Basic Design of Coal Gasification Process for the Production of

Syngas

Final Project Report Submitted

By

Aayush Alok Reg. No.: 019049-15

Ayush Adhikari Reg. No.: 019050-15

Rojan Pradhan Reg. No.: 019066-15

Harsha Shah Reg. No.: 019070-15

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

OCTOBER 2019
 Declaration
We hereby declare that the work contained herein is entirely our own, except where states
otherwise by reference or acknowledgement, and has not been published or submitted
elsewhere, in whole or in part, for the requirement for any other degree or professional
qualification. Any literature, data or works done by others and cited within this thesis has
been given due acknowledgement and listed in the reference section.

________________________

Aayush Alok (019049-15)

________________________

Ayush Adhikari (019050-15)

________________________

Rojan Pradhan (019066-15)

________________________

Harsha Shah (019070-15)

October 2019
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project titled Basic Design of Coal Gasification Process for the

Production of Syngas is a bonafide record of the work done by

Aayush Alok Reg. No.: 019049-15

Ayush Adhikari Reg No.: 019050-15

Rojan Pradhan Reg. No.: 019066-15

Harsha Shah Reg. No.: 019070-15

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Engineering in Chemical Engineering of the Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel during
the year 2019.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Bibek Uprety Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rajendra Joshi

Supervisor Head of Department

Department of Chemical Science & Department of Chemical Science &

Engineering Engineering

__________________________ __________________________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Project viva-voce held on 23rd September, 2019.

 Abstract
Statistics show that we rely heavily on fossil fuels to fulfill our current energy demands.
Renewable resources are not yet feasible for every scenario. Solar and wind energy resources
are unreliable and their upfront cost is much higher. Coal remains one of the most abundant
and reliable non-renewable resources used to produce electricity by direct combustion in
thermal power plants. Although, renewable resources have started showing promising results
it will take several decades until we can rely completely on renewable resources.
Just like other fossil fuels, environmental emission is very high due to release of flue gases
into the atmosphere in thermal power plant. So, this plant design project proposes a better
alternative way to utilize coal by implementing gasification technology using fluidized-bed
reactor as gasifier producing syngas that can be either directly used as fuel or to produce
synthetic chemicals. This clean technology leads to the innovation of zero toxic releases into
the environment. The design capacity of the plant is 1000 kg of bituminous coal per hour.
The process designed consists of a dryer to reduce the coal moisture content; a fluidized-bed
gasifier where the main gasification of coal occurs; and a heat exchanger to cool down the hot
product gas and generate steam. This project includes every elements of basic designing of a
coal gasification plant viz; material and energy balances on each unit providing information
on yields of product and energy transfer on every stage, equipment and pipe sizing
calculations, equipment specification sheet, PFD and P&ID of the plant, safety assessment
and projected economic performance of the plant. The results from the economic analysis
suggest that this plant is economically viable which breakeven within the first four years of
operation.
 Acknowledgement
This final design project included in our curriculum provided us an opportunity to apply the
core fundamentals that we learned in course of our undergraduate studies into designing an
industrial plant. While performing this project we also learned about new technologies such
as gasification and how it can be integrated for industrial scale. This project taught us the
value of teamwork and how proper coordination among different group members can yield a
good result. Our team would like to express our deepest appreciation to all those who
provided us help in every possible way to complete this project. A special gratitude to our
project supervisor Dr. Bibek Uprety, Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, who
acknowledged our project and provide us guidance, encouragement, motivation and
supervision throughout our project.
We are grateful towards the Department of Chemical Science and Engineering for including
this senior design project in the curriculum. This plant design project would not have been
possible for us students to accomplish if we were not prepared for this all these years by our
valuable faculties. For this we are indebted to the department, teaching faculties and the
university who have helped us to shape as Chemical Engineers.
Lastly, we would like to thank our friends for their immense support and their valuable
insights regarding our project. With their help and support the project was accomplished and
we feel blessed to have them as our friends.
Contents
List of Table ................................................................................................................................ i
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ii
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Context ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2. Objectives .................................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Scopes.......................................................................................................................... 2
2. Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1. Coal ............................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.1. Types of Coal ....................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Coal Properties ............................................................................................................ 4
2.2.1. Heating Value ...................................................................................................... 4
2.2.2. Caking and Swelling Properties ........................................................................... 5
2.2.3. Hardness............................................................................................................... 5
2.2.4. Density ................................................................................................................. 5
2.3. Gasification ................................................................................................................. 6
2.3.1. Chemical reactions ............................................................................................... 6
2.4. Gasifier ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.4.1. Fixed /Moving Bed Gasifier ................................................................................ 8
2.4.2. Fluidized Bed Gasifier ......................................................................................... 9
2.4.3. Entrained Flow Gasifier ..................................................................................... 10
2.5. Commercially Available Gasifier.............................................................................. 11
2.5.1. The Lurgi Gasifier.............................................................................................. 11
2.5.2. Fixed-Bed Gasifier ............................................................................................. 11
2.5.3. The Koppers-Totzek Gasifier ............................................................................ 11
2.5.4. The Winkler Gasifier ......................................................................................... 11
2.6. History of Gasification .............................................................................................. 12
2.7. Distinctive Attributes of Gasification ....................................................................... 12
2.8. Benefits of Gasification ............................................................................................. 12
2.9. Environmental Benefits of Gasification .................................................................... 13
2.10. Disadvantages of Gasification ............................................................................... 13
2.11. Comparison of Coal Gasification to other Technology ......................................... 14
3. Process Description .......................................................................................................... 15
 3.1. Process Flowsheet ..................................................................................................... 15
3.2. Process Equipment .................................................................................................... 16
3.2.1. Rotary Dryer ...................................................................................................... 16
3.2.2. Cyclone Separator .............................................................................................. 16
3.2.3. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger ......................................................................... 16
3.3. Design Basis .............................................................................................................. 17
3.3.1. Feed Basis .......................................................................................................... 17
3.3.2. Design Code ....................................................................................................... 17
3.3.3. Utilities............................................................................................................... 17
3.3.4. Reactions Involved............................................................................................. 17
3.3.5. Assumptions....................................................................................................... 17
3.4. Process Flow Diagram .............................................................................................. 17
3.5. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram ........................................................................ 19
3.5.1. Pipe Size Calculation ......................................................................................... 19
3.5.2. Equipment List ................................................................................................... 22
3.5.3. Instrument List ................................................................................................... 23
4. Equipment Sizing and Specification................................................................................. 26
4.1. Cyclone Separator Sizing .......................................................................................... 26
4.2. Cyclone Separator Specification Sheet ..................................................................... 28
4.3. Fluidized Bed Gasifier Sizing ................................................................................... 29
4.4. Gasifier Specification Sheet ...................................................................................... 34
4.5. Heat Exchanger Sizing .............................................................................................. 35
4.6. Heat Exchanger Specification Sheet ......................................................................... 36
5. Economic Analysis ........................................................................................................... 37
5.1. Total Capital Investment ........................................................................................... 37
5.1.1. Fixed Capital Cost.............................................................................................. 37
5.1.2. Equipment Cost.................................................................................................. 37
5.1.3. Estimation of Fixed Capital Cost ....................................................................... 41
5.1.4. Estimation of Working Capital .......................................................................... 41
5.1.5. Calculation of Total Capital Investment (TCI) .................................................. 41
5.2. Revenue Generation .................................................................................................. 41
5.3. Total Production Cost (TPC)..................................................................................... 42
5.3.1. Variable Production Cost ................................................................................... 42
 5.3.2. Fixed Cost .......................................................................................................... 44
5.3.3. Plant Overhead Cost .......................................................................................... 44
5.3.4. Calculation of Total Production Cost (TPC) ..................................................... 44
5.4. Economic Performance Assessment ......................................................................... 44
5.4.1. Gross Profit ........................................................................................................ 45
5.4.2. Depreciation ....................................................................................................... 45
5.4.3. Net Profit without taxes ..................................................................................... 45
5.4.4. Total Payback Period ......................................................................................... 45
5.4.5. Return of Investment (ROI) ............................................................................... 45
5.4.6. Comparing ROI with Minimum Acceptable Rate of Return (MARR).............. 46
6. Plant Safety and Environmental Assessment ................................................................... 47
6.1. Plant Safety ............................................................................................................... 47
6.1.1. Worker Safety .................................................................................................... 47
6.1.2. Overview of Process Hazard Safety .................................................................. 47
6.1.3. HAZOP Risk Management ................................................................................ 49
6.2. Environmental Impact Analysis ................................................................................ 54
6.3. Material Safety Data Sheet ........................................................................................ 55
7. Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 57
8. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 58
9. References ........................................................................................................................ 59
10. Appendices.................................................................................................................... 61
10.1. Appendix I: Material and Energy Balance ............................................................ 61
10.2. Appendix II: List of Abbreviations ....................................................................... 67
10.3. Appendix III: Nomenclature .................................................................................. 69
List of Table
Table 1 Particle and Bulk Density Comparison of Coal ............................................................ 6
Table 2 Gasifier Configuration Comparision ............................................................................ 8
Table 3 History of Gasification................................................................................................ 12
Table 4 Comparison of Gasification to other Technologies .................................................... 14
Table 5 Ultimate Analysis of Bituminous Coal ....................................................................... 15
Table 6 Piping Specification .................................................................................................... 20
Table 7 List of Equipment ....................................................................................................... 22
Table 8 List of Instrument........................................................................................................ 25
Table 9 Factors for Estimation of F.C.C. ................................................................................. 41
Table 10 Factors for Estimation of Variable Cost ................................................................... 44
Table 11 Factors for Estimation of Fixed Cost ........................................................................ 44
Table 12 HAZOP Study of Gasifier......................................................................................... 50
Table 13 HAZOP Study of Heat Exchanger ............................................................................ 51
Table 14 HAZOP Study of Dryer ............................................................................................ 52
Table 15 HAZOP Study of Cyclone Separator ........................................................................ 53
Table 16 EIA of Coal Gasification Plant ................................................................................. 54
Table 17 MSDS for Syngas ..................................................................................................... 56

