COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 1 of 9 COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 2 of 9

Technical details
Computer
Science
COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 The transmission of data can be realised in a variety of ways. The best method of transmission is highly
October 2003 dependant upon the nature of the data to be transferred. Simplex channels allow data to be transmitted in
one direction only (e.g. TV, Radio). Half-duplex channels allow 2-way communication, but only one
direction at a time (e.g. walkie-talkies - one end must stop transmitting before the other one can begin).
Full duplex channels allow data to be transmitted in both directions at the same time (e.g. telephone line -
New connections - New Media both people can speak and listen at the same time).
(An introduction to data communications, networks and the Internet)
0 0 0 0 1
Introduction Figure 2: Data transmitted in serial 0 1
Data Communications began in 1940, when Dr George Stibbitz sent data through the telephone system
from Dartmouth College to New York. The value of transmitting data from one machine to another was Data can be transmitted in a parallel or serial fashion depending upon 0 0
quickly recognised. Data communications became a popular area of research among the military, hardware constraints. Inside the computer, information is usually
business and academic communities. The importance of data communications continues to attract transmitted in parallel one word at a time (a word being the number of 0 1
funding and research to this day. bytes which the computer treats as a single unit). However, most data
channels require data to be transmitted in serial, resulting in a much 0 0
Data Transmission mediums slower rate of transfer.
1 1
The path through which data is sent is known as a channel. There are many different mediums which Computers need to use accurate methods of data transfer since even a
form data channels. The most common is plain wire cables (twisted pair or coaxial) which use electrical single error could render the data useless. Two common methods are 1 0
signals to carry data. Fibre optic cables consist of very thin glass filaments which carry digital signals called asynchronous and synchronous. Asynchronous transmission
generated by switching lasers on and off to form pulses of light. These fibre optic cables have many involves sending one byte of data at a time. In order to separate the 1 0
advantages over wire, the most important of which is speed of transmission. A single fibre optic cable bytes of data, start and stops bits are used to signal that a byte of data
can carry up to 7000 times as much data as regular wire cables. They are also less prone to interference is being sent. Usually, 2 bits are sent as a signal that a byte is 1 1
(up to a million times lower rate of errors), safer, last longer and are much more difficult to wiretap following, then the byte is sent, then 2 bits are sent to indicate that the Figure 3: Data transmitted
(giving them a higher degree of security). Microwaves are also used to transmit data via relay stations. byte has been transmitted. in parallel
These stations must be in line-of-sight of each other, and can transmit very large quantities of data very Start Bits Byte of data Stop Bits
rapidly. Both cellular phones and communication satellites use this technology which offers a cable free
medium of communication. 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

Figure 4: Transmitting the byte 11100100 asynchronously requires sending 2 start bits (00), followed by
the byte (11100100), followed by the stop bits (11).

Synchronous transmission involves sending many bytes gathered together in a group known as a packet.
These bytes are sent without start or stop bits. Instead, the transmission is carefully timed, so that the
receiver can distinguish each individual byte.

Protocols
Data communications is a complex issue, involving many possible ways of sending and receiving data. It
is important that both ends of a transmission use the same methods. Computer professionals have
realised the importance of standardising on particular communications techniques. These standard
methods of communicating are known as protocols and they define a set of rules and procedures
Figure 1: Data Transmission usually occurs through a variety of different communication mediums. indicating how to initiate and maintain communication. Low level protocols define the electrical and
physical standards to be observed, the bit-ordering and the transmission, error detection and correction of
Transfer rates. the bit stream. High level protocols deal with the data formatting, including the syntax of messages,
character sets, sequencing of messages etc.
The greatest concern facing specialists in data communications is the speed by which the data is
transferred. As technology increases, researchers are discovering new techniques which can be used to
transmit data faster than ever before. However, our expectations continue to rise, requiring an ever faster Communications Hardware
rate of data transfer (e.g. people were once happy to use Morse code to transfer messages via telegraph, A typical data communications system will involve many terminals connected to a central server. A
now people want video conferencing). The transmission rate of data is often referred to as the baud rate network which exists over a large area would typically use modems to create the connections between the
(which is incorrect, but the baud rate and transmission rate are often approximately equal), and is terminal and the server. These common elements of a network warrant further discussion.
measured in bits per second (bps). The transmission rate is dependant upon the range of frequencies
which can be transmitted by a given medium (i.e. the bandwidth of the medium), and the speed at which Any input/output device which is at the end (or terminal point) of a data communications system is
the signal travels through the medium. known as a terminal. However, terminal is usually used to refer to a computer which is connected to the
communications system and includes a screen and keyboard for input and output. Today, many
computers have “terminal” software which allow them to connect to other host computers.
COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 3 of 9 COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 4 of 9

