MODULE 4

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

ARCHES
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ARCHES (B.C Punmia; pg no.300)
• An arch is a structure constructed of wedge-shaped units jointed
together with mortar and spanning an opening to support the weight of
the wall above it along with other super-imposed loads.
• Due to wedge-like form, the units support each
N other, the load tends to
make them compact and enables T E S . I
them to transmit the pressure
T U N O
K
downwards to their supports.

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 Technical terms
• Intrados: This is the inner curve of the
arch
• Soffit: This is the inner surface of the
arch. Sometimes the terms intrados and
soffit are treated as synonymous.
• Extrados or back: This is the external E S . I N
U N O T
curve of an arch. K T
• Voussoirs: These are the wedge-shaped
units forming the courses of an arch.
• Skewback: This is the inclined surface
on the abutment. It is prepared to
receive the arch and from it springs the 3
arch. To get more study materails visit www.ktunotes.in
• Springer: This is the first voussoir at springing
level on either side of an arch and it is
immediately adjacent to the skewback.
• Crown: This is the highest point of the extrados.
• Key: This is the wedge-shaped unit at the crown
of an arch. It is sometimes made prominent by
making it of a larger section and projecting it
below and above the outlines of an arch. . I N
O T E S
• Springing points: These are theTpoints
K U N from
which the curve of an arch springs.
• Springing line: This is the imaginary horizontal
line joining the two springing points.
• Impost: The projecting course at the upper part
of a pier or an abutment to stress the springing
line is called the impost. 4
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• Rise: This is the clear vertical
distance between the highest point
on the intrados and the springing
line
• Span: This is the clear horizontal
distance between the supports.
• Abutment: This is the end I N
support of an arch. T E S .
T U N O
K
• Piers: These are the intermediate
supports of an arcade.
• Centre: This is the geometrical
centre of the curve of an arch.
• Ring: This is the circular course
forming an arch.
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• Depth or height: This is the perpendicular
distance between the intrados and extrados.
• Spandril: This is the irregular triangular
space formed between the extrados and the
horizontal line drawn tangent to the crown.
• Haunch: This is the lower half portion of
the arch between the crown and the
S . I N
skewback.
T U N OTE
K
• Arcade: This is a row of arches supporting
a wall above and being supported by the
piers.
• Thickness or breadth of soffit: The
horizontal distance measured perpendicular
to the front and back faces of an arch is
known as the thickness or breadth of soffit.
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 TYPES OF ARCHES

The various types of arches can be classified as follows for convenience:

(1) Classification of arches according to shape
(2) Classification of arches according to number of centres
(3) Classification of arches accordingT
O S.IN
toEmaterials
KT U N

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•  (1) Classification of arches according to shape
1. Flat arch
• A flat arch has usually the angle formedN by skewbacks
as 60 with horizontal, thus T E S
forming
. I an equilateral
N O
U the base.
KTas
triangle with intrados
• The intrados is apparently flat, but it is given a slight
rise of camber of about 10 to 15 mm per metre width of
opening to allow for small settlements. However, the
extrados is kept horizontal and flat.
• Flat arches are used only for light loads, and for spans
upto 1.5 m. 8
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2. Segmental arch
• This is the common type of arch used for buildings.

• The centre of arch lies below the springing line.

• The thrust transferred to the abutment is in an inclined direction

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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3. Semi-circular Arch
• This is the modification of segmental arch in which the centre lies on
the springing line.
• The shape of the arch curve is that of a semicircle.
• The thrust transferred to the abutments is perfectly in vertical direction
since the skewback is horizontal.
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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4. Horse Shoe Arch
• The arch has the shape of a horse shoe, incorporating more than a
semi-circle.
• provided mainly from architectural considerations.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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5. Pointed Arch
• This is also known as Gothic arch.
• It consists two arcs of circles meeting at the apex.
• The triangle formed may be equilateral or isosceles; in
the latter case it is known as Lancet arch

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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6. Venetian arch
• This is another form of pointed arch which has deeper depth at crown
than at springings.
• It has four centres, all located on the springing line.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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7. Florentine arch
• This is similar to Venetian arch except that the intrados is a semicircle.
• The arch has, thus three centres, all located on the springing line.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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8. Relieving Arch
• It built over a lintel to relieve or distribute the weight of the wall
above
• This arch is constructed either on a flat arch or on a wooden lintel to
provide greater strength.
• The ends of the relieving arch should be carried sufficiently into the
abutments. E S . I N
U N O T
T
K the decayed lintel later, without
• It makes possible to replace
disturbing the stability of the structure.

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9. Stilted Arch
• It consists of a semi-circular arch with two vertical portions at the
springings.
• The centre of the arch lies on the horizontal line through the tops of
the vertical portions.
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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10. Semi-elliptical arch
• This type of arch has the shape of a semi-ellipse and may have either
three centres or five centres.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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(2) Classification of arches according to number of centres
1. One-centred arch: Segmental arches, semi circular arches, fiat arches,
horse-shoe arch and stilted arches come under this category. Sometimes,
a perfectly circular arch, known as bull's eye arch is provided for
circular windows.
2. Two-centred arch: Pointed arches E come
S . I Nunder this category. Semi-
elliptical arch and florentine U N
arch O T
come under this category.
K T
3. Three-centred arch: Elliptical arches come under this category
4. Four-centred arch: It has four centres. Venetian arch is a typical
example of this type. Another example is the Tudor arch.

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 S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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(3) Classification of arches according to materials of construction
(1) Stone arches:
• Can be constructed :
i. Rubble masonry
ii. Ashlar masonry.
i) Rubble masonry
E S . I N
•. Comparatively weak and hence it is O
U N T
used for inferior type of work
K T
•. Hammer dressed, roughly shaped
•. The span of arch is limited to about 1 m
ii) Ashlar masonry
•. Stones cut to proper shape and are fully dressed, set in lime or cement mortar
joint
•. Can also be used to make flat arch
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 S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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(2) Brick arches:
• These arches can be constructed
i) Rough bricks arches
ii) Axed brick arch
iii) Gauged bricks arch
iv) Purpose made brick
S . I N
i) Rough bricks arches
T U N OTE
K
•)The ordinary bricks are not cut to the shape of voussoirs
•)For getting the arch curve, the joints are made wedge-shaped with greater
thickness at the extrados and smaller thickness at the intrados.
•)Due to such joints, the appearance of the arch is spoiled and hence the
rough brick arches are not suitable for the exposed brickwork 22
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ii) Axed brick arch
• Bricks are cut wedge shaped with the help of brick axe
• Joints are uniform thickness along the radius
• Appearance is not very pleasant because wedge shaped
bricks are not finely dressed
iii) Gauged brick arch
• Bricks are cut to exact shape of wedge by means of wire
saw S . I N
U N OTE
• Surface of bricks are fie dressed with the help of file
T
• Soft bricks are used
K
• For jointing Lime putty is used
iv)Purpose made bricks
• Bricks are manufactured by matching exact shape and
size of voussoirs