i
List of Figures
Figure 1 Moving Bed Gasifier ................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2 Fluidized Bed Gasifier ............................................................................................... 10
Figure 3 Entrained Flow Gasifier ............................................................................................ 10
Figure 4 Process Flow Sheet of Coal Gasification Plant ......................................................... 16
Figure 5 High Efficiency Cyclone Standard Dimension ......................................................... 26

ii
1. Introduction
1.1. Context
Coal is a well-known fuel source that is primarily used to generate electricity in
power plants. In addition, it is also used in steel and cement plants. To generate
electricity, coal is burned to boil water and the steam thus formed is used to spin the
propeller of a turbine. However, simply burning coal is not efficient and produces
gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and sulfur oxides which are harmful to
human health and the environment. In this regard, coal gasification provides an
efficient way to optimize the usage of coal and extract energy while reducing toxic
greenhouse gases.
Gasification is a technology that converts carbon-containing materials, including
coal, waste and biomass, into synthetic gas which in turn can be used to produce
electricity and other valuable products, such as chemicals, fuels, and fertilizers [1].
Gasification does not involve combustion, but instead uses little or no oxygen or air
in a closed reactor to convert carbon-based materials directly into a synthetic gas, or
syngas [2]. The gasification process breaks these carbon-containing materials down
to the molecular level, so impurities like nitrogen, sulfur, and mercury can be easily
removed and sold as valuable industrial commodities. This prevents pollutants from
being released into the environment, as it is during coal burning, and also, this
allows further versatile uses of coal, which makes it more efficient than burning
coal.
Gasification is a process which has a wide range of applications, some of them
include [3]:
i. Gasification generates electricity more efficiently than simply burning coal,
which reduces amount of mining required to produce the same amount of
energy
ii. Power plants burn gasification products can also use the exhaust gases to
produce steam, which can be further used in a steam turbine for more
electricity production
iii. Fly ash produced from the gasifier can be used as a direct substitute for
Portland cement during the production of concrete
iv. Gasification process breaks carbon-containing materials down to the
molecular level, so impurities like nitrogen, sulfur, and mercury can be
easily removed and sold as valuable industrial commodities
v. Hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for powering a hydrogen
economy, making ammonia or upgrading fossil fuels
In the case of Nepal, these applications of gasification provide a huge advantage,
both from an environmental point of view, as well as, the economic; as Nepal relies
heavily on coal import, gasification enables the production of same amount of
energy with the lower amount of coal, and prevents harmful emissions into the
atmosphere as well.

1
1.2. Objectives
The objective of this project is to design a coal gasification unit, to convert coal to
syngas, which can be in turn converted to other forms of energy which pose less
threat to the environment and allows higher efficiency in energy production than
direct burning of coal. The gasification unit consists of a rotary dryer, a fluidized
bed gasifier, a cyclone and a heat exchanger, with the feed as ground bituminous
coal; steam, heated air and water as utilities, and raw syngas the major product, with
ash as a byproduct. The fluidized bed gasifier was chosen because of the following
reasons:
High heat and mass transfer rates and gas solid contacting
Good temperature control
Good mixing
Effective use of catalyst fuel flexibility including opportunities for
cofeeding
Continuous addition, removal, circulation of solids for catalyst capture
and regeneration, circulation of sorbents

The parameters used in the design were arbitrarily, but carefully chosen within a
reasonable limit with the references of various sources.

1.3. Scopes
Some of the immediate scopes of the gasification of coal have been listed as
follows;
Usage in industries as a thermal energy source
The ash generated can be used by cement industries
Power generation in industries can be facilitated by the syngas
Syngas can be used as a raw material for the production of urea

2
2. Literature Review
2.1. Coal
Coal, a black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, is a readily combustible
substance. Harder forms can be regarded as metamorphic rocks because of later
exposure to elevated temperature and pressure, like anthracite coal. The primary
composition of coal is of carbon with variable quantities of other elements; chiefly
sulfur, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen [3].
Coal is formed wholly of biomass. The biomass converts to peat over time, and with
the influence of time, pressure, and temperature, which converts the peat to brown
coal or lignite. Subsequently, the lignite turns into sub-bituminous coal, then into
bituminous coal, and finally to anthracite. Coal can be classified based on its rank,
which increases from brown coal to anthracite. Low-rank coals include brown coal,
lignite, and sub-bituminous coal. Higher-rank coals include bituminous coal and
anthracites and are also called hard coals.

2.1.1. Types of Coal

2.1.1.1. Peat
It is formed from wood under the action of temperature, pressure, and
bacteria, and is the first stage product in the formation of coal. Peat
consists of organic matter, mineral matter and water. Under natural
conditions, the content of water in peat exceeds 80% and content of gases
is about 6%. In dry peat, the organic matter content can reach 50%. It is
thus, sun dried before using it as a fuel. It has a calorific value slightly
higher than wood, at around 4500 kcal/kg.

2.1.1.2. Lignite
During the coal formation from wood, lignite is the second stage product
after peat. It occurs in thick seams near the earth’s surface and is friable.
The moisture content can go up to 60%, the carbon content is at around
70-75%, the oxygen content is at 21-26%, and the calorific value is
around 5000 kcal/kg (at 10% moisture basis). Lignite, when exposed to
the atmosphere, darkens from its characteristic brown color and on drying,
the moisture content reduces to an equilibrium value of 10-20%. Lignite
absorbs oxygen readily and hence, may ignite spontaneously. Thus, it
must not be stored out in the open carelessly.

2.1.1.3. Sub-bituminous coal

Sub-bituminous coal is the intermediate stage between bituminous coal,
and brown coal (lignite). It is black or dull dark brown in appearance, and
has high moisture and volatile matter content which tends to disintegrate
when exposed to air. The carbon content is around 78%, oxygen content
around 20% and, hydrogen content around 4.5-5.5%. The air-dried

3
 moisture content tends to be around 10-20% with volatile matters around
40%. Sub-bituminous coals have a calorific value of 6800-7600 kcal/kg
(on a dry, mineral matter free basis). It ignites easily and so is used for
steam production, and manufacturing gaseous fuels due to low sulfur
content.