A modem is a device which enables a computer to receive and transmit data over a telephone line. Tape Drive
Traditionally, telephone lines have been analogue lines (i.e. transmits signals which have a continuous
range of values), whereas computers use digital signals (discrete values - either 0 or 1 for computers). A
modem converts the computer’s digital signal into analogue form which can be sent through a regular
telephone. A modem at the other end of the telephone converts the signal from analogue back into digital
so that the remote computer can understand the signals.

Printer
Analog
Scanner

Figure 7: A Local Area Network allows users to transfer files between one another and to share
expensive resources (such as printer, scanner or tape drive).
Digital
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Figure 5: Analog signals have a continuous range of values, while digital signals have a limited range A network which spans a geographic area of greater than 1 km is usually known as a wide area network
of discrete values. (WAN). Networks of this type often include satellite dishes, or operate through fast digital lines leased
from a telecommunications company such as Telecom. The US National Science Foundation (NSF)
Server backbone is one such example of a WAN.
A server is a computer which understands a particular protocol. It receives and transmits data according
to the protocol which it understands. A typical data communications system may have many different
servers each of which is dedicated to a particular sort of task (and can understand the corresponding
protocol).

Figure 8: A Wide Area Network spans a distance of greater than 1 kilometre.

Traditional Networks
Traditionally, early networks used a single computer to co-ordinate the transfer of information from one
machine to another. This central computer became known as the host computer. The host computer was
An internet
usually left switched on all the time, allowing other computers to send data at any time. When two or more networks are connected together, the resulting network is known as an internet. This
term should not be confused with the global network of networks commonly known as the Internet (note
the difference in capitalisation).

Central
Computer
Figure 9: The connection of two or more networks forms an internet.

The Beginning of the Internet

During the 1950’s, America was in the grip of “Cold War” paranoia. Fear of communism, and the
Figure 6: A central computer was used to co-ordinate communications between different machines perceived threat of a Nuclear Strike from the Soviet Union caused a intense period of industrial research.
The successful launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union in 1957 provoked the formation of the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) within the Department of Defence (DoD).
Local Area Networks (LAN)
Most small businesses today have at least one computer. Those who have more than a single computer
are likely to have them connected together in order to share files and other resources such as printers and
A New Type of Network:
modems. A local area network (LAN) consists of two or more computers physically connected together Dr. J. Licklider, who was head of ARPA in 1962 began to involve universities in the ongoing research,
(usually with twisted pair or coaxial cable) which are located in a limited geographic area (less than 1 km thus tapping the resources of the academic community. After the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, a nuclear
across). attack seemed unavoidable. Investigation into the aftermath of a Nuclear Attack suggested that neither
the long-distance telephone plant nor the military command and control network would survive such an
attack. Even though most of the links would be operable, the centralised switching facilities would be
destroyed, rendering the system useless. During this time, Paul Baran of RAND (a Research and
Development organisation) came up with a promising solution.
Baran conceived of a network where each node would have equal status; be autonomous; and be capable
of receiving, routing, and transmitting information. This system would take each message and break it
down into pieces (called packets). Each of these packets would be individually addressed and allowed to
travel through the network by whatever route was available. If parts of the network were destroyed, the
address of the destination was sufficient for a node to send the packet via a different route.
COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 5 of 9 COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 6 of 9

In autumn of 1969, ARPA connected four sites together using methods developed by RAND. These sites Internet Service Providers (ISP)
were: An Internet Service Provider (ISP) provides a way for an individual to access the Internet. The ISP
1. Stanford Research Institute (SRI) usually has a host computer which maintains a permanent connection to other host computers and forms
2. University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) part of the Internet. The ISP will usually a client with an account on one of the host machines owned by
3. University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB) the ISP. This account allows ISP to keep a record of how much information each user transfers, and
4. University of Utah provides a location where email and other files may be stored.

