Home / Inductors / The Inductor

The Inductor
An Inductor is a passive electrical component consisting of a coil of wire which is designed to
take advantage of the relationship between magentism and electricity as a result of an electric
current passing through the coil

In our tutorials about Electromagnetism we saw that when an electrical current flows through a
wire conductor, a magnetic flux is developed around that conductor. This affect produces a
relationship between the direction of the magnetic flux, which is circulating around the
conductor, and the direction of the current flowing through the same conductor. This results in a
relationship between current and magnetic flux direction called, “Fleming’s Right Hand Rule”.

But there is also another important property relating to a wound coil that also exists, which is that
a secondary voltage is induced into the same coil by the movement of the magnetic flux as it
opposes or resists any changes in the electrical current flowing it.

A Typical Inductor

In its most basic form, an Inductor is nothing more than a coil of wire wound around a central
core. For most coils the current, ( i ) flowing through the coil produces a magnetic flux, ( NΦ )
around it that is proportional to this flow of electrical current.

An Inductor, also called a choke, is another passive type electrical component consisting of a
coil of wire designed to take advantage of this relationship by inducing a magnetic field in itself
or within its core as a result of the current flowing through the wire coil. Forming a wire coil into
an inductor results in a much stronger magnetic field than one that would be produced by a
simple coil of wire.
Inductors are formed with wire tightly wrapped around a solid central core which can be either a
straight cylindrical rod or a continuous loop or ring to concentrate their magnetic flux.

The schematic symbol for a inductor is that of a coil of wire so therefore, a coil of wire can also
be called an Inductor. Inductors usually are categorised according to the type of inner core they
are wound around, for example, hollow core (free air), solid iron core or soft ferrite core with the
different core types being distinguished by adding continuous or dotted parallel lines next to the
wire coil as shown below.

Inductor Symbol

The current, i that flows through an inductor produces a magnetic flux that is proportional to it.
But unlike a Capacitor which oppose a change of voltage across their plates, an inductor opposes
the rate of change of current flowing through it due to the build up of self-induced energy within
its magnetic field.

In other words, inductors resist or oppose changes of current but will easily pass a steady state
DC current. This ability of an inductor to resist changes in current and which also relates current,
i with its magnetic flux linkage, NΦ as a constant of proportionality is called Inductance which
is given the symbol L with units of Henry, (H) after Joseph Henry.

Because the Henry is a relatively large unit of inductance in its own right, for the smaller
inductors sub-units of the Henry are used to denote its value. For example:

Inductance Prefixes
Prefix Symbol Multiplier Power of Ten
milli m 1/1,000 10-3
micro µ 1/1,000,000 10-6
nano n 1/1,000,000,000 10-9

So to display the sub-units of the Henry we would use as an example:

 1mH = 1 milli-Henry  –  which is equal to one thousandths (1/1000) of an Henry.

 100μH = 100 micro-Henries  –  which is equal to 100 millionth’s (1/1,000,000) of a
Henry.

Inductors or coils are very common in electrical circuits and there are many factors which
determine the inductance of a coil such as the shape of the coil, the number of turns of the
insulated wire, the number of layers of wire, the spacing between the turns, the permeability of
the core material, the size or cross-sectional area of the core etc, to name a few.

An inductor coil has a central core area, ( A ) with a constant number of turns of wire per unit
length, ( l ). So if a coil of N turns is linked by an amount of magnetic flux, Φ then the coil has a
flux linkage of NΦ and any current, ( i ) that flows through the coil will produce an induced
magnetic flux in the opposite direction to the flow of current. Then according to Faraday’s Law,
any change in this magnetic flux linkage produces a self-induced voltage in the single coil of:

 Where:
     N is the number of turns
     A is the cross-sectional Area in m2
     Φ is the amount of flux in Webers
     μ is the Permeability of the core material
     l is the Length of the coil in meters
     di/dt is the Currents rate of change in amps/second

A time varying magnetic field induces a voltage that is proportional to the rate of change of the
current producing it with a positive value indicating an increase in emf and a negative value
indicating a decrease in emf. The equation relating this self-induced voltage, current and
inductance can be found by substituting the μN2A / l with L denoting the constant of
proportionality called the Inductance of the coil.

The relation between the flux in the inductor and the current flowing through the inductor is
given as: NΦ = Li. As an inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire, this then reduces the
above equation to give the self-induced emf, sometimes called the back emf induced in the coil
too:
Back emf Generated by an Inductor

Where: L is the self-inductance and di/dt the rate of current change.

Inductor Coil

So from this equation we can say that the “self-induced emf = inductance x rate of current
change” and a circuit has an inductance of one Henry will have an emf of one volt induced in the
circuit when the current flowing through the circuit changes at a rate of one ampere per second.

One important point to note about the above equation. It only relates the emf produced across the
inductor to changes in current because if the flow of inductor current is constant and not
changing such as in a steady state DC current, then the induced emf voltage will be zero because
the instantaneous rate of current change is zero, di/dt = 0.

With a steady state DC current flowing through the inductor and therefore zero induced voltage
across it, the inductor acts as a short circuit equal to a piece of wire, or at the very least a very
low value resistance. In other words, the opposition to the flow of current offered by an inductor
is very different between AC and DC circuits.

The Time Constant of an Inductor

We now know that the current can not change instantaneously in an inductor because for this to
occur, the current would need to change by a finite amount in zero time which would result in
the rate of current change being infinite, di/dt = ∞, making the induced emf infinite as well and
infinite voltages do no exist. However, if the current flowing through an inductor changes very
rapidly, such as with the operation of a switch, high voltages can be induced across the inductors
coil.
Consider the circuit of the inductor on the right. With the switch, ( S1 ) open, no current flows
through the inductor coil. As no current flows through the inductor, the rate of change of current
(di/dt) in the coil will be zero. If the rate of change of current is zero there is no self-induced emf,
( VL = 0 ) within the inductor coil.