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(3) Concrete arches:
i) pre-cast concrete block arch
•) Prepared by casting cement concrete in specially prepared
moulds
•) Because of exact shape and size good appearance is
achieved
•) 1:2:4 cement concrete is usually used
S . I N
ii) Monolithic concrete arch
T U N OTE
•) K and are suitable for
Constructed from cast-in-situ concrete
big spans.
•) Form work is removed only when concrete has sufficiently
hardened
•) Hence they are employed in the construction of culverts
and bridges.
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LINTELS (B.C Punmia; pg no.293)

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

25
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• Lintel is a horizontal flexural member which spans over the openings
in the walls for doors, windows, ventilators, cupboards etc.
• The load of masonry above the opening is transferred to the wall by
flexural action of the lintel so that frames of doors, windows etc are
not excessively loaded.
• The end bearings for the lintel should be at least 200 mm.
S . I N
• The width of lintels is same U
asN O
that TE
of wall.
KT

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Lintels of various materials are used. They are:
(a) Timber
(b) Stone
(c) Brick
(d) Steel. . I N
OTE S
(e) R.C.C
K T U N

NO LINTEL??? THIS MAY

HAPPEN

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(a) Timber lintels
Oldest type
Not commonly used now-a-days I N
T E S .
O
UNvulnerable to fire
Costlier, structurally weakTand
K
Flitched lintels – timber lintels having mild steel plates at top and
bottom for giving additional strength to timber lintel

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(b) Stone lintels
Used specially where is stone is abundantly
available
E S . I N
Used upto spans of 2m N O T
K TU
For wider spans stone slabs are kept on edge
Weak in tension
 it cracks if subjected to vibratory loads
Dressed stone – good architectural appearence
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(c) Brick lintels
Not structurally strong
Used for span upto 1m and light loads;depth:10-20cm
S . I N
Bricks are placed on edge or end UN OTE
KT
Constructed over temporary wooden centering
i) Joggled brick lintel  bricks with frogs filled with mortar increases
shear resistance of joints
ii) Reinforced brick lintel  when loads are heavy or span is more
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(d) Steel lintels
•Used when opening is large and loads are heavy
•Consists of RSJ or channel sections either used
singly or in combination of two or three units
•When used singly, they are embedded in concrete
or cladded with stone facing so as to increase its
S . I N
width(same as wall thickness)
T U OTE
N
K

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 FLOOR . I N
OTE S
K T U N
B.C PUNMIA; PG.NO:281

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• Floors divide a building into different levels, one above the other
for the purpose of creating more accommodation within a limited
space.
• Depending upon the position of floors, floor can be divided into 3
types
1. Basement floor-below ground level
2. Ground floor-above ground level
S . I N
3. Upper floors-above ground floor(1st floor, 2nd floor etc.)
T U N OTE
Floor consists of : K
4. Sub floor : structural component which support floor covering
5. Floor covering/floor: constructed over sub floor and is intended
to provide a hard, clean, smooth, impervious and durable surface
to the floor

33
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TYPES OF FLOORS

1. Timber floors
2. Composite floors

S . I N
Choice of a particular type U N
depends
T upon: OTE
K
.Span
.Maximum load
.Speed required in construction
.Materials and labour available
.Present and future use of materials etc
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TIMBER FLOORS

1. Basement or ground floor of timber

2. Single joist timber floors
3. Double joist timber floors E S . I N
U N O T
K T
4. Framed or triple timber floors

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1. Basement or ground floor of timber
• Sleeper walls of 1 brick or 1.5 brick thick are
constructed at centre to centre distance of 1.2
to 1.8m
• Wall plates are provided along the wall as well
as sleeper walls-serve as end supports N
T E S . I
• Bridging joists provided at centre N
to O
centre
KTU
distance of about 30cm rests on wall-plates
• Floor boards are provided to finish up the floor

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Precautions to be taken
Soil below timber floor is covered with PCC of thickness
100mm to 150mm
DPC are provided in the exterior walls and on top of sleeper
walls E S . I N
U N O T
Well-seasoned timber T
K is used
Hollow space between bottom concrete and floor level is
filled up with selected earth

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2. Single joist timber floors
• Consists of single strut placed below the
floor boards
• Joists are placed at a centre to centre
distance of 30cm to 45cm
• Joists are supported on wall plates at their
S . I N
ends N O T E
K T U
• When span exceeds 2.4m, herring bone
strutting is given in which inclined timber
pieces are firmly fixed between joists and
ends of these struts are nailed to the joist .

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3. Double joist timber floors
•Intermediate supports known as binders are provided for the bridging joists
•Binders are placed at a centre to centre distance of 1.8m to 2.4m
•Suitable for spans of 3.6m to 7.5m
•To reduce the over all depth of floor, bridging joists are cogged to binders
S . I N
Disadvantages:
T U N OTE
K in a wall
•Weight of floor is thrown on few points
•Depth of floor is increased by the use of binders
and accordingly the height of room is decreased

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4. Framed or triple joist timber floors
•Intermediate supports known as girders are provided for the
binders.
•Girders are placed at centre to centre distance of 3m
•Binders have staggered connection to girders
•Suitable for spans greater thanO7.5mS . I N
U NTE
K T

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COMPOSITE FLOORS

•Floors composed of more than one material are known as the

composite floors
•Advantages over the timber floors :
E S . I N
1. The composite floors resist
U fire
N OinTa better way and they are more
sound proof KT
2. Composite floors can be easily cleaned and hence they possess
better hygienic properties than the timber floors
3. The composite floors can be conveniently adopted for greater span

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1. Double flagstone floors
 Flagstones are used in 2 layers
 If span is about 4m, only RSJ are provided
S . I N
 If span exceeds 4m, a framework consisting of Rolled Steel Beams and joists is formed.
T U N OTE
 Steel beams are placed at a distance of about 3m centre to centre and joists are placed at
right angles to the beams
K
 Flagstones of about 40mm thickness and of suitable widths are fixed on the lower
flanges and upper flanges
 Filling of selected earth or concrete is done in the space between 2 layers of the
flagstones

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2. Filler joist floors
• Small sections of RSJ are placed in concrete
E S . I N
• Joists act as a reinforcement U N
and O T
are spaced at a centre to centre
K T
distance of 60cm to 90cm
• Filter joist may either rest on wall or on longitudinal steel beam
• Concrete should completely surround the RSJ and beams

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3. Jack arch floors
• Brick arches or cement concrete arches are
constructed and these arches rest on the lower
flanges of mild steel joists
• Joists in turn rest either on wall or on beam
• Joists are placed at a distance of about 1 to
1.5m centre to centre
O T E S.IN
Disadvantage:
K TUN
It does not give a plain ceiling surface

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4. R.C.C Floors
•Widely used in modern construction
•Thickness of slab usually varies from 8-20cm depending
. I N on loads acting on it
and span O T E S
KT U N
•RCC can be cast-in-situ or pre-cast
•Suitable flooring can be provided on the surface of an RCC floor
•RCC floors are less costly, durable, easy to construct and fire-proof.