The Developing Network

The network was initially to be used primary for long-distance computing. This would allow a user in a
remote location to log into and use a distant machine as if they were actually there. Researchers could
make use of the few supercomputers in the country without having to travel miles to try out their
programs. Within 2 years however, the main use of the network was no longer long-distance computing,
Home User ISP Host Satellite
but rather sending personal messages. Each user had their own account, and could be sent an individual
Modem Host Link
message, which proved to be extremely popular among the growing number of users.
Pool
The decentralised design of ARPAnet allowed computers to be connected far more easily than in Figure 10: A home user normally accesses the Internet through an Internet Service Provider.
traditional networks. It was not necessary to register with a central authority, but merely to connect to the
closest machine already connected to the network. This design allowed the network to expand quickly
and easily. Connecting to the Internet
In order for a user to access the Internet, they require a computer, a modem, software that allows the
TCP/IP computer to connect to a host, and an account with an ISP. The communication software (or dial-up
software in Windows 95) will tell the modem to dial the appropriate number and connect to the modem
Once the network began to expand, it started to be connected to other existing networks. The original owned by the ISP. Once the modem has connected, the user must log into the account provided by the
protocol for ARPAnet was designed for only a small number of machines. Robert Kahn saw a need for a ISP (this is often achieved by scripts that run in the background). If the user has email waiting on the
protocol which would allow for unlimited expansion. In 1972 he began to work on TCP/IP host machine, they may transfer it to their local machine to read it. Anytime the user looks at any
(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol). He assumed: information on the Internet (WWW pages, USENET news, email, IRC, et;) the data must be transferred
• No internal changes would have to be made to a network in order to connect it to the Internet. through the host computer, down the telephone line, through the modem and onto the local machine
• Communication would be on a best effort basis, with any lost packets being retransmitted before it can be read.
• There would be no global control of the network.
At a similar time in PARC the Ethernet protocol was developed by Bob Metcalfe for use with local area Communication
networks. After the public release of Ethernet in 1973 it quickly became the standard protocol for LAN The Internet provides a world-wide communication medium. It is possible for a user to communicate to a
communications and small independent networks flourished. single individual, small groups, or broadcast to a large audience. The most common methods of
communication are through electronic mail, internet relay chat, or Usenet newsgroups.
From ARPAnet to Internet
The term “Internet” was first used in a planning document in 1974, but ARPAnet was still commonly
referred to until the early 1980’s. Around this time, TCP/ IP was integrated into the UNIX system, so Electronic mail
that standard mainframes would come with networking software already installed. Networks of varying Email is a mechanism that allows a user to type a message, and then send it through the Internet to a
sizes continued to become more commonplace. specified address. This is usually available with the lowest level of Internet access, and is considered by
On January 1st, 1983, ARPAnet changed protocol from its original limited version to the TCP/IP many to be the most essential aspect of Internet communication. The protocol by which email is
protocols we use today. The transition went surprisingly smoothly. This change to TCP/IP allowed the transferred restricts the message to plain ASCII text. The development of MIME (Multipurpose Internet
DoD to separate from ARPAnet, and form Milnet (Military Network). Mail Extensions) has allowed documents of any sort to be sent through email, greatly increasing its
usefulness.
Internet today More recently, email facilities have been incorporated into WWW browsers such as Netscape. These
When ARPAnet was a small network it was possible to maintain a table of all the computers and what browsers support the use of HTML code within the mail message, allowing different fonts, sizes, and
their addresses were. With the open-ended architecture of TCP/IP, this was no longer feasible, and a styles to be used within the document. Some of these browsers even support the inclusion of pictures
system of maintaining addresses called the Domain Name Server was created. This system introduced a within an email message (although such messages cannot be easily read by those who are not using an
hierarchical scheme for addresses which operated in a similar way to regular post office addresses. email program which supports HTML).

The National Science Foundation (NSF) wanted a high performance network to link supercomputers
together with the aim of providing researchers with available resources. During the 80’s, they created a Internet Culture
high speed network which ran across the US, and became known as the Backbone of the Internet.
Universities, Government departments and Businesses were all encouraged by the high speed link, and Email usually reaches its destination within minutes. This fast delivery time has directly influenced the
rapid growth of the Internet began. culture of Internet users in a variety of ways. Replies are usually received quickly (compared with snail
mail), giving email a conversational flavour. This has resulted in an informal style of writing in which
ARPAnet ceased in 1990, by which time the Internet was a well established system. The creation of the even spelling mistakes are taken for granted. Chat groups have almost instant delivery of text to the
WWW in 1991 allowed the general public to experience the Internet for the first time. Entertainment, group, requiring people to develop methods of carrying on written conversations in real time. To reduce
Advertising, and uninformed opinion quickly became commonplace. Experienced users of the Internet the time taken to get the message across, shorthand notation developed for common phrases (eg; FYI =
longed for the “good old days” when the Internet was a small closed community. The general public was for your information, TTYL = talk to you later, TNSTAAFL = there's no such thing as a free lunch).
able to enjoy another form of mass media, but one in which they had control. In 1995, the NSF created a Emotion is difficult to express through pure text, yet it is important for conversations, and so emoticons
new Very High Speed backbone which was reserved solely for academic research.
COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 7 of 9 COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 8 of 9