2.1.1.4. Bituminous coal

Bituminous coal is the intermediate stage between sub-bituminous coal
and anthracite. It is the most abundant form of coal. It is dark brown to
black in color and is divided into high-volatile, medium-volatile and low-
volatile bituminous groups. It contains moisture up to approximately 17%,
carbon content ranges from 80 to 85% with the ash content up to 12%.
Nitrogen content is about 0.5 to 2% of weight of bituminous coal.
Bituminous coals have a calorific value of 9000kcal/kg (on a dry mineral
free basis). It lights up in fire easily and might produce excess smoke.
During combustion 95% of its sulphur content gets oxidized and gets
released as gaseous sulphur oxides.

2.1.1.5. Anthracite
Anthracite is the most metamorphosed form of coal ad contains more than
86% of fixed carbon, higher than any other coal. It contains low volatile
matter (<10%) due to which it ignites with difficulty. Tough anthracites
are difficult to ignite; they burn with a pale blue flame and emit relatively
little smoke. It has calorific value about 8500kcal/kg which is slightly
lower than bituminous coal due to low hydrogen content. They are black
to steel gray in color.

2.2. Coal Properties

2.2.1. Heating Value
The heating value is obtained by combustion of the sample in a calorimeter. If not
available, the heating value can be calculated with, for example, the Dulong
formula from the ultimate analyses:

Where C, H, O, and S are the mass fractions of the elements obtained from the
ultimate Analysis. There are other formulae for calculating the heating value from
the ultimate and/or proximate analyses.

4
 It is always useful to calculate the heating value from these analyses, as it is a good
cross check on measured values. If the deviation is more than a few percent, all
analyses must be checked [1].

2.2.2. Caking and Swelling Properties

Another important property of a coal is the swelling index. The swelling index is
determined by heating a defined sample of coal for a specified time and
temperature, and comparing the size and shape taken by the sample with a defined
scale. There are a number of different scales defined in, for example, ASTM D
720-91, BS 1016, or ISO 335. The swelling index is an indicator for the caking
properties of a coal and its expansion on heating. Softening/caking does not occur
at a certain temperature but over a temperature range. It is an important variable for
moving-bed and fluid-bed gasifiers. For the gasifiers of entrained-flow systems, the
coal softening point has no relevance. However, the softening point may limit the
amount of preheating of the pulverized coal feedstock used in dry coal feed
gasifiers [1].

2.2.3. Hardness
Physical properties are not very relevant for the operation of a gasifier as such. The
hardness of the coal is, for example, mainly important for the milling and grinding
up stream of the gasifier. The hardness of a coal is usually dependent on the nature
and quantity of its ash content, although some coals, such anthracites, are also hard.
A high ash content or a very high hardness of the ash in the coal can make a
feedstock un attractive for gasification because of the high cost of milling and
grinding. Ashes with high silica and/or alumina contents have a high hardness. The
hardness is generally characterized by the hard grove grind ability index [4].

2.2.4. Density
The density is primarily of importance for the transport of the coal. In this
connection, it is important to discriminate between the particle density and the bulk
density of the coal. The bulk density is always lower, as is shown in table below
[1].

5
 Fuel Particle (True) Bulk (Apparent)

Density (kg/m3) Density (kg/m3)

Anthracite 1450-1700 800-930

Bituminous coal 1250-1450 670-910

lignite 1100-1250 550-630

Table 1 Particle and Bulk Density Comparison of Coal

2.3. Gasification
Gasification is the technology that converts any carbon containing materials into
carbon monoxide carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane with a useable heating
value. This excludes the combustion as the product flue gas has no residual heating
value [5]. Carbon reacts with steam and oxygen at high temperature and pressure
producing raw syngas and some minor byproducts that is to be purified later on.
Clean syngas produced can be used as a fuel to generate electricity or steam, also as
a basic chemical building block with its varieties of applications in the
petrochemical and refining industries, and for the production of hydrogen.
Gasification adds value to low- or negative-value feed stocks by converting them to
marketable fuels and products. Gasification involves pyrolysis, partial oxidation
and hydrogenation [2].
The composition of output gas produced from the gasifier depends upon the
following parameters enlisted below:
Temperature
Operating pressure
Feed composition
Gasifying medium
Moisture content
Mode of bringing reactant fuel into the contact in the gasifier

2.3.1. Chemical reactions

Many chemical reactions might occur during the gasification among which three
main types are [1]:
a) Pyrolysis reaction
b) Gasification reaction
c) Acceptor reaction

6
The extent of interaction between the components and importance of these
reactions is highly dependent on the design of the gasifier so it is necessary to
choose the type of gasifier as per the expected output.
2.3.1.1. Pyrolysis reaction
In this process the coal is heated maintaining high pressure which
decomposes to form char, consisting mainly of carbon and gases
including hydrogen, methane, steam, carbon dioxide, carbon mono oxide
and tar vapors. A part of the product gas is formed if the suitable
operating condition exists in the gasifier.
2.3.1.2. Gasification reactions
Combustion gases are produced from the reaction of coal, char, volatile
matter with oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen etc.

Reactions that occur during the gasification are:

Partial combustion reaction:

C + ½ O2 CO
Bouduoard reaction:
C + CO2 2CO
Hydro- gasification reaction:
C + 2H2 CH4
Water gas reaction:
C + H2O CO + H2

If the oxygen is excess in the gasifier, then the combustion also might
take place.
Combustion reaction:
CO + O2 CO2
Shift reaction:
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
Methanation reaction
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O

2.3.1.3. Acceptor reactions:

In some gasifiers, limestone or dolomite is used to retain the sulphur. If
the acceptor is calcined before feeding to the gasifier, carbon dioxide can
be retained too.
The reactions for the calcined limestone are given below.
Sulphur retention:
CaO + H2S CaS + H2O

Carbon dioxide acceptor:

CaO + CO2 CaCO3

7
2.4. Gasifier
Based on configuration, gasifiers are basically classified into three types:
fixed/moving bed, fluidized bed and entrained flow gasifier. Each of these is
defined on how the reactor brings about contact with the coal and reactive gas.
Lurgi Mark IV (dry bottom) and British Gas Lurgi (slagging) are categorized as the
fixed/moving bed gasifier with both having dry feed system where as fluidized bed
gasifiers dry fed non-slagging gasifiers. Similarly, there are three entrained flow
gasifiers produced by Conoco-Philips, General Electric and Shell. The shell unit is
dry fed gasifier whereas Conoco- Philips and General Electric gasifier are slurry
feed gasifiers [3].

Fixed/Moving bed Fluidized bed Entrained flow

Ash condition Dry Slagging Dry Agglomerate Slagging

Coal feed ~2in ~2in ~¼ in ~¼ in 100 Mesh

Fines Limited Better Good Better Unlimited

than dry
ash

Coal rank Low High Low Any Any for dry feed

Gas
temperature

Oxidant req. Low Low Moderate Moderate Low

Steam req. High Low Moderate Moderate Low

Issues Fines and hydrocarbon Carbon Conversion Raw gas cooling

liquids

Table 2 Gasifier Configuration Comparision [2]

2.4.1. Fixed /Moving Bed Gasifier

In fixed bed gasifier, ¼ to 2 in. coal is supplied countercurrent to the gasifying
column. They operate in a manner similar to the blast furnace, where heat is
supplied from the bottom. Fixed bed gasifier requires mechanically fuel of smaller
particle size (~2in), such as pellets or briquettes, for the easy passage of gas
through the bed. Depending on the direction of feed stock, they are classified into
two types, i.e. updraft and downdraft gasifiers. In updraft gasifier, fuel is fed from
the top while air is supplied from the bottom of the gasifier. They have higher fuel
to gas conversion efficiency. This type of gasifier can withstand high moisture
content in the feed (up to 40-50%). Alternatively, in downdraft gasifier, fuel is fed
from the top of the reactor while air is supplied from the sides above the grate and

8
 combustible gas blown through the grate. The gases produced is relatively clean
compared with that of updraft fixed bed gasifier as it contains no or very low
amounts of tar or oils making it suitable for the application in heat and power
generation.

