differential diagnosis of mycetoma is:
a) Cladosporium carrionii. a) Paracoccidioidomycosis.
b) Sporothrix schenckii. b) Tegumentary leishmaniasis.
c) Scedosporium apiospermum. c) Entomophthoromycosis.
d) Streptomyces somaliensis. d) Tuberculosis.

2. Red grains are seen in a cutaneous lesion. Macroscopically, the 9. Regarding the etiopathogenesis of mycetoma, which of the fol-
grounded grains have fine delicate filaments with 1µm width that lowing statements is correct:
branch off from a necrotic center. The most likely diagnosis for a) Mycetoma can spread locally through the lymphatic system
this case is: and blood stream.
a) Chromoblastomycosis. b) T he symptomatic triad consists of a painless subcutaneous
b) Eumycetoma. mass that progresses rapidly, forming sinuses that drain pus
c) Actinomycetoma. and grains.
d) Sporotrichosis. c) T
 he disease progresses similarly in immunocompetent and im-
munosuppressed patients.
3. The etiologic agent e most commonly found in Brazil is: d) T
 he clinical presentation of actinomycetomas and eumyce-
a) Madurella grisea. tomas are similar, however, their frequency depends on geo-
b) Nocardia brasiliensis. graphic location and climatic factors.
c) Phialophora verrucosa.
d) Madurella mycetomatis. 10. A 50-year-old patient from a rural area presents with swelling
of the lower limb, sinuses, pus and grains. He is attended at the
4. Which of the following organism is weakly acid-fast: Dermatology Outpatient clinic. The best initial approach would be:
a) Nocardia brasiliensis. a)Deep biopsy with samples to histopathology, bacteriology, my-
b) Madurella mycetomatis. cology and request imaging studies.
c) Streptomyces griseus. b) Send samples for Molecular Biology studies followed by im-
d) Phialophora verrucosa. mediate surgical treatment with radiological follow-up.
c) Start treatment with sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, regard-
5. Which of the following statements is correct: less of the etiologic agent and wait for culture results to define
a) Grains are observed in mycetoma caused by Nocardia, but in a targeted treatment.
nocardiosis usually there are no grains. d) Refer the patient to the surgeon for limb amputation and sub-
b) T he typicall sulphur colored grains are present in actinomyco- sequent clinical treatment to control hematogenous spread.
sis and mycetoma caused by the same organisms.
c) Acremonium kiliensis is an etiologic agent of actinomycetoma. 11. The best treatment combination for a patient with eumyceto-
d) Only actinomycete fungi and bacteria can produce grains in ma caused by Madurella mycetomatis would be:
the tissue. a) Fluconazole 300mg, po, every 12 hours for 2 years, combined
with surgical procedure every 6 months.
6. Which of the morphological features are not compatible to its b) IV Amphotericin B, 2-5mg/kg/day, total of 3g, and mainte-
respective etiologic agent: nance with sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim for 5 years.
a) Nocardia brasiliensis has an odor of “wet soil”. c) V
 oriconazole 200mg, po, every 12 hours for 2 months has the best
b) S cedosporium apiospermum has multiple pyriform aleuriospores cost-benefit: satisfactory results and shorter treatment period.
distributed in the apices of simple conidiophores. d) Itraconazole 200mg, every 12 hours for a prolonged period,
 cremonium kiliense exhibit simple conidiophore with a single
c) A combined with deep surgical debridement every 6 months
conidium on the extremity of the conidiophore. with laboratory and radiological follow-up.
d) M adurella mycetomatis  has simple conidiophores in a rosette
formation. 12. The best therapeutic approach for a patient diagnosed with
actinomycetoma caused by Nocardia braziliensis would be:
7. Mycetomas occur more commonly in which age group: a) Monotherapy with sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim 40/8mg/
a) 0 - 20 years. kg/day for 3 weeks; 1-4 cycles.
b) 20 - 40 years. b) Amoxicillin-clavulanate 500/125mg/day, every 8 hours for 3-6
c) 40 - 60 years. months.
d) over 60 years. c) F
 irst-line treatment consisting of amikacin 15mg/kg/day com-

An Bras Dermatol. 2018;93(1):08-18.