If we now close the switch (t = 0), a current will flow through the circuit and slowly rise to its
maximum value at a rate determined by the inductance of the inductor. This rate of current
flowing through the inductor multiplied by the inductors inductance in Henry’s, results in some
fixed value self-induced emf being produced across the coil as determined by Faraday’s equation
above, VL = Ldi/dt.

This self-induced emf across the inductors coil, ( VL ) fights against the applied voltage until the
current reaches its maximum value and a steady state condition is reached. The current which
now flows through the coil is determined only by the DC or “pure” resistance of the coils
windings as the reactance value of the coil has decreased to zero because the rate of change of
current (di/dt) is zero in steady state. In other words, only the coils DC resistance now exists to
oppose the flow of current.

Likewise, if switch, (S1) is opened, the current flowing through the coil will start to fall but the
inductor will again fight against this change and try to keep the current flowing at its previous
value by inducing a voltage in the other direction. The slope of the fall will be negative and
related to the inductance of the coil as shown below.

Current and Voltage in an Inductor

 

How much induced voltage will be produced by the inductor depends upon the rate of current
change. In our tutorial about Electromagnetic Induction, Lenz’s Law stated that: “the direction
of an induced emf is such that it will always opposes the change that is causing it”. In other
words, an induced emf will always OPPOSE the motion or change which started the induced emf
in the first place.

So with a decreasing current the voltage polarity will be acting as a source and with an
increasing current the voltage polarity will be acting as a load. So for the same rate of current
change through the coil, either increasing or decreasing the magnitude of the induced emf will be
the same.

Inductor Example No1

A steady state direct current of 4 ampere passes through a solenoid coil of 0.5H. What would be
the back emf voltage induced in the coil if the switch in the above circuit was opened for 10mS
and the current flowing through the coil dropped to zero ampere.
Power in an Inductor
We know that an inductor in a circuit opposes the flow of current, ( i ) through it because the
flow of this current induces an emf that opposes it, Lenz’s Law. Then work has to be done by the
external battery source in order to keep the current flowing against this induced emf. The
instantaneous power used in forcing the current, ( i ) against this self-induced emf, ( VL ) is given
from above as:

Power in a circuit is given as, P = V*I therefore:

An ideal inductor has no resistance only inductance so R = 0 Ω and therefore no power is
dissipated within the coil, so we can say that an ideal inductor has zero power loss.

Energy in an Inductor
When power flows into an inductor, energy is stored in its magnetic field. When the current
flowing through the inductor is increasing and di/dt becomes greater than zero, the instantaneous
power in the circuit must also be greater than zero, ( P > 0 ) ie, positive which means that energy
is being stored in the inductor.

Likewise, if the current through the inductor is decreasing and di/dt is less than zero then the
instantaneous power must also be less than zero, ( P < 0 ) ie, negative which means that the
inductor is returning energy back into the circuit. Then by integrating the equation for power
above, the total magnetic energy which is always positive, being stored in the inductor is
therefore given as:

Energy stored by an Inductor

Where:  W is in joules, L is in Henries and i is in Amperes

The energy is actually being stored within the magnetic field that surrounds the inductor by the
current flowing through it. In an ideal inductor that has no resistance or capacitance, as the
current increases energy flows into the inductor and is stored there within its magnetic field
without loss, it is not released until the current decreases and the magnetic field collapses.

Then in an alternating current, AC circuit an inductor is constantly storing and delivering energy
on each and every cycle. If the current flowing through the inductor is constant as in a DC
circuit, then there is no change in the stored energy as P = Li(di/dt) = 0.

So inductors can be defined as passive components as they can both stored and deliver energy to
the circuit, but they cannot generate energy. An ideal inductor is classed as loss less, meaning
that it can store energy indefinitely as no energy is lost.

However, real inductors will always have some resistance associated with the windings of the
coil and whenever current flows through a resistance energy is lost in the form of heat due to
Ohms Law, ( P = I2 R ) regardless of whether the current is alternating or constant.

Then the primary use for inductors is in filtering circuits, resonance circuits and for current
limiting. An inductor can be used in circuits to block or reshape alternating current or a range of
sinusoidal frequencies, and in this role an inductor can be used to “tune” a simple radio receiver
or various types of oscillators. It can also protect sensitive equipment from destructive voltage
spikes and high inrush currents.

In the next tutorial about Inductors, we will see that the effective resistance of a coil is called
Inductance, and that inductance which as we now know is the characteristic of an electrical
conductor that “opposes a change in the current”, can either be internally induced, called self-
inductance or externally induced, called mutual-inductance.

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Inductance of a Coil
Inductance is the name given to the property of a component that opposes the change of current
flowing through it and even a straight piece of wire will have some inductance

Inductors do this by generating a self-induced emf within itself as a result of their changing
magnetic field. In an electrical circuit, when the emf is induced in the same circuit in which the
current is changing this effect is called Self-induction, ( L ) but it is sometimes commonly called
back-emf as its polarity is in the opposite direction to the applied voltage.
When the emf is induced into an adjacent component situated within the same magnetic field, the
emf is said to be induced by Mutual-induction, ( M ) and mutual induction is the basic
operating principal of transformers, motors, relays etc. Self inductance is a special case of mutual
inductance, and because it is produced within a single isolated circuit we generally call self-
inductance simply, Inductance.

The basic unit of measurement for inductance is called the Henry, ( H ) after Joseph Henry, but
it also has the units of  Webers per Ampere ( 1 H = 1 Wb/A ).

Lenz’s Law tells us that an induced emf generates a current in a direction which opposes the
change in flux which caused the emf in the first place, the principal of action and reaction. Then
we can accurately define Inductance as being: “a coil will have an inductance value of one
Henry when an emf of one volt is induced in the coil were the current flowing through the said
coil changes at a rate of one ampere/second”.