Figure 1 Moving Bed Gasifier [2]

2.4.2. Fluidized Bed Gasifier

In fluidized bed gasifier, ¼ in coal is fed into the system either directly into the
bed or above bed which depends upon the fuel particle size and how it is affected
by bed velocities. U-Gas process and Winkler gasifier are the examples of the
fluidized bed gasifier. Operating in fluidized bed mode, these reactors are very well
mixed. All the process takes place simultaneously throughout the bed. Lime,
limestone or dolomite is introduced in the bed for the sulphur removal. Removing
the sulphur limits the maximum temperature to about 1000 C and also keeps ash
from slagging.
When the fuel is fed under these temperature conditions, drying and pyrolyzing
reaction proceed rapidly driving off all the gaseous portion of the fuel at relatively
low temperature. Hydro dynamically, fluidized beds are more complicated than the
fixed bed where bubbles of excess gas are induced and promote mixing.
Fluidized bed is better than the dense reactor in the sense that they produce more
heat in short time due to abrasion phenomenon between inert bed material and the
fuel giving uniformly high bed temperature (about 800- 1000 C) [6]. In this
reactor, due better mixing of the gas and solids, better inter-phase transport and
better conversion of coal is obtained.

9
 Figure 2 Fluidized Bed Gasifier [2]
2.4.3. Entrained Flow Gasifier
In this gasifier, fuel and air enters from top of the reactor and then fuel is carried by
air in the reactor. This type of gasifier is used for the fuel having low moisture
content and low ash content. Operating temperature ranges from 1200- 1600 C.
Due to shot residence time (0.5-0.4 seconds), high temperature is required for such
gasifier. The volume of product gas is determined from the conversion time for
average particle. They have relatively low coal gas efficiency and high O2 demand.
Product gas from this gasifier contains very less amount of tar. Conoco-Phillips E-
Gas, GE (formerly Texaco), Shell, PrenfloTM, MHI, Siemens and MPG are the
examples of entrained flow gasifier.
Hydro dynamically, entrained flow gasifier is simple with respect to the conversion
of the coal particle and reacting gas. They operate in co-current manner with solid
flow moving either in up flow or down flow. Sometimes non-uniform flow occur
which can lead to poor bulk mixing, unreacted carbon and hot spots.

Figure 3 Entrained Flow Gasifier [2]

10
2.5. Commercially Available Gasifier
The commercially available gasifiers are four types [7]:

a. The Lurgi Gasifier

b. Fixed Bed Producers
c. The Koppers-Totzek Gasifier
d. The Winkler Gasifier

2.5.1. The Lurgi Gasifier

The Lurgi is a fixed bed gasifier and is the only gasifier in commercial use
operating at elevated pressure. Coal is fed to the top of the gasifier through lock-
hoppers to overcome the pressure differential. The coal moves downwards passing
through a carbonization zone to a gasification and combustion zone where steam
and oxygen are injected. The temperature of the gasification zone is about 1000℃.

2.5.2. Fixed-Bed Gasifier

In their simplest form these gasifiers consist of a fixed bed of coke through which
air and steam are blown. Fresh coke is fed to the top of the bed and ash is removed
via a grate at the bottom. The temperature is controlled by the addition of steam to
avoid ash slagging. From the early designs used in gasworks for producer gas
manufacture, a number of commercial systems suitable for industrial applications
have been developed. All of these processes operate under non-slagging conditions
(with gasification temperature of about 1000℃) and use air and steam as the
gasifying agents although the processes can be modified to operate using oxygen
and stream. The throughputs are relatively low, being typically only 10 to 20% of
those for the Winkler, Lurgi and Koppers-Totzek gasifiers.

2.5.3. The Koppers-Totzek Gasifier

The Koppers-Totzek gasifier is an entrained phase system operating at atmospheric
pressure. Coal, pulverized to a maximum size of 0.1mm is injected with steam and
oxygen into a horizontal-lined, cylindrical reaction chamber. Usually two burners
(one at each end) are used although a four-burner design is now available the coal
is gasified at high temperatures (1500-1800℃) in a flame similar to that of a
pulverized fuel combustion furnace. The hot gas leaves the reactor via water cooled,
vertical duct. About half of the ash is entrained in the gas stream as particles of slag
that cool and resolidify by radiation to the vessel walls. The remainder of the ash is
removed as slag from the bottom of the reactor into a water quench bath. The
gasifier can handle most ranks of coal including lignite and strongly caking coals.

2.5.4. The Winkler Gasifier

This is a fluidized bed gasifier that operates at atmospheric pressure. It was
originally designed to use lignite but bituminous coal, although less reactive, can
also be used. The feed material is crushed to a maximum size of 10mm and is

11
 delivered to near the top of the bed by a screw feeder. The bed is fluidized with
steam and oxygen (or air) and ash is removed from the bottom of the bed. The
temperature of the bed is maintained at 800-900℃ to avoid sintering of the ash.
However, at this temperature the gasification reactions proceed slowly and it is
necessary to inject additional steam and oxygen (or air) above the bed. The
reactions above the bed increase the gas temperature to more than 1000℃ and the
ash is therefore cooled to below the resolidification point by radiative heat transfer
to a boiler before leaving the reactor. Ash and unconverted carbon are removed
from the gas stream by cyclones.

2.6. History of Gasification

To produce ―town gas‖ for light & heat.

1850-1940
Gasification of coal- All gas for fuel & light
To produce synthetic fuel
1940-1975
To produce liquid fuel & chemicals
First Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)
1975-1990
electric power plant
1990-2000 US Agencies provide financial support for IGCC process
2000-present Turnkey thermal power generation
Table 3 History of Gasification [7]

2.7. Distinctive Attributes of Gasification

• A clean, flexible, and reliable way of turning fossil fuels into clean energy.
• Ability to convert low-value feedstock (coal) into high-value products.
• Provides a cost-effective way to capture CO2.
• Gasification enables use of domestic natural resources that would
otherwise not be economically viable.
• Provides economic benefits with respect to investment and job creation.
• Gasification is enabling redefinition of "clean energy."

2.8. Benefits of Gasification

• Syngas is cleaned before combustion which reduces air pollutants

to the atmosphere.

• Gasification enables the use of low-value feedstock (i.e., e.g. deep

stranded coal) to produce energy.

12
 • Gasification plants use less water than coal combustion plants.

• CO2 can be cost-effectively captured from the gasification process.

• Syn gas can be used to produce electricity.

• Gasification systems are also increasingly being used to turn feed

stocks like coal into useful chemical products like ammonia.

• Limits the formation of dioxins & large quantities of SOx &NOx.

• Gasification can compete effectively in high-cost energy environments

• Gasification converts abundant low-value feed stocks into high-value products.

2.9. Environmental Benefits of Gasification

The environmental benefits of gasification are discussed below:

a. Reduced Air Emissions

Significant air emission reductions achieved through gasification with CO2
capture, at reduced cost compared to other post-combustion capture
alternatives.

b. Water Usage
Swan Hills Synfuels ISCG uses virtually no fresh water in the
gasification process but instead uses non-fresh water such as
saline water.

c. Ability to sequester carbon dioxide (CO2)

In a gasification system, CO2 can be cost-effectively captured
and sequestered using commercially available technologies
before it would otherwise be vented to the atmosphere.

d. Ability to use coal gasification for clean power generation

Low- carbon content ISCG syngas can fuel combined cycle
power generation, leading to air emissions levels much lower
than those of conventional coal-fired power or even natural gas-
fired combined cycle generation.

2.10. Disadvantages of Gasification

The process of gasification, although involves a lot of advantage, but it has certain
disadvantages:

a. Tars, heavy metals, halogens and alkaline compounds are

13
 released within the product gas and can cause environmental and
operational problems.
b. Tars are high molecular weight organic gases that ruin reforming
catalysts, sulfur removal systems, ceramic filters and increase
the occurrence of slagging in boilers and on other metal and
refractory surfaces.
c. Alkalis can increase agglomeration in fluidized beds that are
used in some gasification systems and also can ruin gas turbines
during combustion
d. Heavy metals are toxic and accumulate if released into the environment.
e. Halogens are corrosive and are a cause of acid rain if emitted to the
environment.
f. Recovery and use of the bottom ash in other applications can be
problematic.