(smileys) were developed to fulfil this role. These are usually used to represent sarcasm, humour, and answered. The more frequent use of forums on web pages is beginning to give the web a greater sense of
basic emotions such as happy or sad. community and a more interactive feel to users.
:-) ............ happy ;-) ............ wink (sarcasm/ humour)
:-( ............. sad Netiquette
With such a large audience able to publish (ie; post messages), there is a need for conventions governing
Mailing Lists acceptable behavior, which is commonly known as netiquette. Failing to follow these rules of netiquette
All email is handled purely by computer systems. It is therefore easy to automate the sending of email to has no official or formal effect, but reflects the poor judgement of the person posting. You would be well
many users. All that is needed is a list of addresses, and a computer program (called a mailer) can mail advised to read an article on netiquette before communicating via Email or posting to Usenet
out a message to every address on the list. This feature is the essential idea behind mailing lists, which newsgroups.
are a list of addresses of people interested in the same topic, together with a program that manages the
list. Any mail which is sent to a specified address (that of the mailer) is automatically forwarded to each Timeline of some Internet Related events
person whose address is on the list. Generally, mailing lists are for people who have a common interest
in a particular topic (eg; Kite Making). It is estimated that there are over 30,000 different mailing lists 1957 USSR launches Sputnik.
today. The largest mailing list currently is A-Word-A-Day with over 100,000 subscribers. The US forms ARPA to establish US lead in military technology
1962 Paul Baran, RAND: "On Distributed Communications Networks"
Privacy 1969 ARPANET commissioned by DoD for research into networking
There is no such thing as private email. There are no national laws which protect email. The First node-to-node message sent between UCLA and SRI (October)
administrators have access to all email that is sent to or from their system. It has been estimated that 25%
of US companies read their employees’ email messages. There is no reason to be alarmed however, since 1970 ARPANET hosts start using Network Control Protocol (NCP).
in practice, it would take far too long to read everyone’s email. Just don’t send anything really important 1972 Ray Tomlinson (BBN) writes basic email message send and read software
(i.e. documents relating to national security) via email. The issue of email privacy has become a common Telnet specification
concern in the US which is in the process of developing legally binding ethical standards for the
computer industry. 1973 Bob Metcalfe's Harvard PhD Thesis outlines idea for Ethernet
File Transfer specification
Usenet 1974 Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn publish "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" which
The UNIX User Network (Usenet) began in 1981 when the UNIX to UNIX Copy Protocol (UUCP) was specified in detail the design of a Transmission Control Program (TCP).
created. This protocol simply copied files from one UNIX machine to another across a network. It was
1976 Queen Elizabeth II sends out an e-mail
quickly seen as an ideal way to build a message system, where any messages would be copied to all the
UUCP (Unix-to-Unix CoPy) developed at AT&T Bell Labs
other machines running UUCP. A backbone of machines supporting UUCP was set up spanning the US.
The messages were stored and forwarded on a purely cooperative basis, at some expense to those 1979 USENET established using UUCP
providing the service. At this time, the groups fell into only 2 categories; mod were for moderated
groups, and net were for all the others. 1982 ARPA establishes the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), as the
protocol suite, commonly known as TCP/IP, for ARPANET. This leads to one of the first
definitions of an "internet" as connected set of networks, specifically those using TCP/IP, and
Great Renaming "Internet" as connected TCP/IP internets.
In 1986, the newsgroups were beginning to become too numerous to easily manage, and so the Great (or
Grand) Renaming began. This was a move to restructure the Usenet groups into the hierarchical structure 1983 Cutover from NCP to TCP/IP (1 January)
we have today and took about a year to fully realise. The main groups became comp, misc, news, rec, ARPANET split into ARPANET and MILNET
sci, soc and talk. The renaming made it possible for the administrators to copy only the first few groups 1984 Domain Name System (DNS) introduced.
(the important ones in their eyes), and not support the other groups. This possibility angered many, and Number of hosts breaks 1,000
one of the biggest flame wars of all times ensued. During this time, the proposed rec.sex, and rec.drugs
groups caused the backbone to break as some of the administrators refused to support those groups. This 1986 NSFNET created (backbone speed of 56Kbps)
in turn caused the creation of the anarchistic alt hierarchy (in which anyone can start up a group).
1987 Number of hosts breaks 10,000