18 Reis CMS, Reis-Filho EGM

bined to an IV carbapenemic 500mg every 8 hours for 3-6 months. 17. Regarding the occurrence of mycetoma, it is correct to state that:
d) Amikacin 15mg/kg/day for 3 weeks combined with sulfamethox- a) Mycetoma is found in few regions of the world; although it
azole-trimethoprim 40/8mg/kg/day for 5 weeks; 1-4 cycles. is endemic in tropical and subtropical countries, it is currently
only found in African countries.
13. Which of the statements regarding the surgical approach of b) In the American continent, actinomycetomas are rare.
mycetoma is correct: c) Actinomycetomas are prevalent in drier areas, as opposed to
a) It is the most efficient treatment and should be the first ap- eumycetomas, which are more commonly found in rainy areas.
proach in actinomycetoma and eumycetoma. d) There are no cases reported in Europe; in the Americas, cases
b) Surgical dissection and resection should be performed after have only been reported in developing countries such as Mex-
the use of an antimicrobial, allowing a fibrous capsule to form ico and Brazil.
around the lesions.
c)Radiological tests are not important for surgical planning since 18. Which of the following statements is incorrect:
mycetoma is not invasive and its limits are easily identified. a) Iodine solutions and hydrogen peroxide are not recommended
d) Neurological and orthopedic complications are inevitable for the irrigation of affected tissues or for post-surgical dressings.
since nerves and tendons are affected by the disease and need b) Early diagnosis of mycetoma is key; late diagnosis may lead to
to be removed. mutilating treatments.
c) Health care professionals that work with primary care in rural
14. Regarding the epidemiological characteristics of mycetoma, it areas must engage in preventive measures, such as advising
is correct to state that: rural workers to use adequate shoes and clothes.
a) Men and women are equally affected since the disease affects d) Early movement and physical therapy are compulsory after
young rural workers. surgery.
b) T  he disease is transmitted from person to person; it is common
for family members living in the same area to present a similar 19. Actinomycetoma is caused by anaerobic and aerobic bactéria.
clinical picture. Which of the following microorganims does not cause actinomy-
c) Mycetoma has a known reservoir. Etiologic agents are found in cetoma:
the soil. Rural workers in contact with wild animals are most a) Actinomadura madurae.
susceptible to the disease. b) Streptomyces somaliensis.
d) The causative microorganisms are found in the soil; the infection c) Nocardia brasiliensis.
starts with the inoculation through injuries on the skin. d) Leptosphaeria senegalensis.

15. Regarding the clinical features of mycetoma, it is correct to 20. The most commonly used culture media for isolation of my-
state that: cetoma are:
a) The evolution of the disease is painful and patient’s overall a) Sabouraud agar, chocolate agar, BHI agar.
health condition is compromised. Satellite adenopathies are b) rice agar, Sabouraud agar, potato agar.
observed. c) BHI agar, Mycosel agar, Sabouraud agar, blood agar.
b) The affected areas are indurated due to dermal sclerosis, com- d) blood agar, BHI agar, Czapeck-dox agar.
promising deep structures such as tendons and bones.
c) The purulent discharge containing grains eliminated from si-
nuses are the main elements for the diagnosis of mycetoma
since pure colonies are always obtained from cultures. Answer key
d) Mycetoma is an acute skin infection characterized by a symp- Leprosy: current situation, clinical and laboratory as-
tomatic triad (tumefaction, multiple sinus formation and pects, treatment and perspective Uniform Multidrug Ther-
grains) that usually affects the trunk. apy for all leprosy patients. An Bras Dermatol. 2017;92(6):
761-73.
16. Regarding grains, which are the main diagnostic elements of 1. D 6. C 11. B 16. D
mycetoma, it is correct to state that: 2. B 7. C 12. C 17. D
a) They are only visible under a microscope. 3. B 8. D 13. C 18. B
b) Grains from actinomycetoma and eumycetoma have similar 4. A 9. A 14. D 19. B
morphologic features on histopathology. 5. B 10. D 15. D 20. D
c) Grains are eliminated from sinuses, have variable size, color
Papers
and texture and, although cultures are needed to accurately
Information for all members: The EMC-D questionnaire
identify the causative agent, they can be used for a temporary
is now available at the homepage of the Brazilian Annals of
identification.
Dermatology: www.anaisdedermatologia.org.br. The dead-
d)  The eosinophilic fringe resembling the Splendore-Hoeppli
line for completing the questionnaire is 30 days from the date
phenomenon is pathognomic in mycetoma.
of online publication.

An Bras Dermatol. 2018;93(1):08-18.