In other words, a coil has an inductance, ( L ) of one Henry, ( 1H ) when the current flowing
through the coil changes at a rate of one ampere/second, ( A/s ). This change induces a voltage of
one volt, ( VL ) in it. Thus the mathematical representation of the rate of change of current
through a wound coil per unit time is given as:

Where: di is the change in the current in Amperes and dt is the time taken for this current to
change in seconds. Then the voltage induced in a coil, ( VL ) with an inductance of L Henries as
a result of this change in current is expressed as:

Note that the negative sign indicates that voltage induced opposes the change in current through
the coil per unit time ( di/dt ).

From the above equation, the inductance of a coil can therefore be presented as:

Inductance of a Coil
 

Where: L is the inductance in Henries, VL is the voltage across the coil and di/dt is the rate of
change of current in Amperes per second, A/s.

Inductance, L is actually a measure of an inductors “resistance” to the change of the current

flowing through the circuit and the larger is its value in Henries, the lower will be the rate of
current change.

We know from the previous tutorial about the Inductor, that inductors are devices that can store
their energy in the form of a magnetic field. Inductors are made from individual loops of wire
combined to produce a coil and if the number of loops within the coil are increased, then for the
same amount of current flowing through the coil, the magnetic flux will also increase.

So by increasing the number of loops or turns within a coil, increases the coils inductance. Then
the relationship between self-inductance, ( L ) and the number of turns, ( N ) and for a simple
single layered coil can be given as:

Self Inductance of a Coil

 Where:
         L is in Henries
         N is the Number of Turns
         Φ is the Magnetic Flux
         Ι  is in Amperes

This expression can also be defined as the magnetic flux linkage, ( NΦ ) divided by the current,
as effectively the same value of current flows through each turn of the coil. Note that this
equation only applies to linear magnetic materials.

Inductance Example No1

A hollow air cored inductor coil consists of 500 turns of copper wire which produces a magnetic
flux of 10mWb when passing a DC current of 10 amps. Calculate the self-inductance of the coil
in milli-Henries.
 

Inductance Example No2

Calculate the value of the self-induced emf produced in the same coil after a time of 10mS.

The self-inductance of a coil or to be more precise, the coefficient of self-inductance also

depends upon the characteristics of its construction. For example, size, length, number of turns
etc. It is therefore possible to have inductors with very high coefficients of self induction by
using cores of a high permeability and a large number of coil turns. Then for a coil, the magnetic
flux that is produced in its inner core is equal to:

Where: Φ is the magnetic flux, B is the flux density, and A is the area.

If the inner core of a long solenoid coil with N number of turns per metre length is hollow, “air
cored”, then the magnetic induction within its core will be given as:
 

Then by substituting these expressions in the first equation above for Inductance will give us:

By cancelling out and grouping together like terms, then the final equation for the coefficient of
self-inductance for an air cored coil (solenoid) is given as:

 Where:
         L is in Henries
         μο is the Permeability of Free Space (4.π.10-7)
         N is the Number of turns
         A is the Inner Core Area (πr 2) in m2
         l is the length of the Coil in metres

As the inductance of a coil is due to the magnetic flux around it, the stronger the magnetic flux
for a given value of current the greater will be the inductance. So a coil of many turns will have a
higher inductance value than one of only a few turns and therefore, the equation above will give
inductance L as being proportional to the number of turns squared N2.

EEWeb have a free online Coil Inductance Calculator for calculating the inductance of a coil for
different configurations of wire size and positioning.

As well as increasing the number of coil turns, we can also increase inductance by increasing the
coils diameter or making the core longer. In both cases more wire is required to construct the coil
and therefore, more lines of force exists to produce the required back emf.

The inductance of a coil can be increased further still if the coil is wound onto a ferromagnetic
core, that is one made of a soft iron material, than one wound onto a non-ferromagnetic or
hollow air core.
Ferrite Core

If the inner core is made of some ferromagnetic material such as soft iron, cobalt or nickel, the
inductance of the coil would greatly increase because for the same amount of current flow the
magnetic flux generated would be much stronger. This is because the material concentrates the
lines of force more strongly through the the softer ferromagnetic core material as we saw in the
Electromagnets tutorial.

So for example, if the core material has a relative permeability 1000 times greater than free
space, 1000μο such as soft iron or steel, then the inductance of the coil would be 1000 times
greater so we can say that the inductance of a coil increases proportionally as the permeability of
the core increases.

Then for a coil wound around a former or core the inductance equation above would need to be
modified to include the relative permeability μr of the new former material.

If the coil is wound onto a ferromagnetic core a greater inductance will result as the cores
permeability will change with the flux density. However, depending upon the type of
ferromagnetic material, the inner cores magnetic flux may quickly reach saturation producing a
non-linear inductance value. Since the flux density around a coil of wire depends upon the
current flowing through it, inductance, L also becomes a function of this current flow, i.

In the next tutorial about inductors, we will see that the magnetic field generated by a coil can
cause a current to flow in a second coil that is placed next to it. This effect is called Mutual
Inductance, and is the basic operating principle of transformers, motors and generators.

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Mutual Inductance
Mutual Inductance is the interaction of one coils magnetic field on another coil as it induces a
voltage in the adjacent coil
In the previous tutorial we saw that an inductor generates an induced emf within itself as a result
of the changing magnetic field around its own turns. When this emf is induced in the same circuit
in which the current is changing this effect is called Self-induction, ( L ).

However, when the emf is induced into an adjacent coil situated within the same magnetic field,
the emf is said to be induced magnetically, inductively or by Mutual induction, symbol ( M ).
Then when two or more coils are magnetically linked together by a common magnetic flux they
are said to have the property of Mutual Inductance.

Mutual Inductance is the basic operating principal of the transformer, motors, generators and
any other electrical component that interacts with another magnetic field. Then we can define
mutual induction as the current flowing in one coil that induces a voltage in an adjacent coil.

But mutual inductance can also be a bad thing as “stray” or “leakage” inductance from a coil can
interfere with the operation of another adjacent component by means of electromagnetic
induction, so some form of electrical screening to a ground potential may be required.