2.11. Comparison of Coal Gasification to other Technology

S.N. Gasification Combustion/ Incineration

Converts solid fuel into gaseous

Converts solid fuel into a gaseous fuel
products of combustion through
1. through a process of high temperature
high temperature oxidation
oxidation-reduction reactions.
reactions

Gasification packages heat into Combustion releases the

2. chemical bonds by converting the energy into high temperature
energy into those in gaseous fuels. product gas.
Designed to maximize
3. Designed to maximize conversion of
conversion of waste to CO2& H2O.
waste to CO &H2.

Operates under controlled amount Employs large quantities of

4.
of oxygen. excess air.
Cleaned syngas used for chemical
Treated flue gas discharged to
production and / or power production
5. atmosphere. Flue gas contains
(with subsequent clean flue gas
dioxins and furans
discharge)

Table 4 Comparison of Gasification to other Technologies [2] [4]

14
3. Process Description
Plant design of Coal gasification process for bituminous coal having ultimate analysis
given in table 5 was performed in a fluidized bed reactor. For effective operation of
fluidized bed reactors in gasification process, the moisture content of the coal must not
exceed 10%. To achieve this, a rotary dryer is used at the beginning of the operation. The
rotary dryer removes the moisture present in the coal passing hot air.

Component Wt%
C 43.4736
H 4.83
O 19.6004
N 0.2052
S 0.1368
Ash 1.748
Moisture 30
Table 5 Ultimate Analysis of Bituminous Coal [6]
The fluidized bed reactor has been selected for gasification process due to its excellent
heat and mass transfer properties. The solid feed of dry pulverized coal is fed from the
sides of the fluidized bed reactor and steam is used as fluidizing agent. Oxygen is also
provided to freeboard region of fluidized bed reactor to aid in partial combustion reaction.
The reaction is important for maintaining the desirable operating condition of the reactor.
At such favorable conditions combustion and gasification reactions occur, producing
syngas as primary product.
The produced gas contains many undesired products other than syngas, mainly carbon-
dioxide and ash. A cyclone separator is used for gas-solid separation where ash particles
are separated due to vortex motion of the gas. Then the hot gaseous mixture flows to heat
exchanger where cooling water is used to cool the gas to room temperature.

3.1. Process Flowsheet

The given flowsheet of a coal gasification plant flowsheet can be divided into
syngas production syngas purification section. In the given flowsheet, rotary dryer is
provided to remove the moisture content of coal. Hot air is used as drying medium
to reduce the moisture content of coal below 10% for proper gasification. Gasifier
reactor is a fluidized bed type reactor where gasification takes place. Here, steam is
used as fluidizing medium and oxygen is supplied for partial combustion. Syngas
produced from this reactor is impure due presence of solid particulates(ash), CO2
and H2S gas. The solid particulates are removed by cyclone separator. Then, heat
exchanger is used to lower the temperature of hot syngas close to room temperature.
The remaining two units are used for refining of produced gas. First, we have
carbon dioxide scrubber which reduces the composition of combo dioxide in gas.
Then we have desulphurization unit which removes the presence of H2S. This
design project excludes the refining of gas using carbon dioxide scrubber and
desulfurizing unit.

15
 Figure 4 Process Flow Sheet of Coal Gasification Plant

3.2. Process Equipment

Equipment present in the coal gasification process are:

3.2.1. Rotary Dryer

Rotary Dryers are cylindrical drum shaped equipment where drying process takes
place inside the drum. The drum is positioned horizontally inclined to the surface.
From the upper end wet feed is fed which slowly progresses to the lower end due
to the effect of rotation and slope of the drum. Hot gas can be provided in both
cocurrent and countercurrent direction. Inside the rotary dryer, flights are provided
which lifts the feed material and acts as a baffle which increases the contact period
between hot gas and feed.

3.2.2. Cyclone Separator

Cyclone separator is used for separation of solid from gas. It is a cone shaped metal
casing where gas-solid mixture enters with such a velocity that due to the shape of
cyclone heavier solid particles collides and spins around the casing losing its
velocity causing it gradually fall down whereas clean gas escapes out of the casing
from the top. Although cyclone is a simple equipment, it has multiple applications
especially in industries dealing with solid material. It is used to control the
emission from grinding and crushing units. While controlling the emission, it also
minimizes the loss of raw material.

3.2.3. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchanger is industrial equipment used to manipulate temperature of fluid by
placing the fluid in contact with either hotter or cooler fluid as per requirement.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger is one of the most commonly used heat exchangers.
As the name implies, this type of exchanger consists of a casing(shell) with
bundles of tubes inside it. Two fluids at different temperatures pass either through
the shell or the tube. Heat is transferred from one fluid to another via tube walls.

16
 Thus, the tube wall should have good thermal conductivity to transfer heat
effectively.

3.3. Design Basis

3.3.1. Feed Basis

● The plant design is based on coal flow rate of 1000kg/hr.
● Bituminous coal is used in plant design process.
● The composition of coal is given in Table 5

3.3.2. Design Code

● ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
● TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association)

3.3.3. Utilities
● Steam is available at 150 psig.
● Air is available at 80ºC and 1 atm.
● Cooling water is available at 25ºC and 1 atm.
● Oxygen is available at 25ºC and 1 atm.

3.3.4. Reactions Involved

● Combustion Reaction [8]:
C + 0.9 O2 0.2 CO + 0.8 CO2 + Heat

● Gasification Reaction [8]:

C + 1.4 H2O 0.6 CO + 0.4 CO2 + 1.4H2

3.3.5. Assumptions
● The efficiency of rotary dryer and cyclone separator is 30%.
● It is isothermal and steady-state process.
● Complete combustion of fed oxygen.
● The conversion of carbon in gasification reaction is assumed to be 80%.

3.4. Process Flow Diagram

Process flow diagram provides a general picture of process and flow of different
feeds in different streams and equipment. PFD also includes additional information
on parameters such as flowrate, phase state, temperature and pressure of each
stream. In the given PFD, there are 13 streams and 4 equipment and the composition
of feeds in each stream is given in the table present in PFD

17
18
3.5. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
Piping & Instrumentation diagram is a detailed diagram similar to PFD but includes
much more information than PFD. The necessary information that must be present
in PID diagram is given below.
● Different equipment used with proper tags
● Location of different sensor, transducer and transmitter
● Control architecture proposed in the design
● Pipe thickness, pipe material, pipe insulation thickness, insulation material
● Control Valves used and their locations
Further details on equipment and instruments are given in equipment and instrument
specification sheet. Here, ratio controller is used to control flow of feed coal and
steam and a cascade type controller is used to regulate the flow of cooling water
from heat exchanger. A cascade type controller is also present after rotary dryer to
control the flow of hot air used to remove moisture of coal in rotary dryer to prevent
fire hazard in case dry coal rises in temperature. Also, a pressure relief valve is
present to release excess produced syngas. Since the gas is flammable, it will be
directed to flare stack.

3.5.1. Pipe Size Calculation

For gas streams at various temperatures and pressures, the pipe size is calculated
using the ideal gas equation, while for the liquid streams the pipe size is calculated
using online density relation and with the individual mass streams and then the size
was calculated [9] [10].

Using the ideal gas equation as,

P1V1 = n1RT1 …… (1)

P2V2 = n2RT2……. (2)

where P1, V1, n1, and T1 are the Pressure, Volume, no. of moles and Temperature at
STP. similarly, P2, V2, n2, and T2 are the Pressure, Volume, no. of moles and
Temperature at stream condition. And R is the universal gas constant.