45
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6.Hollow block and rib floors
• Hollow blocks of clay or concrete are used to reduce the total weight of the
floor
• Blocks are placed 100mm apart and in thisE S . I
space,N mild steel bars are
placed U N O T
KT
• Blocks are provided with rough or grooved surface so that they can
develop enough bond with the concrete
• Economical, fireproof and light in weight.
• Plumbing and electrical installations can be conveniently carried through
hollow blocks without affecting the appearence
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(e) RCC lintels
Replaced all other lintels because of their strength, rigidity, fire
resistance, economy and ease in construction
Used for any span length
Width is equal to wall width
Depth and reinforcement varies depending on span and load
E S . I
Can be precast or cast-in-situ(formworkTrequired)N
U N O
KT

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 ROOF
(B.C PUNMIA;PAGE NO.329)

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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What is roof???
• Roof is the topmost portion of a building
• Constructed in such a way as to give protection to building from rain,
snow, hail, wind, direct sunlight etc
• There are different types of roof depending upon the shape and material
used E S . I N
U N O T
K
• Roof consists of two parts:T
a) Structural elements – truss, portals, beams, slabs, shells, domes etc
b) Roof coverings – AC sheets, GI sheets, tiles etc

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CLASSIFICATION OF ROOF
• Roofs are classified into 3 categories
1. Pitched or sloping roofs
2. Flat or terraced roofs
3. Curved roofs . I N
OTE S
• Choice of the type of roofT UN
will
K depend on the
.climatic conditions,
.shape of the building,
.availability of materials,
.importance of building

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PITCHED OR SLOPING ROOF
• Pitched roofs are sloped roofs.
• Slope is given towards different sides
• Since the top surface is sloped, the drainage is excellent in these roofs
S . I N
Ehave pitched roofs effectively
O T
• Buildings with irregular shapesNcannot
K TU
• Useful at places where rainfall or snowfall is heavy

51
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Hip

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

valley
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 TYPES OF PITCHED ROOFS
1. Single roofs
a) Lean to roof (verendah roof)
b) Couple roof
c) Couple close roof
d) Collar beam roof or collar tie roof
S . I N
2. Double or purlin roofs
T U N OTE
K roofs
3. Triple membered or framed or trussed
e) King post roof truss
f) Queen post roof truss
g) Combination of king post and queen post truss
h) Mansard roof truss
i) Truncated roof truss
j) Bel-fast roof truss or latticed roof truss
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53
1.SINGLE ROOFS
• Consists of only common rafters secured at the ridge and wall plate.
• Small span where no intermediate support is required for the rafters

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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a) Lean to roof/shed/verandah roof
• Simplest type of pitched roof consisting of rafters
sloping in one direction only
• At their upper ends the rafters are nailed to the
wooden wall plate, placed on corbel
• At lower end the rafter are notched and nailed to the
wooden wall plate I N
T E S .
• Suitable for maximum span of 2.4m
T U N O
K
• Provided for sheds, out-houses attached to main
building.

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b) Couple roof
• Have slope on both the sides
• Consists of 2 rafters abutting against each other, with the help of
horizontal beam called ridge
• Upper ends of rafter nailed to a common ridge and lower ends nailed to
the wooden wall plates.
• Applicable for span upto 3.6 m. . I N
O T E S
• It has a tendency to spread outTat
K N feet
Uthe
(wall plate level) and thrust out the walls
supporting the wall plates
• Rafters are placed suitably and over the wall
• Purlins are laid to support the roof covering

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 BATTENS

c) Couple close roof

• Similar to couple roof except that the legs of the common rafters are
closed by a horizontal tie known as tie beam. I N
O T E S
• Tie beam prevents the spreading
K T U N of rafters outwards
• Used for span of 4.5m normally
• For increased spans, rafters have a tendancy to sag in the middle. To
check this, a couple-close roof is supported by a central vertical rod,
known as king rod between ridge piece and centre of tie beam

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 S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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d) Collar-beam roof
• When span increases or load is more, rafters of the couple close roof
have the tendency to bend.
• This is avoided by raising the tie beam and fixing it at 1/3 rd to ½ of
vertical height from wall plate to the ridge. This raised beam is known
as the collar beam
• Similar to couple close roof, except that
E in
S . I
tieNbeam is provided at wall
plate level while collar beamU N O T
is provided at the raised level
K T
• Suitable for spans upto 5m

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2. DOUBLE OR PURLIN ROOFS
• These roofs have two basic elements: (i) rafters and (ii) purlins.
• Purlin gives intermediate support to the rafters which in turn reduces
the size of the rafters to the economical range.
• It is also known as rafter and purlin T E
roof.S . I N
T U N O
• Used when span exceeds K5m.
• The rafters are provided at 20 to 40 cm c/c spacing.
• Each rafter is supported at three points: ridge, purlin and wall plate.
• For larger roofs, two or more purlins may be provided to support each
rafter.
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 S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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3.TRIPLE MEMBERED/ TRUSSED ROOFS
• In this system, the roof consists of 3 elements:
a) Rafters to support the roofing material
b) Purlins to provide intermediate suppport.to
INrafters
O T E S
c) K T U
Trusses to provide support N
to the ends of purlins.
•)A trussed roof is provided when
.The span of the room is greater than 5 metres
.When the length of the room is large i.e., (where there are no
internal walls or partitions to support the purlins)
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 TYPES OF TRUSSES
a) King-post truss
b) Queen-post truss
c) Combination of king-post and queen-post
.Itrusses
N
T E S
d) Mansard truss KT UNO
e) Truncated truss
f) Bel-fast truss

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a)King post roof truss
Consists of
Lower tie beam I N
S .
2 inclined principal raftersTUN OTE
K
2 struts
King post

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• Spacing of the king-post truss is limited to 3m c/c
• Suitable for spans varying from 5 to 8m
• King post prevents tie beam from sagging at its centre of the span
• Struts connected to the beams and the principal rafters in the inclined
direction, prevent the sagging of principal rafters

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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b) Queen-Post roof truss
• Is a combination of 2
halves of a king post truss I N
T E S .
• Consists of 2 vertical posts-top
T U N O
connected with straining beam
K
• Used for a span of 14-18m
• As span increases the tie beam of the king post truss will start sagging
• To prevent this sagging, the tie beam is being supported at two
different points thereby dividing the tie beam into 3 equal parts

66
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c) Combination of King-Post and Queen-Post trusses
• For greater spans, the queen post truss can be strengthened by one
more upright member, called princess-post to each side
• Suitable upto 18m span

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

67
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d) Mansard roof truss
• Is a 2 storey truss with upper portion consisting of the king-post truss
and the lower portion of queen-postT E S
truss. . I N
T U N O
• It is thus a combinationK of king-post and queen-post trusses
• Mansard truss has 2 pitches. The upper pitch(King-Post truss) varies
from 30 degrees to 40 degrees and lower pitch(Queen-Post truss)
varies from 60 degrees to 70 degrees
• A room may be provided in the roof between the two queen-posts
• Is not used now mainly because of its odd and ugly appearance
68
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e) Truncated roof truss
• Similar to Mansard roof truss except that the top portion is finished
flat with a gentle slope to one side.
• Used when it is required to provide a room in the roof

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

69
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f) Bel-Fast roof truss
• This truss is in a form of a bow
• Consists of thin sections with its top chord curved.
• Used for long spans of about 30m, provided the light roof covering is
used.
• Also known as latticed roof truss
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

70
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FLAT ROOFS
• Roof which is nearly flat
• Top surface is made slightly slopping
• Avoids need of false ceiling
S . I N
Ecost-efficient roof shape
• Requires less roofing materialsN
U --O T
most
KT

71
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Advantages:
 Construction is simplified
 Roof area can be utilised for roof-gardens, drying yards, playing
etc
 Construction work of upper floors can be easily started
 No false ceiling required E S . I N
U N O T
K T
 For multi-storied buildings, overhead water storage tanks and other
services are located on terrace
 Overall economical than a pitched roof.