The amount of mutual inductance that links one coil to another depends very much on the
relative positioning of the two coils. If one coil is positioned next to the other coil so that their
physical distance apart is small, then nearly all of the magnetic flux generated by the first coil
will interact with the coil turns of the second coil inducing a relatively large emf and therefore
producing a large mutual inductance value.

Likewise, if the two coils are farther apart from each other or at different angles, the amount of
induced magnetic flux from the first coil into the second will be weaker producing a much
smaller induced emf and therefore a much smaller mutual inductance value. So the effect of
mutual inductance is very much dependant upon the relative positions or spacing, ( S ) of the two
coils and this is demonstrated below.

Mutual Inductance between Coils

 

The mutual inductance that exists between the two coils can be greatly increased by positioning
them on a common soft iron core or by increasing the number of turns of either coil as would be
found in a transformer.

If the two coils are tightly wound one on top of the other over a common soft iron core unity
coupling is said to exist between them as any losses due to the leakage of flux will be extremely
small. Then assuming a perfect flux linkage between the two coils the mutual inductance that
exists between them can be given as.

 Where:
         µo is the permeability of free space (4.π.10-7)
         µr is the relative permeability of the soft iron core
         N is in the number of coil turns
         A is in the cross-sectional area in m2
         l is the coils length in meters

Mutual Induction
 

Here the current flowing in coil one, L1 sets up a magnetic field around itself with some of these
magnetic field lines passing through coil two, L2 giving us mutual inductance. Coil one has a
current of I1 and N1 turns while, coil two has N2 turns. Therefore, the mutual inductance, M12 of
coil two that exists with respect to coil one depends on their position with respect to each other
and is given as:

Likewise, the flux linking coil one, L1 when a current flows around coil two, L2 is exactly the
same as the flux linking coil two when the same current flows around coil one above, then the
mutual inductance of coil one with respect of coil two is defined as M21. This mutual inductance
is true irrespective of the size, number of turns, relative position or orientation of the two coils.
Because of this, we can write the mutual inductance between the two coils as: M12 = M21 = M.

Then we can see that self inductance characterises an inductor as a single circuit element, while
mutual inductance signifies some form of magnetic coupling between two inductors or coils,
depending on their distance and arrangement, an hopefully we remember from our tutorials on
Electromagnets that the self inductance of each individual coil is given as:

and

By cross-multiplying the two equations above, the mutual inductance, M that exists between the
two coils can be expressed in terms of the self inductance of each coil.
 

giving us a final and more common expression for the mutual inductance between the two coils
of:

Mutual Inductance Between Coils

However, the above equation assumes zero flux leakage and 100% magnetic coupling between
the two coils, L1 and L2. In reality there will always be some loss due to leakage and position, so
the magnetic coupling between the two coils can never reach or exceed 100%, but can become
very close to this value in some special inductive coils.

If some of the total magnetic flux links with the two coils, this amount of flux linkage can be
defined as a fraction of the total possible flux linkage between the coils. This fractional value is
called the coefficient of coupling and is given the letter k.

Coupling Coefficient
Generally, the amount of inductive coupling that exists between the two coils is expressed as a
fractional number between 0 and 1 instead of a percentage (%) value, where 0 indicates zero or
no inductive coupling, and 1 indicating full or maximum inductive coupling.

In other words, if k = 1 the two coils are perfectly coupled, if k > 0.5 the two coils are said to be
tightly coupled and if k < 0.5 the two coils are said to be loosely coupled. Then the equation
above which assumes a perfect coupling can be modified to take into account this coefficient of
coupling, k and is given as:

Coupling Factor Between Coils

or

 
When the coefficient of coupling, k is equal to 1, (unity) such that all the lines of flux of one coil
cuts all of the turns of the second coil, that is the two coils are tightly coupled together, the
resulting mutual inductance will be equal to the geometric mean of the two individual
inductances of the coils.

Also when the inductances of the two coils are the same and equal, L1 is equal to L2, the mutual
inductance that exists between the two coils will equal the value of one single coil as the square
root of two equal values is the same as one single value as shown.

Mutual Inductance Example No1

Two inductors whose self-inductances are given as 75mH and 55mH respectively, are positioned
next to each other on a common magnetic core so that 75% of the lines of flux from the first coil
are cutting the second coil. Calculate the total mutual inductance that exists between the two
coils.

Mutual Inductance Example No2

When two coils having inductances of 5H and 4H respectively were wound uniformly onto a
non-magnetic core, it was found that their mutual inductance was 1.5H. Calculate the coupling
coefficient that exists between.

In the next tutorial about Inductors, we look at connecting together Inductors in Series and the
affect this combination has on the circuits mutual inductance, total inductance and their induced
voltages.
Home / Inductors / Inductors in Series

Inductors in Series
Inductors can be connected together in a series connection when the are daisy chained together
sharing a common electrical current

These interconnections of inductors produce more complex networks whose overall inductance
is a combination of the individual inductors. However, there are certain rules for connecting
inductors in series or parallel and these are based on the fact that no mutual inductance or
magnetic coupling exists between the individual inductors.

Inductors are said to be connected in “Series” when they are daisy chained together in a straight
line, end to end. In the Resistors in Series tutorial we saw that the different values of the
resistances connected together in series just “add” together and this is also true of inductance.
Inductors in series are simply “added together” because the number of coil turns is effectively
increased, with the total circuit inductance LT being equal to the sum of all the individual
inductances added together.

Inductor in Series Circuit

The current, ( I ) that flows through the first inductor, L1 has no other way to go but pass through
the second inductor and the third and so on. Then, series inductors have a Common Current
flowing through them, for example:

IL1 = IL2 = IL3 = IAB …etc.

 
In the example above, the inductors L1, L2 and L3 are all connected together in series between
points A and B. The sum of the individual voltage drops across each inductor can be found using
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) where, VT = V1 + V2 + V3 and we know from the previous
tutorials on inductance that the self-induced emf across an inductor is given as: V = L di/dt.

