Mobile computers

The first mobile computers were heavy and ran from mains power. The 50lb IBM 5100 was an
early example. Later portables such as the Osborne 1 and Compaq Portable were considerably
lighter but still needed to be plugged in. The first laptops, such as the Grid Compass, removed
this requirement by incorporating batteries – and with the continued miniaturization of computing
resources and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in
the 2000s. The same developments allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources
into cellular mobile phones by the early 2000s.

These smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and recently became the
dominant computing device on the market. These are powered by System on a Chip (SoCs),
which are complete computers on a microchip the size of a coin.

Types
Computers can be classified in a number of different ways, including:

By architecture
Analog computer

Digital computer

Hybrid computer

Harvard architecture

Von Neumann architecture

Complex instruction set computer

Reduced instruction set computer

By size, form-factor and purpose

Supercomputer

Mainframe computer

Minicomputer (term no longer used)

Server

Rackmount server

Blade server

Tower server
Personal computer

Workstation

Microcomputer (term no longer used)

Home computer

Desktop computer

Tower desktop

Slimline desktop

Multimedia computer (non-linear editing system computers, video editing PCs and the like)

Gaming computer

All-in-one PC

Nettop (Small form factor PCs, Mini PCs)

Home theater PC

Keyboard computer

Portable computer

Thin client

Internet appliance

Laptop

Desktop replacement computer

Gaming laptop

Rugged laptop

2-in-1 PC

Ultrabook

Chromebook

Subnotebook

Netbook

Mobile computers:
Tablet computer

Smartphone

Ultra-mobile PC

Pocket PC

Palmtop PC

Handheld PC

Wearable computer

Smartwatch

Smartglasses

Single-board computer

Plug computer

Stick PC

Programmable logic controller

Computer-on-module

System on module

System in a package

System-on-chip (Also known as an Application Processor or AP if it lacks circuitry such as radio

circuitry)

Microcontroller

Hardware
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects.
Circuits, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard, displays,
power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices are all hardware.

History of computing hardware

Other hardware topics

A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the
control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts
are interconnected by buses, often made of groups of wires.
Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be
turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of
information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in
positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the
circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.

Input devices
When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is
processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand-operated or automated.
The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input devices are:

Computer keyboard

Digital camera

Digital video

Graphics tablet

Image scanner

Joystick

Microphone

Mouse

Overlay keyboard

Real-time clock

Trackball

Touchscreen

Output devices
The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples
of output devices are:

Computer monitor

Printer

PC speaker

Projector

Sound card
Video card

Control unit
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's
various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming
them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced
computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance.

A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a
register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.The
control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of
these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of
CPU:

Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.

Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the
other systems.

Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.

Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input
device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.

Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.

If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to
perform the requested operation.

Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output
device.

Jump back to step (1).Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory
cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter
would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the
program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for
loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction
execution (both examples of control flow).

The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in
itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is
another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer, which runs a microcode program that
causes all of these events to happen.

Central processing unit (CPU)

The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU).
Early CPUs were composed of many separate components. Since the 1970s, CPUs have
typically been constructed on a single MOS integrated circuit chip called a microprocessor.
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. The set of
arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction,
or might include multiplication, division, trigonometry functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and
square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) while others use floating
point to represent real numbers, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is
capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more
complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be
programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its
ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return
boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less
than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?"). Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR,
XOR, and NOT. These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and
processing boolean logic.

Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several
instructions simultaneously. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features
often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.

Memory
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or
read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be
instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in
cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595." The information
stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer
instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate
between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to
what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight
bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (28 = 256); either from 0 to 255
or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or
eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other
arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical
contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically.
Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to
much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one
hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently
needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data
is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow
compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:

random-access memory or RAM

read-only memory or ROMRAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but
ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read
from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the
contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its
data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that
orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM
whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not
have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is
often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory
blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also
rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is
restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.In more sophisticated computers
there may be one or more RAM cache memories, which are slower than registers but faster
than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently
needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the
programmer's part.

Input/output (I/O)
I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. Devices
that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal
computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices
such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve
as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O.

I/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A
graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations
necessary to display 3D graphics. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers
that assist the main CPU in performing I/O. A 2016-era flat screen display contains its own
computer circuitry.

Multitasking
While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in
some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs
simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between
running each program in turn. One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an
interrupt, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was
and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt,
the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time".
then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a
program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several
orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are
running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This
method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a
"slice" of time in turn.Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking
was to allow many people to share the same computer. Seemingly, multitasking would cause a
computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to
the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for
slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on
the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is
waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many
programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.

Multiprocessing
Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing
configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as
supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple
CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available,
and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.

Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from
the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers. They often feature
thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing
hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of
program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once.
Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and
cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.