72
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Disadvantages:
 Cannot be used for long spans without the introduction of
intermediate pillars and beams
E S
 Cracks are developed on the roofTsurface. I N
when temperature
T U N O
variation is high K
 Pockets of water are formed on the surface of roof if slope is not
sufficient
 Not suitable for places with heavy rainfall
 Chances of leakage is more and it is difficult to rectify the leakage
73
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a) Bengal terrace roof
• Used for covering verandah portion
• Consist of rafters with spacing 30-50cm having slight inclination and
one end penetrated into wall
• Battens are placed over these rafters with spacing 15cm and over that
flat tiles laid in mortar
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

74
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b) Reinforced brick cement roof
• Consist of reinforcement, brick and concrete
• Bricks are laid horizontally between the steel bars
and concrete mix is inserted in the joints to fill the
gap between bricks and for covering the
reinforcement
• Slab is supported on the wall E S . I N
U N O T
T
K with a 2cm thick
• Top surface of slab is plastered
cement mortar and over that apply 2 layers of hot
bitumen for water proofing
• Over the bitumen coat apply one more coat of
cement paste of thickness 5cm
• Provide sufficient slope for drainage of rainwater
75
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c) Reinforced cement concrete roof
• Made up of concrete and steel
• Two types of roof slab-one way slab and 2 way slab
• In one way slab, main reinforcement is laid in the shorter span
• In 2 way slab, main reinforcement runs parallel to both sides of the
room . I N
O T E S
K T U N
• Easy to construct and it provides smooth finish
• Thickness of roof slab depends on type of concrete used, span, floor
loads etc

76
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CURVED ROOF
Top surface is curved in the form of shells and domes
More suitable for public buildings to develop the architectural effects
Adopted when large column free areas are required
Useful for big structures like factories, libraries, theatres etc
E S . I N
N O T
curved roof may also help to reduce resistance to wind
KTU
Due to arch action, stresses are considerably reduced which results in
thin sections of the curved roofs.

77
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 ROOF COVERINGS
1.Tiles
• Manufactured from clay
• Fire resistant, cheap and durable
E S . I N
• Tiles are better non-conductor N
U of O T
heat and cold
K T
• Tiles are hung to the battens with projection which are already marked
in tiles. They kept in position by a sort of interlocking action due to
their self weight
• Pitch of roof should be less than 40 degree

78
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2.Asbestos cement sheets(AC sheets)
• Widely used for industrial buildings, factories, sheds etc
• Manufactured from asbestos which is mixed with Portland cement
• Cheap, light in weight and durable
• Available in larger size which makes laying fast
• AC sheets do not require any protective paints
• Maintenance is less
E S . I N
U N O T
• Disadvantages : K T
• Low thermal conductivity, not attractive

79
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3.GI Sheets(Galvanized Iron corrugated sheets)
• Stronger than AC sheets
• Costly
E S . I N
• Galvanized with zinc to prevent rusting
U N O T
T
• Have better impact strengthKand fire resistance
• Light in weight
• Suitable for sheds, security cabins, garages etc

80
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4.Aluminium sheets
• Long lasting and economical
• Corrosion free
• Zero maintenance and eco friendly
• No side effects on human body
• Good scrap value I N
T E S .
• Used for sheds, industrial T O
UN and temporary constructions
buildings
K

81
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5.Asphalt shingles
• Available in different colours

S . I N
E affordable, last 20 to
• They are easy to install, N O T
relatively
50 years KTU

• Asphalt shingles do not do particularly well in climates

that change drastically

82
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6.FRP sheets(Fibre Reinforced Polymer sheets)
• Made with glass or any suitable fibre with a suitable resin
• Popularly known as Fibre Glass Sheets
• Available in different shapes and colours
• Are UV protected, does not warp, rust proof, highly durable,
maintenance free, high thermal insulation…
E S . I N
N O T
KTU

83
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WINDOWS & VENTILATORS
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

84

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 WINDOW
•A WINDOW is also a vented barrier secured in a wall opening.
•The function of the window is to admit light and air to the
building and to give a view to the outside.
WINDOW consists of two parts:-
E S . I N
1. Window frame fixed
U to
N O T
the opening in the wall with
holdfast KT
2. Window shutter  fixed to the window frame

85
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SOME TECHNICAL TERMS
FRAME:- It is an assembly of horizontal and
vertical members, forming an enclosure,to
which the shutters are fixed
SHUTERS:-These are the openable parts of

O T E S.IN
a door or window.
K N
TUHEAD:-This is the top or uppermost
horizontal part of frame

86
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 SILL:-This is the lowest or bottom
horizontal part of a window frame,
not provided in door frames.
HORN:- These are the horizontal
. I N
projections
E S of a frame..
N O T
KTU REBATE :- It is the depression or
recess made inside the door frame
to receive the door shutter.

87
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LOCATION OF WINDOWS
• The location of window should meet functional requirements of the
room.
• The window should be located in opposite wall, facing a door or
another window, to achieve cross ventilation.
E S . I N
U N O T
• From the point of view K T
of fresh air, a window should be located on the
northern side of of a room.
• The sill should be located about 70 t0 80 cm about floor level of the
room.

88

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 Types of Windows
• Bay window
• Fixed window • Corner window
• Pivoted window • Dormer window
• Double hung window . I N
•TGable
E S window
• Sliding window U N O
KT • Lantern window
• Sash window
• Skylights
• louvered window
• ventilator
• Metal window

89
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 Fixed windows
•A window that cannot be
opened, whose function is
limited to allowing light to enter.
•Used in situations where light
or vision alone is needed asNno E S . I N
U O T
K T
ventilation is possible through
fixed windows

90

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 Pivoted Window
• A window having a section which
is pivoted near the center so that
the top of the section swings in and
the bottom swings out. I N
S .
T U N OTE
K

91

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 Double hung windows

• A window with two parts that

overlap slightly and slide up and
down inside the frame allowing
for ventilation on the top, bottom E S . I N
U N O T
or both K T
• The two parts are not necessarily
the same size.

92

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 Sliding Windows

•Their shutters move either

horizontally or vertically on roller
bearing
•Suitable grooves are left in theOTE S . I N
T U N
frames to accommodateKthe
shutters
•Provided in trains, buses, bank
counter etc
93

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 Sash Window
• Panels are fully glazed
• Space between top and bottom
rails divided into small panels
by timber members places S . I N
N O T E
horizontally and vertically
K T U

94

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 Louvred Window
• A louver is a window, blind with
horizontal slats that are angled to
admit light and air, but to keep out
rain, direct sunshine, and noise
• Not permit outside vision NOTE S . I N
K TU
• The economical angle of the
inclination of the louvers is45°
• Usually blinds are fixed.