So by taking the values of the individual voltage drops across each inductor in our example
above, the total inductance for the series combination is given as:

By dividing through the above equation by di/dt we can reduce it to give a final expression for
calculating the total inductance of a circuit when connecting inductors together in series and this
is given as:

Inductors in Series Equation

Ltotal = L1 + L2 + L3 + ….. + Ln etc.

Then the total inductance of the series chain can be found by simply adding together the
individual inductances of the inductors in series just like adding together resistors in series.
However, the above equation only holds true when there is “NO” mutual inductance or magnetic
coupling between two or more of the inductors, (they are magnetically isolated from each other).

One important point to remember about inductors in series circuits, the total inductance ( LT ) of
any two or more inductors connected together in series will always be GREATER than the
value of the largest inductor in the series chain.

Inductors in Series Example No1

Three inductors of 10mH, 40mH and 50mH are connected together in a series combination with
no mutual inductance between them. Calculate the total inductance of the series combination.

Mutually Connected Inductors in Series

When inductors are connected together in series so that the magnetic field of one links with the
other, the effect of mutual inductance either increases or decreases the total inductance
depending upon the amount of magnetic coupling. The effect of this mutual inductance depends
upon the distance apart of the coils and their orientation to each other.

Mutually connected series inductors can be classed as either “Aiding” or “Opposing” the total
inductance. If the magnetic flux produced by the current flows through the coils in the same
direction then the coils are said to be Cumulatively Coupled. If the current flows through the
coils in opposite directions then the coils are said to be Differentially Coupled as shown below.

Cumulatively Coupled Series Inductors

While the current flowing between points A and D through the two cumulatively coupled coils is
in the same direction, the equation above for the voltage drops across each of the coils needs to
be modified to take into account the interaction between the two coils due to the effect of mutual
inductance. The self inductance of each individual coil, L1 and L2 respectively will be the same
as before but with the addition of M denoting the mutual inductance.

Then the total emf induced into the cumulatively coupled coils is given as:

Where: 2M represents the influence of coil L1 on L2 and likewise coil L2 on L1.

By dividing through the above equation by di/dt we can reduce it to give a final expression for
calculating the total inductance of a circuit when the inductors are cumulatively connected and
this is given as:
Ltotal = L 1 + L 2 + 2M

If one of the coils is reversed so that the same current flows through each coil but in opposite
directions, the mutual inductance, M that exists between the two coils will have a cancelling
effect on each coil as shown below.

Differentially Coupled Series Inductors

The emf that is induced into coil 1 by the effect of the mutual inductance of coil two is in
opposition to the self-induced emf in coil one as now the same current passes through each coil
in opposite directions. To take account of this cancelling effect a minus sign is used with M
when the magnetic field of the two coils are differentially connected giving us the final equation
for calculating the total inductance of a circuit when the inductors are differentially connected as:

Ltotal = L 1 + L 2 – 2M

Then the final equation for inductively coupled inductors in series is given as:

Inductors in Series Example No2

Two inductors of 10mH respectively are connected together in a series combination so that their
magnetic fields aid each other giving cumulative coupling. Their mutual inductance is given as
5mH. Calculate the total inductance of the series combination.
Inductors in Series Example No3
Two coils connected in series have a self-inductance of 20mH and 60mH respectively. The total
inductance of the combination was found to be 100mH. Determine the amount of mutual
inductance that exists between the two coils assuming that they are aiding each other.

Inductors in Series Summary

We now know that we can connect together inductors in series to produce a total inductance
value, LT equal to the sum of the individual values, they add together, similar to connecting
together resistors in series. However, when connecting together inductors in series they can be
influenced by mutual inductance.

Mutually connected series inductors are classed as either “aiding” or “opposing” the total
inductance depending whether the coils are cumulatively coupled (in the same direction) or
differentially coupled (in opposite direction).

In the next tutorial about Inductors, we will see that the position of the coils when connecting
together Inductors in Parallel also affects the total inductance, LT of the circuit.

Home / Inductors / Inductors in Parallel
Inductors in Parallel
Inductors are said to be connected together in Parallel when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of another inductor or inductors

The voltage drop across all of the inductors in parallel will be the same. Then, Inductors in
Parallel have a Common Voltage across them and in our example below the voltage across the
inductors is given as:

VL1 = VL2 = VL3 = VAB …etc

In the following circuit the inductors L1, L2 and L3 are all connected together in parallel between
the two points A and B.

Inductors in Parallel Circuit

In the previous series inductors tutorial, we saw that the total inductance, LT of the circuit was
equal to the sum of all the individual inductors added together. For inductors in parallel the
equivalent circuit inductance LT is calculated differently.

The sum of the individual currents flowing through each inductor can be found using Kirchoff’s
Current Law (KCL) where, IT = I1 + I2 + I3 and we know from the previous tutorials on
inductance that the self-induced emf across an inductor is given as: V = L di/dt
Then by taking the values of the individual currents flowing through each inductor in our circuit
above, and substituting the current i for i1 + i2 + i3 the voltage across the parallel combination is
given as:

By substituting di/dt in the above equation with v/L gives:

We can reduce it to give a final expression for calculating the total inductance of a circuit when
connecting inductors in parallel and this is given as:

Parallel Inductor Equation

Here, like the calculations for parallel resistors, the reciprocal ( 1/Ln ) value of the individual
inductances are all added together instead of the inductances themselves. But again as with series
connected inductances, the above equation only holds true when there is “NO” mutual
inductance or magnetic coupling between two or more of the inductors, (they are magnetically
isolated from each other). Where there is coupling between coils, the total inductance is also
affected by the amount of coupling.

This method of calculation can be used for calculating any number of individual inductances
connected together within a single parallel network. If however, there are only two individual
inductors in parallel then a much simpler and quicker formula can be used to find the total
inductance value, and this is:
One important point to remember about inductors in parallel circuits, the total inductance ( LT )
of any two or more inductors connected together in parallel will always be LESS than the value
of the smallest inductance in the parallel chain.