Dividing (1) by (2), we obtain

= …. (3)

With P1 = 1.01325 bar, V1 = 22.4 L, n1 = 1 gmol, T1 = 273.15 K, n2 = and

rearranging for ρ= , (3) becomes

19
 = × ……. (4)

Now, Density, ρ= = …….(5)

Evaluating ρ for each stream and calculating volumetric flow rates and also using
the rule of thumb for wet basis gas velocity as 18.288 m/s, 1.8288 m/s for liquid
velocity for calculating internal pipe diameter (ID) and evaluating a table we get,

Strea Pipe Nominal Sched- Outside Wall Insulati Insulation

m ID, in Size, in ule No Diameter, Thickness, on Thickness
No. in in Type , in
2 22.062 24 60 24 0.969 Cellular 2
Glass
3 21 22 30 22 0.5 -
5 2.245 2 5 2.375 0.065 -
6 2.709 2(1/2) 5S 2.875 0.083 Cellular 2
Glass
8 8.071 8 30 8.625 0.277 Calciu 7
m
Silicate
9 8.071 8 30 8.625 0.277 Calciu 7
m
Silicate
11 1.049 1 40S 0.133 0.133 -
12 10.75 12 120 12.75 1 -
13 4.026 4 40S 4.5 0.237 -
Table 6 Piping Specification

20
21
 3.5.2. Equipment List

S.N. Item Equipment Q Service Materia Operation Design Specification and Size Insulation Remarks
No. Name ty l Temp Press Temp Press
(ºC) (atm) (ºC) (atm)
1 G-101 Gasifier 1 Gasification S/S 304 800 3 880 3.3 Type: Vertical Ceramic Two
Dimensions (m): Fiber, 4” layers of
Length: 4.466 2”
Internal Diameter: 0.6585 Ceramic
2 C-101 Cyclone 1 Separation S/S 304 800 3 880 3.3 Type: Vertical Ceramic Fiber
Dimension (m): Fiber, 4” blanket
Length: 2.42 is used.
Diameter: 0.605
3 HE- Heat 1 Syngas Carbon 800 3 880 3.3 Type: Horizontal Fiber
101 Exchanger Cooling Steel Dimensions: Glass, 4”
Tube Length: 171.6”
Tube OD: 0.75”
Shell OD: 10.75”
Table 7 List of Equipment

22
 3.5.3. Instrument List
TAG NO. SERVI OPERATING CONDITIONS SPECIFICATIONS LINE P&I REFERENCES
CE NUMBER D
FL PRESS TEMP(OC) FLOW RATE Den MO VIS Cv INSTRUMENT RFQ LO SIG. RANGE CONN. MATERIAL
UI MAX NO MAX NOR. MAX MI sity L C. NO. C. OF SET SIZE BODY/ELEME
D NOR. . R . . N WT Cp /MA POINT (INCH) NT
(S BAR CELSIUS CUBIC METER/HR KE
TA R
TE
)
1 TI- D-101 S 1 3 35 38 1000 900 110 150 - - - Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
101 0 0 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
2 TI- D-101 G 1 1.1 80 88 1514 1666 136 0.99 - - - Temperature L AI - Nickel- PID
102 7 1 32 6 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
3 PI- D-101 G 1 1.1 80 88 1514 1666 136 0.99 - - Pressure L AI Min-max - Copper-nickel PID
101 7 1 32 6 indicator(Strain alloy -1
Gauge)
4 FV- D-101 G 1 1.1 80 88 1514 1666 136 0.99 - - Control Valve L - - - S/S-316 PID
101 7 1 32 6 (Butterfly valve) -1
5 FI- D-101 G 1 1.1 80 88 1514 1666 136 0.99 - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
101 7 1 32 6 -1
6 TI- D-101 G - - 42 47 1538 1692 138 1.11 - - Temperature L AI - Nickel- PID
103 7 5 48 3 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
7 PI- D-101 G - - 42 47 1538 1692 138 1.11 - - Pressure L AI Min-max - Copper-nickel PID
102 7 5 48 3 indicator(Strain alloy -1
Gauge)
8 FI- D-101 G - - 42 47 1538 1692 138 1.11 - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
102 7 5 48 3 -1
9 TE- G-101 S 1 3 40 44 760 836 684 150 - - Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
101 0 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
10 TT- G-101 S 1 3 40 44 760 836 684 150 - - Temperature L DO Min-max - Nickel- PID
101 0 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
11 TIC G-101 S 1 3 40 44 760 836 684 150 - - DCS DO - - - PID
- 0 -1
101
12 TI- G-101 S 1 3 40 44 760 836 684 150 - - Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
104 0 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
13 FE- G-101 G 3 3.3 25 30 172.8 190 161 1.36 - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
101 6 -1
14 FT- G-101 G 3 3.3 25 30 172.8 190 161 1.36 - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
101 6 -1
15 FIC G-101 G 3 3.3 25 30 172.8 190 161 1.36 - - - DCS DO - - - PID
- 6 -1
101
16 FV- G-101 G 3 3.3 25 30 172.8 190 161 1.36 Control Valve L - - - S/S-316 PID
102 6 (Butterfly valve) -1
17 TI- G-101 G 3 3.3 25 30 172.8 190 161 1.36 Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
105 6 element( Chromium/Nic -1

23
 Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
18 PI- G-101 G 3 3.3 25 30 172.8 190 161 1.36 - - Pressure L AI Min-max - Copper-nickel PID
103 6 indicator(Strain alloy -1
Gauge)
19 FI- G-101 G 3 3.3 25 30 172.8 190 161 1.36 Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
103 6 -1
20 FE- G-101 S 1 3 40 44 760 836 684 150 - - Solid flow L DO - - - PID
102 0 meter(Impact plate -1
type)
21 FT- G-101 S 1 3 40 44 760 836 684 150 Solid flow L DO - - - PID
102 0 meter(Impact plate -1
type)
22 FIC G-101 S 1 3 40 44 760 836 684 150 - - - DCS DO - - - PID
- 0 -1
102
23 FE- G-101 G 10.2 11.22 185 204 610 674 549 3.29 - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
103 -1
24 FT- G-101 G 10.2 11.22 185 204 610 674 549 3.29 - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
103 -1
25 FV- G-101 G 10.2 11.22 185 204 610 674 549 3.29 - - Control Valve L - - - S/S-316 PID
103 (Butterfly valve) -1
26 TI- G-101 G 10.2 11.22 185 204 610 674 549 3.29 - - Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
105 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
27 PI- G-101 G 10.2 11.22 185 204 610 674 549 3.29 - - Pressure L AI Min-max - Copper-nickel PID
104 indicator(Strain alloy -1
Gauge)
28 FI- G-101 G 10.2 11.22 185 204 610 674 549 3.29 - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
104 -1
29 TI- G-101 G 3 4 800 880 1543 1697 138 - - - Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
108 8 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
30 TI- G-101 G 3 4 800 880 1543 1697 138 - - - Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
107 8 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
31 TI- C-101 G 3 4 800 880 1528 1681 137 - - - Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
109 6 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
32 PI- C-101 G 3 4 800 880 1528 1681 137 - - - Pressure L AI Min-max - Copper-nickel PID
105 6 indicator(Strain alloy -1
Gauge)
33 FI- C-101 G 3 4 800 880 1528 1681 137 - - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
105 6 -1
34 TI- HE-101 G 3 4 800 880 1525 1678 137 - - - Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
110 3 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
35 PI- HE-101 G 3 4 800 880 1525 1678 137 - - - Pressure L AI Min-max - Copper-nickel PID
106 3 indicator(Strain alloy -1
Gauge)
36 FI- HE-101 G 3 4 800 880 1525 1678 137 - - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
106 3 -1
37 TI- HE-101 L 1 1.5 25 38 2000 2200 180 Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
111 0 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)