95

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 Metal Windows
• Metal windows, made up of mild
steel having lesser cost and more
strength.
• Commonly used sections are angle, N
T E S . I
Z sections, T sections andUchannel
N O
T
sections, all of whichKmodified in
shape to meet various requirement
of window functioning

96

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 Advantages
• Greater precision and better quality control
• No contraction or expansion due to weather effects
• Rot proof and termite proof
• Stronger and more durable OTE S . I N
T U N
• Highly fire resistant K
• Fabricated from thin section, they provide more effective area
for light and ventilation
• Easy to maintain
97

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 Bay Window
• Project outside the external
wall of the room
• Projection may be triangular,
circular or rectangular in plan I N
T E S .
• Provided to get an increased
T U N O
K
area of opening for admitting
greater light and air
• Provide extra space in room
and improve appearance
98

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 Corner Window
• This type of window has two
faces in perpendicular
directions and these are
provided in the corner of room. I N
S .
T U N OTE
K

99

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 Dormer window

• Dormer window is a vertical

window provided on the sloping
roof
• Provides ventilation and lighting to . I N
O T E S
enclosed space below the roof
T U N
K
• Very good appearance

100

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 Gable Window

• It is a vertical window
provided in the gable end of a
pitched roof.
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

101

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Lantern Window
• windows are provided over the
flat/inclined roof, to provide more
light and air to the inner room.
• The S windows
. I N project above the
N O T E
K T U roof level.
• They admit light either through
vertical faces or inclined faces

102

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 Sky lights
• Provided on a sloping roof, to admit air
• Window project above the top sloping surface
• Openings made is properly treated by lead flashing to make the roof,
surrounding the opening and water proof .IN
T E S
KT UNO

103

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 Ventilators
• Ventilators are small windows, fixed at a
greater height than the window,
• Generally about 30 t0 50 cm below roof
level.
E S . I N
• The shatter can be openedK UN byO T
orTclosed
means of two cords ,one attached to the
bottom rail and other one with top rail
• Top edge opens inside and bottom edge
opens outside , so that rain water excluded

104

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 Ventilator combined with window
(Fan light)
• Ventilator may be provided in continuation of a window at its top
• Construction of fan light is similar to the window sash
• Usually hinged a top and can open out
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

105

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 RI N G
A S T E
L
P K T U N O T E S . I N

106
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What is plastering??
• Plastering is the process of covering rough walls and uneven surfaces
of a building with a plastic material to form a durable surface.

E
• This plastic material is made by mixing S . I N
together cement or lime, fine
U N O T
aggregates and water. K T

• Sometimes additives are added to cement mortar for improving the

adhesiveness, water proofing and termite resistance properties of
plastered surface

107
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Purpose/objectives of plastering
1. To provide an even, smooth, regular, clean and durable finish to the
surface.
2. To improve the appearance of the building.
E S . I N
3. To protect the surface from
U the
N O T
effects of atmospheric agents.
KT
4. To conceal the defective workmanship in masonry work
5. To cover up the use of inferior quality materials in the masonry work
6. To provide the satisfactory base for whitewashing, colour washing
etc

108
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Characteristics of good plaster
1. It should adhere to the surface and be intact during all seasonal and
atmospheric conditions
2. It should be hard and durable
E S . I N
3. It should be economical and
U O
with
N T
locally available materials
KT
4. It should possess good workablility
5. It should be possible to apply during all weathering conditions
6. It should prevent penetration of moisture

109
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 Tools for plastering
Guaging trowel
• Used for applying mortar on walls, mouldings, corners etc.
Float
• Used to spread mortar on surface and also for finishing
• Made of thin tampered steel or wood S . I N
Floating rule T U N OTE
K
• To check the level of plastered surface
Plumb bob
• To ascertain verticality of plastered surface.
Miscellaneous tools
• Brushes, spirit level, set squares, straight edges etc.
110
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Types of plastering
• Depending upon the binding materials used, different types of
plastering are there viz.

cement plastering S . I N
T U N OTE
K
lime plastering

mud plastering etc

111
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1.Cement plastering
• Cement plaster is a mixture of cement and sand with required amount
of water to make a plastic mass.
• The proportion of cement and sand depends upon the nature of work.
Cement and sand are first mixed in a dryE S . I
stateNand water is added to
make a paste. This mortar U N
should O
be
Tused within 30 minutes.
K T
• Cement plaster may be applied in 1, 2 or 3 coats.
• In cheapest construction, one coat of plaster is used
• In superior jobs 2 or 3 coats of plaster is applied.

112
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Procedure for cement plastering
• Average thickness of cement plastering is 12-15mm. So projections
more than 12mm is to be cleared from the wall surface. The joints are
cleaned with wire brush to remove loose mortar and dust. Clean the
surface with mortar and it is kept wet E
T .IN mortar.
tillSapplying
N O
KTU on the prepared surface to fill up the
• A preliminary coat is applied
hollow portion of masonry

113
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Procedure for cement plastering contd…
• The first coat of plaster(rendering coat) is now applied with a
thickness of 9-10mm. To maintain uniform thickness screeds are
formed on the wall surface by fixing dots. Fixing a dot (means a small
level plastered area) of size 150 x E S .
150mm.I N Another dot is placed
N O T
KTaUplumb bob.
vertically below this using

• Second coat(floating coat) is applied after 6 hours and thickness of

second coat is about 6-9mm. Dots may again be formed and materials
laid in a similar manner. The surface is polished with a trowel.
114
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Procedure for cement plastering contd…
• The third coat(finishing coat) if required is applied as similar to
second coat with maximum thickness of 3mm

E S . I N
• The completed plaster is allowedO
N to T
rest for 24hours and it is well
KTUSlow setting under higher humidity
watered for atleast one week.
improves the strength of plaster.

115
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POINTING
• Denotes the finishing of mortar joints of either stone masonry or brick
masonry
• Generally adopted for finishing of exposed external walls
• The joints are raked out to a depth of E S
about. I N
20mm and then, these
U N O T
K T
spaces are filled up by suitable mortar in the desired shape
• Should be done immediately after masonry work
• Mortar can be of cement mortar or lime mortar

116
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Method of pointing…
• Raking of mortar joints atleast 20mm depth
• Dust removed by brushes
S . I N
E kept wet for a few hours
• Surface washed out with cleanN O
waterT and
K TU
• Mortar placed in these joints in desired shape using trowel
• Finished surface well-watered for atleast 3 days for lime mortar and 10
days for cement mortar

117
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Types of pointing
 Beaded pointing
• Formed by a steel/iron rod with a concave edge
• Good in appearance
• Difficult to maintain
S . I N
T U N OTE
 Flush pointing K
• Flush with surface
• Not good in appearance
• Durable as no space for accumulation of dust, water etc

118
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 Recessed pointing
• Face of pointing is kept vertical and it is pressed inside the wall
surface by a suitable tool to a depth of about 5mm or more
• Gives good appearance

 Rubbed or keyed or grooved pointing S.IN

O T E
TUNof height by a pointer
• Groove formed at theKcentre
• Gives good appearence

119
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 Struck pointing
• Face of pointing is kept inclined
• Upper edge 10mm inside the face of masonry
• This joint disposes water easily

 Tuck pointing E S . I N
U N O T
T
K of joint
• Groove formed at centre
• Width = 5mm & depth = 3mm
• Groove then filled with a white cement putty with a projection of
3mm

120
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 Vee-pointing
• V shaped grooved is formed in the mortar joint

 Weathered pointing
• V shaped projection is formed
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

121
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WHITE WASH AND COLOUR
I N
K T WASH
U N O T E S .