Inductors in Parallel Example No1

Three inductors of 60mH, 120mH and 75mH respectively, are connected together in a parallel
combination with no mutual inductance between them. Calculate the total inductance of the
parallel combination in millihenries.

Mutually Coupled Inductors in Parallel

When inductors are connected together in parallel so that the magnetic field of one links with the
other, the effect of mutual inductance either increases or decreases the total inductance
depending upon the amount of magnetic coupling that exists between the coils. The effect of this
mutual inductance depends upon the distance apart of the coils and their orientation to each
other.

Mutually connected inductors in parallel can be classed as either “aiding” or “opposing” the total
inductance with parallel aiding connected coils increasing the total equivalent inductance and
parallel opposing coils decreasing the total equivalent inductance compared to coils that have
zero mutual inductance.

Mutual coupled parallel coils can be shown as either connected in an aiding or opposing
configuration by the use of polarity dots or polarity markers as shown below.

Parallel Aiding Inductors

 

The voltage across the two parallel aiding inductors above must be equal since they are in
parallel so the two currents, i1 and i2 must vary so that the voltage across them stays the same.
Then the total inductance, LT for two parallel aiding inductors is given as:

Where: 2M represents the influence of coil L 1 on L 2 and likewise coil L 2 on L 1.

If the two inductances are equal and the magnetic coupling is perfect such as in a toroidal circuit,
then the equivalent inductance of the two inductors in parallel is L as LT = L1 = L2 = M.
However, if the mutual inductance between them is zero, the equivalent inductance would be
L ÷ 2 the same as for two self-induced inductors in parallel.

If one of the two coils was reversed with respect to the other, we would then have two parallel
opposing inductors and the mutual inductance, M that exists between the two coils will have a
cancelling effect on each coil instead of an aiding effect as shown below.

Parallel Opposing Inductors

 

Then the total inductance, LT for two parallel opposing inductors is given as:

This time, if the two inductances are equal in value and the magnetic coupling is perfect between
them, the equivalent inductance and also the self-induced emf across the inductors will be zero as
the two inductors cancel each other out.

This is because as the two currents, i1 and i2 flow through each inductor in turn the total mutual
flux generated between them is zero because the two flux’s produced by each inductor are both
equal in magnitude but in opposite directions.

Then the two coils effectively become a short circuit to the flow of current in the circuit so the
equivalent inductance, LT becomes equal to ( L ± M ) ÷ 2.

Inductors in Parallel Example No2

Two inductors whose self-inductances are of 75mH and 55mH respectively are connected
together in parallel aiding. Their mutual inductance is given as 22.5mH. Calculate the total
inductance of the parallel combination.
Inductors in Parallel Example No3
Calculate the equivalent inductance of the following inductive circuit.

Calculate the first inductor branch LA, (Inductor L5 in parallel with inductors L6 and L7)

Calculate the second inductor branch LB, (Inductor L3 in parallel with inductors L4 and LA)
 

Calculate the equivalent circuit inductance LEQ, (Inductor L1 in parallel with inductors L2 and LB)

Then the equivalent inductance for the above circuit was found to be: 15mH.

Inductors in Parallel Summary

As with the resistor, inductors connected together in parallel have the same voltage, V across
them. Also connecting together inductors in parallel decreases the effective inductance of the
circuit with the equivalent inductance of “N” inductors connected in parallel being the reciprocal
of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual inductances.

As with series connected inductors, mutually connected inductors in parallel are classed as either
“aiding” or “opposing” this total inductance depending whether the coils are cumulatively
coupled (in the same direction) or differentially coupled (in opposite direction).

Thus far we have examined the inductor as a pure or ideal passive component. In the next tutorial
about Inductors, we will look at non-ideal inductors that have real world resistive coils producing
the equivalent circuit of an inductor in series with a resistance and examine the time constant of
such a circuit.

Home / Inductors / LR Series Circuit

LR Series Circuit
All coils, inductors, chokes and transformers create a magnetic field around themselves consist
of an Inductance in series with a Resistance forming an LR Series Circuit
The first tutorial in this section about Inductors, we looked briefly at the time constant of an
inductor stating that the current flowing through an inductor could not change instantaneously,
but would increase at a constant rate determined by the self-induced emf in the inductor.

In other words, an inductor in an electrical circuit opposes the flow of current, ( i ) through it.
While this is perfectly correct, we made the assumption in the tutorial that it was an ideal
inductor which had no resistance or capacitance associated with its coil windings.

However, in the real world “ALL” coils whether they are chokes, solenoids, relays or any wound
component will always have a certain amount of resistance no matter how small. This is because
the actual coils turns of wire being used to make it uses copper wire which has a resistive value.

Then for real world purposes we can consider our simple coil as being an “Inductance”, L in
series with a “Resistance”, R. In other words forming an LR Series Circuit.

A LR Series Circuit consists basically of an inductor of inductance, L connected in series with a

resistor of resistance, R. The resistance “R” is the DC resistive value of the wire turns or loops
that goes into making up the inductors coil. Consider the LR series circuit below.

The LR Series Circuit

The above LR series circuit is connected across a constant voltage source, (the battery) and a
switch. Assume that the switch, S is open until it is closed at a time t = 0, and then remains
permanently closed producing a “step response” type voltage input. The current, i begins to flow
through the circuit but does not rise rapidly to its maximum value of Imax as determined by the
ratio of V / R (Ohms Law).

This limiting factor is due to the presence of the self induced emf within the inductor as a result
of the growth of magnetic flux, (Lenz’s Law). After a time the voltage source neutralizes the
effect of the self induced emf, the current flow becomes constant and the induced current and
field are reduced to zero.
We can use Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, (KVL) to define the individual voltage drops that exist
around the circuit and then hopefully use it to give us an expression for the flow of current.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) gives us:

The voltage drop across the resistor, R is I*R (Ohms Law).