24
38 PI- HE-101 L 1 1.5 25 38 2000 2200 180 Pressure L AI Min-max - Copper-nickel PID
107 0 indicator(Strain alloy -1
Gauge)
39 FI- HE-101 L 1 1.5 25 38 2000 2200 180 Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
107 0 -1
40 TI- HE-101 G 2.81 3.5 35 40 1525 1678 127 Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
113 2 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
41 PI- HE-101 G 2.81 3.5 35 40 1525 1678 127 Pressure L AI Min-max - Copper-nickel PID
109 2 indicator(Strain alloy -1
Gauge)
42 FI- HE-101 G 2.81 3.5 35 40 1525 1678 127 Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
109 2 -1
43 TE- HE-101 G 2.81 3.5 35 40 1525 1678 127 Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
102 2 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
44 TT- HE-101 G 2.81 3.5 35 40 1525 1678 127 Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
102 2 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
45 TIC HE-101 G 2.81 3.5 35 40 1525 1678 127 - - - DCS DO - - PID
102 2 -1
46 FV- HE-101 G 1 1.5 102 110 2000 2200 180 - - - - Control Valve L - - - S/S-316 PID
104 0 (Butterfly valve) -1
47 TI- HE-101 G 1 1.5 102 110 2000 2200 180 - - - - Temperature L AI Min-max - Nickel- PID
112 0 element( Chromium/Nic -1
Thermocouple K- kel-Alumel
type)
48 PI- HE-101 G 1 1.5 102 110 2000 2200 180 - - - - Pressure L AI Min-max - Copper-nickel PID
108 0 indicator(Strain alloy -1
Gauge)
49 FI- HE-101 G 1 1.5 102 110 2000 2200 180 - - - - Orificemeter L AI - - S/S-316 PID
108 0 -1

(1) Fluid State (2) Location (3) Signal

G: Gas or Vapor L:Local E:Electric

D:DCS AI: Analog Input
DO: Digital Output

Table 8 List of Instrument

25
4. Equipment Sizing and Specification
4.1. Cyclone Separator Sizing
The most commonly used design is the reverse flow cyclone, where the gas enters
the top of the chamber through the inlet duct tangentially and spirals down through
the conical section, where the solid particles get separated from the bottom. Two
standard dimensions viz. high efficiency cyclone and high gas rate cyclone, are
available in case reverse flow cyclone that is applied for the design of cyclone
design [9] [11].

Choosing a High Efficiency Cyclone:

Figure 5 High Efficiency Cyclone Standard Dimension [12]

Flow rate of gas entering (F): 1524.9028 kg/h = 0.4236 kg/s

Density of gas entering (ρ): 0.7702 kg/m3

Range of optimum velocity of separator lie between 10 to 20 m/s.

Let, velocity, (u): 15 m/s

Inlet Duct Area of Gas:

26
 Diameter of Cyclone:

Length of Upper Section:

Length of Lower Section:

Outlet Area of Duct:

So,

Diameter of Dust Collector:

Number of Effective Turns (Ne):

The effective number of special patterns taken by the gas within the body of cyclone
is:

27
 4.2. Cyclone Separator Specification Sheet
Cyclone Equipment No. 2
Separator Function: Gasification of coal
Sheet no.
Operating Data
Flow rate of gas 1524.9028 kg/hr
entering
Density of gas 0.7702 kg/m3
entering
Flow rate of 3.496 kg/hr
solid at inlet
Flow rate of gas 1525.6022 kg/hr
exiting
Solids Removed 2.7966 kg/hr
Optimum 15 m/s
velocity
Number of 5.5
effective turns
Flow rate of 1525.6022 kg/hr
exiting gas
Construction of Cyclone Separator

Height 2.42m
Diameter of 0.605 m
cyclone
Material SS304
Design code ASTM A-240
Technical Data

Length of upper 0.9075m

Upper Section section
Area of gas inlet 0.0367 m2
Outlet area of duct 0.3025
Diameter of dust 0.216 m
Lower Section collector
Length of lower 1.5125 m
section

28
4.3. Fluidized Bed Gasifier Sizing
The reactor used for the coal gasification is a fluidized bed gasifier. In this gasifier,
bituminous coal with average particle diameter of 0.0017 in enters the side of the
reactor and is kept suspended by a gasifying (fluidizing) medium, which is steam in
this case that enters the gasifier at 150 psig.

Density of Particles (ρp): 1500 kg/m3 [13]

Density of Fluidizing Element, Steam (ρf): 5.312 kg/m3 (At 150 psig) [14]

Diameter of Particles (Dp): 2.97 * 10-4 m (0.0017 in)

Dynamic Viscosity of Steam (µ): 4.835 * 10-5

Mass Flow Rate of Coal into the Gasifier (ṁ): 760 kg/h

To calculate minimum fluidization velocity [15] [16]:

Substituting the values and calculating, we get:

Calculating the Reynold’s Number which is given as [17]:

Where,

Substituting the values and calculating, we get:

Ar: 872.88 Remf: 0.6469

Now, minimum fluidization velocity is also given as:

Using greater value of Umf: 0.0198 m/s.

To calculate minimum bubbling velocity [15] [17]:

29
 To calculate voidage at minimum bubbling [17]:

To calculate operating gas velocity:

From Thumb Rule, the ratio of operating gas velocity to minimum
fluidization velocity can be assumed to be 5, such that:

Now, calculating the voidage at minimum fluidization:

Calculating ratio of bed levels during minimum bubbling and minimum

fluidization:

Dimensions of the bed and vessel:

With a volumetric flow rate of 0.032 m3/s, the required diameter of the
vessel can be calculated as:

With a charge of 1000 kg of coal and a voidage at minimum bubbling of 0.3878, the
height of minimum bubbling bed is,

30
In the fluidized bed, there is fluctuation in bed height, so including the fluctuation
parameter, the corrected bed height is then calculated.
Now from the graph of the correlation of fluctuation level, with Dp: 0.0117 we
determine ḿ to be 0.08 [17].
Also, the fluctuation parameter is given as:

So, the corrected bed height is,

Now calculating Total Disengaging Height (TDH), which adds up to bed

height Lb to determine the vessel height [17].
From the graph of TDH as a function of vessel diameter and superficial linear
velocity viz. 65.85 cm and 7.92 cm/s, the approximate value of TDH is determined
to be 1.12 m [17].
So, the vessel height is:

Calculating Reactor Wall Thickness [9]:

Minimum Wall thickness,

Where,
P: Maximum allowable internal pressure, kPa
D: Inside diameter of the vessel shell, m
S: Maximum allowable working stress, kPa
CC: Corrosion allowance, m
E: Joint efficiency expressed as fraction

31
Material Selection:
Reactor Stainless Steel
Shell AISI 304L
Poisson Ratio:
0.24
Young Modulus:
197 GPa
Safety Factor: 4

Maximum Allowable Internal Pressure: 3000 kPa

Maximum Allowable Working Stress (S):

So,

With Corrosion Allowance (CC): 0.003 in

Minimum Wall Thickness (tw): 0.956 in

Calculating Ellipsoidal Head Thickness [9]:

Minimum Thickness for Ellipsoidal Head,

Where,
P: Maximum allowable internal pressure, kPa
D: Inside diameter of the vessel shell, m
S: Maximum allowable working stress, kPa
CC: Corrosion allowance, m
E: Joint efficiency expressed as fraction

32
Material Selection:
Reactor Stainless Steel
Head AISI 304L
Poisson Ratio:
0.24
Young Modulus:
197 GPa
Safety Factor: 4

Maximum Allowable Internal Pressure: 3000 kPa

Maximum Allowable Working Stress (S):

So,

With Corrosion Allowance (CC): 0.003 in

Minimum Wall Thickness (tw): 0.912 in

33
 4.4. Gasifier Specification Sheet
Equipment No. 2
GASIFIER Function: Gasification of coal
Sheet no.