122
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•Necessary on hygienic and aesthetic reasons
•For obtaining neat and clean surface adopt proper method
for the preparation of surface to receive whitewash and
application of white wash

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

123
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Preparation of surface

Surface shall be thoroughly brushed free from mortar

droppings and foreign material.
In case of old surface the surface should be thoroughly
S . I N
Efilled up with mortar.
scraped and holes in plaster N
U shall
O Tbe
K T
The surface shall then be allowed to dry for at least 48hrs
before white washing is done.

124
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PREPARATION OF WHITE WASH

The lime/white wash shall be prepared from fat lime

The lime shall be thoroughly slaked ,mixed, stirred with sufficient water
to make a thin cream.
Now shall be allowed to stand for 24hrs then shall be screened through
a clean course cloth. E S . I N
U N O T
1 Kg of gum dissolved inK T
hot water to each m³ of lime cream
Approx quantity: 5ltr water:1kg of lime.
1.3 kg of Nacl dissolved in hot water may also added for 10kg of lime
for making the coat hard and rub resistant

125
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 S . I N
T U N OTE
K

126
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APPLICATION
 White wash shall be applied with moonj brushes.
 The operation for each coat shall consist of stroke given from top
downwards and other from bottom upwards over the first stroke and
similarly one stroke horizontallyOfrom E S . I N
right and another from the left
U N T
before it dries. K T
 For new work 3 or more coats shall be applied till the surface presents
a smooth and uniform finish.
 For old work 2 coats shall be applied.

127
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 COLOUR WASH
 Coloring pigments shall be added to white wash.
 No color wash shall be done un till a sample of color wash of the required shade has
been got approved from the interior in charge. N
T E S . I
N O
 Color shall be even over the whole surface.
T U
K
 Generally used pigments: yellow earth,red ocher bue vitroil
 These are crushed to powder before mixing
 Applied in the same fashion as the white wash
 For new work the priming coat shall be of white wash
 Imparts clean and pleasant appearance
128
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 DISTEMPERING
S .
B.C PUNMIA:444I N
U N O TE
KT

129
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• Distempers are considered to be water paints
• Consisting of :
1. Base : whiting or chalk
2. Carrier: water
3. Binder : whiting glue or casein
S . I N
4. Colouring pigments. T U N OTE
K
•. These distemper form a cheap and easily applied decoration for internal use on plastered
cement concrete
•. They may be either in powder form or paste form .
•. These are required to be mix with hot water before use

130
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PROPERTIES:
Distemper may be form of oil bound washable paint, washable oil free
distemper, non washable.
They are cheaper than paint and varnishes.
They are treated like water paints and hence are easier to apply
They act as sealer over porous surfaces. This permits the new wall to dry
out without damaging films. . I N
O T E S
TUNsmoother.
They are more durable & present
K
They are preferred to colour wash and white wash.
Generally light in colour and provide a good reflective coating.

131
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 Preparation of distemper
• Required quantity of powdered chalk is soaked in sufficient water and
it is then covered for several hours  It is stirred well to form a smooth
paste After this, the paste is thinned down by adding more water
and whole mixed is strained through E S .
a coarse I Ncloth Then required of
N O T
glue is added. KTU
• Ready made distemper are also available in the form of dry powder in
market. They are mixed with hot water before use.

132
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Preparation of distemper

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

133
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 Process of distempering
• Various steps involved in process of distemper:
1.Preparation of surface
2.Priming coat
S . I N
3.Coats of distemper
T U N OTE
K

134
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 Preparation of surface
(1)The new plastered surface should be kept exposed for a
period of two months to dry out before distemper is
applied on them. The presence of dampness on the surface results in failure of
distemper coating.
(2)The surface to receive distemper should be free from any efflorescence patches.
These are to be wiped out by clean cloth.
S . I N
U N OTE
(3)The cracks, holes seen on wall surface should be filled with putty and to allowed
T
K
to be becomes hard before distemper is applied on the surface
(4) The old distemper should be removed by scraping before applying the new
distemper.
(5) New cement plastered surface should be washed with 1kg of Zinc sulphate
solution on 10 ltr of water ,then allowed to dry

135
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Preparation of surface

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

136
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 Priming coat
• After proper preparation of surface, The next step is to apply priming
coat . it is allowed to dry .
• For local made distemper, the milk is used for priming coat. One liter

O T E S.IN
of milk will cover about 10 m ² of the surface.
K TUN

137
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 Coats of distemper
• The first coat of distemper is then applied on the surface. It should be of a
light and applied with great care.
• The second coat of distemper is applied after the first coat has dried and
become hard.
• The distemper should be done in dry T S .
weather
E I N
to achieve better results.
U N O
KT

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 DISADVANTAGES

On drying distemper films leads N

to cracking T E S . I
N O
And flaking due to KTU
shrinkage

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 Distemper films are thicker and
E S . I N
U N O T more brittle then other water
K T paints

140
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 Distemper give poor result in damp place as alternative wetting and drying cause
defects like peeling, flaking and plastering. distempering should not be done in damp
weather.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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PAINTS K T U N OTE S . I N

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• Paints are the coatings of fluid materials which are applied as
a final finish to all surfaces, such as walls, ceilings, wood
work, metal work etc
• Process of application of paint as a coating is termed as
painting
• Protective power granted by paintEdecreases
S . I N with the passage
of time and hence they are
U N
toO T
be periodically applied.
K T

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Purpose of painting
• To protect the surfaces from weathering effects of the
atmosphere
• To protect the decay of wood and corrosion
I N of metals
T E S .
U N O
• To provide a decorativeTfinish to obtain a clean, colourful and
pleasing surface
K
• To obtain smooth surfaces which are hygienic and healthy.

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BASIC CONSTITUENTS OF PAINT
1. A base
2. A vehicle or carrier
3. An inert filler S . I N
T U N OTE
4. A drier K
5. A solvent or thinner
6. Colouring pigments

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1. Base
• Is a solid substance of a metallic oxide in a form of fine powder
• It is the principal ingredient in a paint
• It determines character of paint
• Reduces shrinkage cracks
• Eg: white lead , red lead, oxide of zincE, S
T .INof iron etc
oxide
N O
2. Vehicles KTU
• Is a liquid substance which keeps the ingredients of a paint in liquid
suspension-to spread paint evenly and uniformly on the surface & as
binder so that they may stick to the surface
• Eg: various forms of linseed oil, poppy oil, nut oil etc

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3. An inert filler
• Are cheap inert materials or pigments to extend help in
performing following functions
• To reduce the cost of the base and hence of paint
• To increase durability of paint
• To prevent shrinkage and O S
cracking. I N
U N TE of paint etc
K T