The voltage drop across the inductor, L is by now our familiar expression L(di/dt)

Then the final expression for the individual voltage drops around the LR series circuit can be
given as:

We can see that the voltage drop across the resistor depends upon the current, i, while the voltage
drop across the inductor depends upon the rate of change of the current, di/dt. When the current
is equal to zero, ( i = 0 ) at time t = 0 the above expression, which is also a first order differential
equation, can be rewritten to give the value of the current at any instant of time as:

Expression for the Current in an LR Series Circuit

  Where:
     V is in Volts
     R is in Ohms
     L is in Henries
     t is in Seconds
     e is the base of the Natural Logarithm = 2.71828

The Time Constant, ( τ ) of the LR series circuit is given as L/R and in which V/R represents
the final steady state current value after five time constant values. Once the current reaches this
maximum steady state value at 5τ, the inductance of the coil has reduced to zero acting more like
a short circuit and effectively removing it from the circuit.

Therefore the current flowing through the coil is limited only by the resistive element in Ohms of
the coils windings. A graphical representation of the current growth representing the
voltage/time characteristics of the circuit can be presented as.

Transient Curves for an LR Series Circuit

Since the voltage drop across the resistor, VR is equal to I*R (Ohms Law), it will have the same
exponential growth and shape as the current. However, the voltage drop across the inductor, VL
will have a value equal to:  Ve(-Rt/L). Then the voltage across the inductor, VL will have an initial
value equal to the battery voltage at time t = 0 or when the switch is first closed and then decays
exponentially to zero as represented in the above curves.
The time required for the current flowing in the LR series circuit to reach its maximum steady
state value is equivalent to about 5 time constants or 5τ. This time constant τ, is measured by
τ = L/R, in seconds, where R is the value of the resistor in ohms and L is the value of the
inductor in Henries. This then forms the basis of an RL charging circuit were 5τ can also be
thought of as “5*(L/R)” or the transient time of the circuit.

The transient time of any inductive circuit is determined by the relationship between the
inductance and the resistance. For example, for a fixed value resistance the larger the inductance
the slower will be the transient time and therefore a longer time constant for the LR series circuit.
Likewise, for a fixed value inductance the smaller the resistance value the longer the transient
time.

However, for a fixed value inductance, by increasing the resistance value the transient time and
therefore the time constant of the circuit becomes shorter. This is because as the resistance
increases the circuit becomes more and more resistive as the value of the inductance becomes
negligible compared to the resistance. If the value of the resistance is increased sufficiently large
compared to the inductance the transient time would effectively be reduced to almost zero.

LR Series Circuit Example No1

A coil which has an inductance of 40mH and a resistance of 2Ω is connected together to form a
LR series circuit. If they are connected to a 20V DC supply.

a). What will be the final steady state value of the current.

b) What will be the time constant of the RL series circuit.

c) What will be the transient time of the RL series circuit.

 

d) What will be the value of the induced emf after 10ms.

e) What will be the value of the circuit current one time constant after the switch is closed.

The Time Constant, τ of the circuit was calculated in question b) as being 20ms. Then the circuit
current at this time is given as:

You may have noticed that the answer for question (e) which gives a value of 6.32 Amps at one
time constant, is equal to 63.2% of the final steady state current value of 10 Amps we calculated
in question (a). This value of 63.2% or 0.632 x IMAX also corresponds with the transient curves
shown above.

Power in an LR Series Circuit

Then from above, the instantaneous rate at which the voltage source delivers power to the circuit
is given as:
 

The instantaneous rate at which power is dissipated by the resistor in the form of heat is given as:

The rate at which energy is stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic potential energy is
given as:

Then we can find the total power in a RL series circuit by multiplying by i and is therefore:

Where the first I2R term represents the power dissipated by the resistor in heat, and the second
term represents the power absorbed by the inductor, its magnetic energy.

Home / Inductors / Inductive Reactance

Inductive Reactance
Inductive Reactance of a coil depends on the frequency of the applied voltage as reactance is
directly proportional to frequency
So far we have looked at the behaviour of inductors connected to DC supplies and hopefully by
now we know that when a DC voltage is applied across an inductor, the growth of the current
through it is not instant but is determined by the inductors self-induced or back emf value.

Also we saw that the inductors current continues to rise until it reaches its maximum steady state
condition after five time constants. The maximum current flowing through an inductive coil is
limited only by the resistive part of the coils windings in Ohms, and as we know from Ohms law,
this is determined by the ratio of voltage over current, V/R.

When an alternating or AC voltage is applied across an inductor the flow of current through it
behaves very differently to that of an applied DC voltage. The effect of a sinusoidal supply
produces a phase difference between the voltage and the current waveforms. Now in an AC
circuit, the opposition to current flow through the coils windings not only depends upon the
inductance of the coil but also the frequency of the AC waveform.

The opposition to current flowing through a coil in an AC circuit is determined by the AC

resistance, more commonly known as Impedance (Z), of the circuit. But resistance is always
associated with DC circuits so to distinguish DC resistance from AC resistance the term
Reactance is generally used.

Just like resistance, the value of reactance is also measured in Ohm’s but is given the symbol X,
(uppercase letter “X”), to distinguish it from a purely resistive value.

As the component we are interested in is an inductor, the reactance of an inductor is therefore

called “Inductive Reactance”. In other words, an inductors electrical resistance when used in an
AC circuit is called Inductive Reactance.

Inductive Reactance which is given the symbol XL, is the property in an AC circuit which
opposes the change in the current. In our tutorials about Capacitors in AC Circuits, we saw that
in a purely capacitive circuit, the current IC “LEADS” the voltage by 90o. In a purely inductive
AC circuit the exact opposite is true, the current IL “LAGS” the applied voltage by 90o, or (π/2
rads).

AC Inductor Circuit
 

In the purely inductive circuit above, the inductor is connected directly across the AC supply
voltage. As the supply voltage increases and decreases with the frequency, the self-induced back
emf also increases and decreases in the coil with respect to this change.

We know that this self-induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of the current
through the coil and is at its greatest as the supply voltage crosses over from its positive half
cycle to its negative half cycle or vice versa at points, 0o and 180o along the sine wave.