Usenet today 1988 Internet worm burrows through the Net, affecting ~6,000 of the 60,000 hosts
NSFNET backbone upgraded to T1 (1.544Mbps)
The amount of information posted to Usenet newsgroups is staggering. Approximately 100 MB of
information (the size of Encyclopedia Brittanica) is posted each day, distributed between more than 1989 Number of hosts breaks 100,000
25,000 different newsgroups. Many of these articles are kept for only a few days, others may be kept for NZ connects to NSFNET
weeks or months depending upon which newsgroup the message appears in. The estimated number of
readers world-wide is over 100 million. 1990 ARPANET ceases to exist
Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) is founded by Mitch Kapor
“The World” becomes first commercial ISP

Other Forums 1991 World-Wide Web (WWW) released by CERN; Tim Berners-Lee developer
NSFNET backbone upgraded to T3 (44.736Mbps)
The popularity of Internet browsers such as Internet Explorer have drawn the general public into the use
of the WWW, but has not attracted so many into areas such as Usenet. Web-based forums are becoming 1992 Number of hosts breaks 1,000,000
increasingly common as a way of discussing special interest topics. Using the web for forum discussions The term "Surfing the Internet" is coined by Jean Armour Polly
has the added advantage of keeping the topic of discussion in the same place (same web site) as other
information relating to the discussion. For example: A web site about the dangers of GE food can host 1993 Mosaic takes the Internet by storm.
pages informing the public of the danger as well as a discussion forum where questions can be raised and WWW proliferates at a 341,634% annual growth rate of service traffic.
COMPSCI 111 SC - Lecture 26 9 of 9

1994 Shopping malls arrive on the Internet

First Virtual, the first cyberbank, open up for business
Vladimir Levin of St. Petersburg, Russia, is the first publicly-known Internet bank robber,
stealing millions of dollars from Citibank between June and August.
Arizona law firm of Canter & Siegel "spams" the Internet with email advertising green card
lottery services; Net citizens flame back
Yes, it's true - you can now order pizza from the Hut online
Radio stations start rockin' (rebroadcasting) round the clock on the Net
1995 NSFNET reverts back to a research network. Main US backbone traffic now routed through
interconnected network providers
Hong Kong police disconnect all but 1 of the colony's Internet providers in search of a hacker.
10,000 people are left without Net access
Radio HK, the first commercial 24 hr., Internet-only radio station starts broadcasting
1996 Internet phones catch the attention of US telecommunication companies who ask the US
Congress to ban the technology (which has been around for years)
The WWW browser war, fought primarily between Netscape and Microsoft, revolutionised the
software industry with new releases made quarterly.
1998 Internet users get to be judges in a performance by 12 world champion ice skaters on 27 March,
marking the first time a television sport show's outcome is determined by its viewers.
Electronic postal stamps become a reality, with the US Postal Service allowing stamps to be
purchased and downloaded for printing from the Web.

1998 Dot Coms (Internet companies) become the hottest item on the stock exchange. Millions are
made as many Internet stocks increase by 10 fold.

1998 The game Everquest released and becomes the first really popular Massive Multiplayer Online
Roleplaying game. Players pay a subscription and can create a character that they play in a huge
3D persistent world environment. It takes more than 8 hours of playing time to simply walk
from one end of the world to another

2000 Everquest commonly known in the Internet community as EverCrack., one of the most
addictive games people have played. Most players (community of 300,000+) have logged over
1000 hours of play. People reported as losing jobs and marriages broken due to playing
Everquest

2000 The downfall of the tech stocks. Having doubled every year for the past 3 years, the bubble
bursts and most tech stocks plummet in value. Dot Coms are worst hit, many going bankrupt or
reducing to a fraction of their original value. Huge layoffs in IT staff follow.

2001 Research shows that a significant portion of children that meet a stranger online (in chat rooms
etc.), go on to meet the stranger face to face in an unsupervised setting.

2002 Everquest blamed for the suicide of a teenage boy. Sony Online (Publisher) and Verant
Interactive (Developer) of Everquest sued in US courts. Warning labels on “addictive” games a
likely outcome.

Author: Andrew Luxton