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4. A drier
• These substances accelerate the process of drying
• Should not use in final coat because it reduces the elasticity of
paint
• Eg: litherage (pbO), red lead etc
5. A solvent or thinner
• Is a liquid which is mixed in a paint to make S
E .
the I N
paint thinner so
that it can be easily applied on theN O T
surface
K TU
• Eg: spirit of terpentine
6. Colouring pigments
• To impart colour to the paint
• Available in the form of fine powders in various colours and
qualities
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 TYPES OF PAINT
1. ALUMINIUM PAINT
• Consists of finely powdered aluminium suspended in either quick drying
spirit varnish or slow drying oil varnish as per requirement
E S .
• On evaporation of the spirit or oil, the particles I N
of aluminium form a thin
O T
TUN
metallic coat on the paintedKsurface
• Aluminium paint protects the iron and steel from corrosion.
• Due to silvery shining texture, it gives a good appearance.
• It has good resistance to heat and electric current.
• Widely used in metal parts of buildings, electric or telegraphic poles,
railway structures, water tank machinery and also for wood work.
149
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2. ANTI-CORROSIVE PAINT
• Mainly consists of oil, a strong drier and a colouring pigment like
chromium oxide, lead or zinc chrome mixed with very fine sand.
• This paint is cheaper and lasts forOaT E
longS . I N
period
T
K workU N
• Generally used for external
• Used to protect and preserve the structural steel work against the
adverse effects of weather, fumes, corrosive chemicals etc

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3. BITUMINOUS AND TAR PAINTS I N
T E S .
T U O
• Consists of bitumen or tar dissolved
N in naphtha or petroleum.
K
• Are alkali resistant and present a black appearance on the
surface painted
• Suitable for painting structural steel and iron work under water.
• Also used for painting exterior brick work and plastered
surfaces
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4. CELLULOSE PAINT
• Is prepared from celluloid sheets, nitro-cotton, photographic films etc
• Nitro-cotton is used for making superior paint
E S . I N
U N O T
• Cellulose paints hardens by evaporation of thinner used, whereas
KToxidation
ordinary paints harden by
• Can be washed and cleaned.
• They stand extreme degrees of heat and cold and resistant to hot water
• Dry quickly and possess better hardness, smoothness and flexibility.
• Used for painting motor cars, aeroplanes and other superior works.
152
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5. CEMENT PAINT
• Consists of Portland/white cement, hydrated lime, alkali resistant
pigments, water repellants and hygroscopic salts.
• Possesses better water-proofing qualities, E S . I N
good strength, hardness,
U N O T
density and durability. K T
• Extensively used for painting plastered brickwork, stone masonry and
concrete for both external and internal works.
• Has lasting finish(minimum 5-6 years durability) for walls and
ceilings in all types of buildings
• Suitable for fresh plastered walls because cement paints are not likely
to be attacked byToalkalinity of the masonry surface
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153
6. EMULSION PAINT
• Consists of polyvinyl acetate, synthetic resins usually chlorinated
rubber etc as main constituent.
E S .
• Possess excellent quality of alkali-resistanceI N
U N O T
T
K drying, good workability and high
• It has the qualities of quick
durability
• Used on bricks and masonry surfaces which contain free alkali
• Painted surface can also be cleaned by water

154
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7. ENAMEL PAINT
• Available in large number of shades and colours
• Used extensively on various types of surfaces
E S . I N
• Consists of metallic oxide powdered
N O T
with a small quantity of oil,
KTU
petroleum spirit and resinous matter in solution
• Dries slowly but on drying it produces a very hard, impervious, glossy,
elastic, smooth and durable film over the painted surface
• Not affected by hot and cold water, steam, acids, alkalies or gas fumes etc
• Painted surface is easily washable

155
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9. OIL PAINT
• Cheap, fairly workable and possess the qualities of good opacity, good
appearance, sufficient durability and enough resistance against
weather elements
• Used in generally for all types of surfaces such as wood work, walls,
ceilings, metal work etc preferably for internal works
• Dampness affects the life of the paint E
soS . I
these Npaints should not be
applied during humid and U N
damp O T
weather.
K T
• Normally applied in 3 coats as priming coats, under coats and
finishing coats respectively.

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10. PLASTIC PAINT
• Contains plastics as the base which forms the main constituent
• When these are thinned with water, these are known as plastic
emulsion paints
• Available in a wide range of shades under different trade names
• Are quick drying, have high covering power. I and decorative
N
appearance O T E S
K T U N
• Widely used for showrooms, auditoriums, offices etc where attractive
appearance is desirable

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11. SYNTHETIC RUBBER PAINT
• Prepared by dissolving synthetic resins in suitable solvents and then
mixed with other pigments
• Has excellent acid and alkali resistance
• Dries quickly and has a high covering
• Painted surfaces exhibit excellent uniformityN in colour on drying
E S . I
T snowfall etc
T N O
• Good resistance against rain,Usunrays,
K
• Readily used for application over fresh plastered surfaces
• Can be used even when the surface is not dry.

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 PREPARATION OF DIFFERENT
SURFACES FOR PAINTING
PAINTING ON NEW WOOD WORK
1. Preparation of surface - Woodwork should be sufficiently seasoned(not
more than 15% moisture)
. I
2. Thoroughly clean the surface & headEofSnailsNare punched to a depth of
3mm below surface TU N O T
K
3. Surface of woodwork is then knotted-so resin will not come out
4. Surface rubbed smooth with abrasive paper
5. Apply priming coat-provides adhesion of paint to surface
6. Stopping is done(rubbing with pumice stone and filling all cracks with
putty)
7. Subsequent coats(undercoat and finishing coat) applied 159
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PAINTING NEW IRON WORK AND STEEL WORK
1. Clean the surface(use wire brush or scrapers)

2. Apply a coat of phosphoric acid(for rust prevention and adhesion of

paint)

S . I N
T U N OTE
K
3. Apply prime coat-allow for drying

4. Apply subsequent coats(undercoat and finishing coat)

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PAINTING PLASTERED SURFACES
1. Remove moisture content from walls(use artificial methods or wait for
3-6months for natural air drying)
2. Apply coats of alkali resistant primer paints
3. Putty is applied to repair cracks and to make smooth & level the
surface
4. scrap off the surplus putty with sandE S .
paperI N
after drying
U N O T
5. Paint is applied twoK orTthree coat on the surface

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 DAMP S . I N

PROOFING T U N OTE
K

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DAMP-PROOFING
• In order to prevent the entry of damp into a building, the courses, known as the,
damp-proofing courses (DPC)are provided at various levels of entry of damp
into a building.
CAUSES OF DAMPNESS
o Moisture rising up the walls from ground N
S . I
o Rain travel from wall tops
T U N OTE
K
o Rain beating against external faces of walls
o No proper slope for balconies and chajja projections(sunshades)
o Condensation of atmospheric moisture
o Imperfect orientation – less sunlight & heavy showers
o Defective construction – imperfect joints
o Absorption of water from defective rainwater pipes
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EFFECTS OF DAMPNESS
• Travel of moisture through walls and ceiling  patches - ruin the
aesthetics
• Moisture travel may cause softening and crumbling of plaster,
especially lime plaster.
S .IN which is very
• The wall finishes (i.e.. painting etc.)TisEdamaged,
U N O
KT
difficult and costly to repair.
• Continuous presence of moisture  Efflorescence  cause
disintegration of bricks, stones, tiles, etc. and consequent reduction in
strength.