Consequently, the minimum rate of change of the voltage occurs when the AC sine wave crosses
over at its maximum or minimum peak voltage level. At these positions in the cycle the
maximum or minimum currents are flowing through the inductor circuit and this is shown below.

AC Inductor Phasor Diagram

These voltage and current waveforms show that for a purely inductive circuit the current lags the
voltage by 90o. Likewise, we can also say that the voltage leads the current by 90o. Either way
the general expression is that the current lags as shown in the vector diagram. Here the current
vector and the voltage vector are shown displaced by 90o. The current lags the voltage.

We can also write this statement as, VL = 0o and IL = -90o with respect to the voltage, VL. If the
voltage waveform is classed as a sine wave then the current, IL can be classed as a negative
cosine and we can define the value of the current at any point in time as being:

Where: ω is in radians per second and t is in seconds.

Since the current always lags the voltage by 90o in a purely inductive circuit, we can find the
phase of the current by knowing the phase of the voltage or vice versa. So if we know the value
of VL, then IL must lag by 90o. Likewise, if we know the value of IL then VL must therefore lead
by 90o. Then this ratio of voltage to current in an inductive circuit will produce an equation that
defines the Inductive Reactance, XL of the coil.

Inductive Reactance

We can rewrite the above equation for inductive reactance into a more familiar form that uses the
ordinary frequency of the supply instead of the angular frequency in radians, ω and this is given
as:

Where: ƒ is the Frequency and L is the Inductance of the Coil and 2πƒ = ω.

From the above equation for inductive reactance, it can be seen that if either of the Frequency or
Inductance was increased the overall inductive reactance value would also increase. As the
frequency approaches infinity the inductors reactance would also increase to infinity acting like
an open circuit.

However, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the inductors reactance would decrease to
zero, acting like a short circuit. This means then that inductive reactance is “proportional” to
frequency.

In other words, inductive reactance increases with frequency resulting in XL being small at low
frequencies and XL being high at high frequencies and this demonstrated in the following graph:

Inductive Reactance against Frequency

 The slope shows that the “Inductive
Reactance” of an inductor increases as the
supply frequency across it increases.

Therefore Inductive Reactance is

proportional to frequency giving: ( XL α ƒ )

Then we can see that at DC an inductor has zero reactance (short-circuit), at high frequencies an
inductor has infinite reactance (open-circuit).

Inductive Reactance Example No1

A coil of inductance 150mH and zero resistance is connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply.
Calculate the inductive reactance of the coil and the current flowing through it.

AC Supply through an LR Series Circuit

So far we have considered a purely inductive coil, but it is impossible to have a pure inductance
as all coils, relays or solenoids will have a certain amount of resistance no matter how small
associated with the coils turns of wire being used. Then we can consider our simple coil as being
a resistance in series with an inductance.

In an AC circuit that contains both inductance, L and resistance, R the voltage, V will be the
phasor sum of the two component voltages, VR and VL. This means then that the current flowing
through the coil will still lag the voltage, but by an amount less than 90o depending upon the
values of VR and VL.

The new phase angle between the voltage and the current is known as the phase angle of the
circuit and is given the Greek symbol phi, Φ.

To be able to produce a vector diagram of the relationship between the voltage and the current, a
reference or common component must be found. In a series connected R-L circuit the current is
common as the same current flows through each component. The vector of this reference
quantity is generally drawn horizontally from left to right.

From our tutorials about resistors and capacitors we know that the current and voltage in a
resistive AC circuit are both “in-phase” and therefore vector, VR is drawn superimposed to scale
on the current or reference line.

We also know from above, that the current “lags” the voltage in a purely inductive circuit and
therefore vector, VL is drawn 90o in front of the current reference and to the same scale as VR and
this is shown below.

LR Series AC Circuit

In the vector diagram above it can be seen that line OB represents the current reference line, line
OA is the voltage of the resistive component and which is in-phase with the current. Line OC
shows the inductive voltage which is 90o in front of the current, therefore it can be seen that the
current lags the voltage by 90o. Line OD gives us the resultant or supply voltage across the
circuit. The voltage triangle is derived from Pythagoras theorem and is given as:
 

In a DC circuit, the ratio of voltage to current is called resistance. However, in an AC circuit this
ratio is known as Impedance, Z with units again in Ohms. Impedance is the total resistance to
current flow in an “AC circuit” containing both resistance and inductive reactance.

If we divide the sides of the voltage triangle above by the current, another triangle is obtained
whose sides represent the resistance, reactance and impedance of the coil. This new triangle is
called an “Impedance Triangle”

The Impedance Triangle

Inductive Reactance Example No2
A solenoid coil has a resistance of 30 Ohms and an inductance of 0.5H. If the current flowing
through the coil is 4 amps. Calculate,

a)  The voltage of the supply if the frequency is 50Hz.

b)  The phase angle between the voltage and the current.

Power Triangle of an AC Inductor
There is one other type of triangle configuration that we can use for an inductive circuit and that
is of the “Power Triangle”. The power in an inductive circuit is known as Reactive Power or
volt-amps reactive, symbol Var which is measured in volt-amps. In a RL series AC circuit, the
current lags the supply voltage by an angle of Φo.

In a purely inductive AC circuit the current will be out-of-phase by a full 90o to the supply
voltage. As such, the total reactive power consumed by the coil will be equal to zero as any
consumed power is cancelled out by the generated self-induced emf power. In other words, the
net power in watts consumed by a pure inductor at the end of one complete cycle is zero, as
energy is both taken from the supply and returned to it.

The Reactive Power, ( Q ) of a coil can be given as: I2 x XL (similar to I2R in a DC circuit). Then
the three sides of a power triangle in an AC circuit are represented by apparent power, ( S ), real
power, ( P ) and the reactive power, ( Q ) as shown.

Power Triangle

 
Note that an actual inductor or coil will consume power in watts due to the resistance of the
windings creating an impedance, Z.