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• The adhesion of flooring material with the subfloor gets loosened

• Timber fittings, such as doors, windows, almirahs etc., coming in contact with damp walls,
damp floors etc., get deteriorated because of warping, buckling, dry-rotting etc. of timber.

• Electrical fittings get deteriorated, giving rise to leakage of electricity and consequent
danger of short circuiting.
S . I N
• Growth of termites may occur due to dampness.
T U N OTE
K
• Dampness along with warmth and darkness breeds germs of dangerous diseases such as
tuberculosis, neuralgia, rheumatism etc. Occupants may even be asthamatic.

• Rusting and corrosion of metal fittings attached to walls, floors and ceilings may occur due
to moisture.

165
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 METHODS OF DAMP PROOFING

(1) Use of damp proofing course (D.P.C.) : membrane damp proofing.

(2) Integral damp proofing.
(3) Surface treatment. . I N
OTE S
(4) Cavity wall construction.
K T U N
(5) Guniting.
(6) Pressure grouting

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(1) Use of damp proofing course (D.P.C.) : membrane damp proofing
• Introducing a water repellent membrane or DPC b/w source of dampness and
part of building adjacent to it
• May be of flexible materials such as
• Bitumen
• Mastic asphalt
• Plastic/polythene sheets E S . I N
U N O T
• Metal sheets K T
• Cement concrete etc
• DPC – provided horizontally or vertically
• Provide cement concrete fillet of 7.5cm radius when horizontal DPC
continued to vertical face
• DPC should not kept exposed on wall surface – get damaged during finishing
167
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(2) Integral damp proofing
• Adding water proofing compounds to concrete mix-becomes
impermeable
a) Compounds from chalk, talcO etc E S . I N
– fill voids of concrete under
U N T
mechanical action K T
principle
b) Compounds like alkaline silicates, aluminium sulphate, calcium
chloride etc - react chemically – water proof concrete produced
c) Compounds like soap, petroleum, oils etc – works on water
repulsion principle

168
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(3) Surface treatment
• Application of a layer of water repellent substances or compounds
• Use sodium or potassium silicates, aluminium or zinc sulphates etc
• Effective only when moisture is superficial and is not under pressure
• Spraying water repellent solutions to exposed stone or brick wall face
is also done E S . I N
N O T
KTU

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(4) Cavity wall construction
Main wall of building shielded by outer skin wall, leaving a cavity
between two
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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(5) Guniting
• Depositing under pressure, a layer of rich cement mortar over the
exposed surfaces
• 1:3 mix cement mortar shot under pressure of 2-3kg/cm² using a
cement gun
E S
• Nozzle of gun kept at a distance of 75-90cm. I N
from surface
U N O T
• Curing done for 10 daysKT

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(6) Pressure grouting

• Forcing cement grout under pressure into cracks, voids etc

• Effective in checking the seepage of raised ground water through

foundations
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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MATERIALS USED FOR D.P.C
• Hot bitumen
Highly flexible
Placed in hot condition
• Mastic asphalt
Semi-rigid
S . I N
Obtained by heating asphalt with sand and mineral fillers
T
Withstand only slight distortionU N OTE
K
Liable to squeeze out in very hot climate or under heavy pressure
• Bituminous or asphaltic felts
Flexible material
Available in rolls
Overlap of 10cm provided at joints
Cannot withstand heavy loads though allow slight movements
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• Metal sheets
Sheets of lead, copper or aluminium
Flexible
S . I
Does not squeeze out under ordinary pressureN
T U N
Protected by a coating of bitumen OTE
K
• Bricks
Special bricks with water absorption <4.5% of their weight is used
Laid in 2-4 courses in cement mortar

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• Stones
Dense & sound stones such as granite, slates etc laid in cement
mortar in 2 courses
Stones should extend to the full width of the wall
• Cement concrete
Rich mix of 4-15cm used
E S . I N
2 coats of hot bitumen paint U N O
applied
T
if dampness is more
K T
• Plastic sheets
Made of black polythene – 0.5-1mm thick – roll length 30m.

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 I T E
E RM G
T KTUNOFIN
T E S . I N

RO O
P
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TERMITE-PROOFING
(1) Bridging:
Formation of bridge between any part of building and untreated soil should be
checked and avoided.

(2) Cost:
Do termite proofing before building construction because later it is difficult and
costly to remove them S . I N
T U N OTE
(3) Drainage:
K
(•)Concrete or masonry apron should be constructed around the periphery of the
building. Such a construction would prevent the seepage of water to the underside
of the building
(•)Stone slabs should be provided below the rain water pipes to help drain away the
rain water.
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(4) Filling material:
Used for reclamation of soil should be free from termite colonies

(5) Floor joints:

• Suitable joint fillers or metal strips may be used to make floor joints termite-
proof S . I N
T U N OTE
(6) Foundations:
K
• Termites wont penetrate through dense concrete
• It is sufficient to treat the soil upto 500 mm below ground level or upto the
bottom of the plinth beam, if this level is less than 500 mm

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(7) Method of termite-proofing:
Depends on
Local conditions
Materials used
(8) Site clearance:
• Clear off all dead wood, old tree stumps, etc
. I N
• If mounds of subterranean termites are found, they should be destroyed by
forcing insecticides OTE S
K T U N
(9) Superstructure:
• Wooden members such as door frames, staircases, etc. should be set on
flooring and not through flooring.
• Give adequate treatment to parts susceptible to termite

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METHODS OF TERMITE PROOFING
(1) Pre-construction treatment
a) Site preparation
b) Soil treatment S . I N
T
c) Structural barriersU N OTE
K
(2) Post-construction treatment

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(1) PRECONSTRUCTION TREATMENT
a) Site preparation
• Removal of stumps, roots, logs, waste wood N etc
T E S . I
• Termites attack these materials
TU N O
easily
K
• If termite mound detected  destruct it by using insecticide solution

DDT
BHC
Aldrin
Heptachlo
To get more study materails visit www.ktunotes.in r 181
b) Soil treatment
• Best method for termite proofing

S . I N
Eat the time of construction
• Apply a chemical treatment to N O
the T
soil
KTU
• Thus a chemical barrier is created between ground and building

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Insecticide solution in water emulsion applied
in following stages
In foundation pits – to treat bottom and sides
upto a height of 30cm E S . I N
U N O T
T
K of walls – width of
Refill earth on both sides
30 cm & depth of 45cm
Before laying floor – entire levelled surface
is treated

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c) Physical structural barriers
• Should be continuous and inpenetrable

E S . I N
• Concrete(5-7.5cm thick) or metal
U N O T
barriers(non-
T
K or GI, 0.8mm thick)
corrodible sheets of copper

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(2) POST CONSTRUCTION TREATMENT
• Inspect the magnitude of spread of termites & detect the points of
entry of termites in the building
• Destroy the bridging/shelter tubes after injecting anti-termite emulsion
• If severe attack – inject it in soil around the building and soil under the
floor
S . I N
E - after drilling 12mm
• Pump chemical emulsion underNpressure
U O T
K T
diameter holes at 30cm c/c at downward angle of 45degree from both
sides of walls – seal it later

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