Operating Data
Design Temperature 880 C
Design Pressure 3.3 bar
Operating Temperature 800 C
Operating Pressure 3 bar
Disengaging Bed height 1.12m
Minimum bubbling velocity 0.0312 m/s
Voidage at minimum 1.42
fluidization
Voidage at minimum bubbling 0.3878
Height of bubbling bed 2.43 m
Reynolds number 0.66469
Maximum allowable stress 52500kPa
Minimum wall thickness 0.9566 in
Corrosion allowance 0.003 in
Construction of Gasifier
Vessel diameter 0.6418 m
Height of vessel 4.466 m
Bed height 3.346 m
Minimum fluidization velocity 0.0194m/s
Material SS304
Design code ASTM A-240
Performance of one unit
Inlet Outlet
Component Flow rate(kg/hr) Component Flow rate
Coal 760 Syngas 1524.9028
C 434.796 CO 439.9315
O2 196.004 CO2 636.8806
H2 48.336 H2 116.0579
N2 2.052 N2 2.0520
S 1.368 S 1.4535
Ash 17.48 C 72.5592
H2O 59.964 H2O 59.9640
O2 196.0040
Steam 609.49728 Ash 3.496
O2 172.8 Ash 13.984
TOTAL 1542.2973 TOTAL OUT 1542.3828
IN

34
4.5. Heat Exchanger Sizing
The heat exchanger used is Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger, where the coolant
(water) is passed through the tube side and the syngas is passed through the shell
side.

For shell side,

Flow rate of gas entering the shell = 1525.602 kg/h

Inlet temperature = 1073.15 K
Outlet temperature = 308.09 K

For tube side,

Flow rate of gas entering the shell = 2000 kg/h

Inlet temperature = 298.15 K
Outlet temperature = 374.05 K

Aspen Plus V10 is used for sizing of the heat exchanger. The above-mentioned
mass flow rate and other required parameters are used as input in Aspen Plus
simulation to obtain the desired outlet temperature of syngas.

The inlet and outlet fluid properties data and the heat exchanger construction data
and the geometry is included in the specification sheet.

35
 4.6. Heat Exchanger Specification Sheet
Company
Service of unit
Item No.
Size Type: BEM
PERFORMANCE OF UNIT
Fluid Allocation Shell Side Tube Side
Fluid Name Gas Water
Fluid Quantity, Total 1525.602 Kg/h 2000 Kg/h
Vapor 1525.602 Kg/h
Liquid 2000 Kg/h
Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
Temperature, K 1073.15 308.09 298.15 374.05
Pressure, bar 3 2.81 1 0.96
Density, g/cc 0.0042 0.0052 0.961 0.1943
Molecular weight, g/mol 44.01 18.02
Heat Duty, KW 146.3
CONSTRUCTION OF ONE SHELL
Shell Side Tube SKETCH
Side
Design Pressure 3.3 1.1
Design Temperature 1181 412
Number of Passes 1 1
Corrosion Allowance,
mm
Fouling Resistance, m2-
K/W
Connections
Size/Rating
Allowable Pressure drop, 0.26 0.2
bar
Calculated Pressure drop, 0.19 0.04
bar
Dp ratio 0.75 0.21
Tube Pattern 30-Triangular
Baffle Type Single Segmental
Baffle cut orientation Horizontal
Exchanger Material Carbon Steel
Tube Length, in 171.26
Baffle Spacing, in 9.05
Number of Baffles 17
Number of Tubes 67
Tube OD, in 0.75 Tube Pitch, in 0.9375
Shell ID, in 10.136 Shell OD, in 10.75

36
5. Economic Analysis
Many chemical engineering design projects are carried out to provide information
from which estimates of capital and operating costs can be made. The stakeholders that
are related to the establishment of a chemical plant must me made assured that the project
is worth consideration with economic assessment and projected performance of the
project. Any investments are made to generate a profit and in case of chemical plants, an
estimate of total investment required and the cost of production are needed before the
profitability and other economic performance of the project can be assessed. Calculation
of the Total Capital Investment (TCI), Total Product Cost (TPC) and Total Revenue (TR)
are carried out of this design project, and the economic performance of the project was
then assessed by calculating Gross Profit (GP), Net Profit (NP), Payback Period (PP) and
Return of Investment (ROI). Before calculating every parameter that are related to all TCI,
TPC and TR calculation, several factors has been taken into consideration that are
discussed briefly in the sections below.

5.1. Total Capital Investment

Total Capital Investment includes the total cost of designing, constructing and
installing a plant and the associated modifications needed to prepare a plant site. All
the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities are supplied under the fixed-capital
cost (FCC) while that necessary for its operation is supplied under working capital
(WC) and their total is the total capital investment (TCI).

5.1.1. Fixed Capital Cost

Fixed Capital Cost (FCC) defined as financially immobile capital cost. This can be
simply analogized as the money, once spent, cannot be quickly converted back into
cash or some other asset. This includes direct manufacturing costs and indirect
manufacturing cost. The fixed capital investment is made up of [9]:

a. The Inside Battery Limits (ISBL) investment – the cost of the plant itself.
b. The modifications and improvements that must be made to the site infra-
structure
known as off-site or OSBL investment.
c. Engineering and construction costs.
d. Contingency charges.

5.1.2. Equipment Cost

Costing for a plant is very important factor that should be done in good manner
because it's determined the whole plant profitability beside ensure that the plant run
perfectly without any losses and problems during the operation. In coal gasification
plant, it involves a total of 4 units in the set-up of the plant. Generally, the units
comprise of screw conveyor, gasifier, cyclone separator, heat exchanger and
storage vessel.

37
5.1.2.1. Cyclone Separator
The cost of cyclone separator can be calculated using the equipment cost
relation as discussed in [11], which correlates the equipment cost with the
inlet duct area of the cyclone separator that is calculated in the Equipment
Sizing Section. The inlet duct area also determines the overall dimensions
and geometry of the cyclone separator.

Equipment cost relation for cyclone separator:

Where, EC: Equipment Cost, in $ of June 1990.

a & b are inlet duct height and width respectively.

Material of Construction: Carbon Steel

So,

Thus, EC: $2916

This was the price in 1990, so assuming that there is 2.5% price
increment each year.

So, cost in 2019:

5.1.2.2. Heat Exchanger

The cost of heat exchangers can be calculated using Fig 14.18, Fig 14.21-
14.23 of [18], with heat transfer area, tube outer diameter and tube length
as required parameters.

Heat Transfer Area: 7.5875 m2

Purchased Cost: $3400 (Jan. 2002)

Cost Adjustment Factors:

Parameters Value CAF

Tube O.D. (m) 0.019 0.9
Tube Length (m) 4.35 1.04
Safe Operating Pressure 1.1 (Tube Side) & 0.96
(bar) 3.3 (Shell Side)
Total Cost: $3055

This was the price in 2002, so assuming that there is 2.5% price
increment each year.

38
 So, cost in 2019:

5.1.2.3. Belt Conveyor:

The cost of screw conveyor can be calculated using the equipment cost
correlation as discussed in [9], which relates the equipment cost with the
length and width of the screw conveyor and includes the cost adjustment
parameters.

From equipment cost correlation [9]:

Width of Screw Conveyor: 0.5 m

Length of Screw Conveyor: 30 m

Material of Construction: Carbon Steel

We have,

Cost Adjustment Parameters are given in Table 6.6 of [9]:

a: 36,000 b: 640 c: 1.0

Characteristic size parameter, S: 30 m (Length of screw conveyor in this

case)

So,

5.1.2.4. Gasifier
The cost of fluidized bed gasifier can be calculated using the equipment
cost correlation as discussed in [6], which relates the equipment cost with
the total volume of the gasifier including the shell and head portion.

Equipment cost correlation for gasifier:

Reactor Volume:

 Cylindrical Shell Volume:

 Head Volume:

39
 Total Volume: 1.583 m3

So, Total Cost of the fluidized bed gasifier,

5.1.2.5. Syngas Storage Vessel

The cost of storage vessel can be calculated using the equipment cost
correlation as discussed in [9], which relates the equipment cost with the
total volume of the storage vessel and includes the cost adjustment
parameters.

Choosing a Cone Roof type vessel which is most suitable for the storage
of compressed gases,

Type: Cone Roof

Material of Construction: Carbon Steel

Capacity: 200000 L (200 m3)

We have,

Parameters from Table 6.6:

a: 5000 b: 1400 c: 0.7

Characteristic size parameter, S: 200 m3 (Volume of storage vessel in this

case)

Total Physical Cost of Equipment:

40
5.1.3. Estimation of Fixed Capital Cost
Typical Factors for the estimation of fixed capital cost are tabulated below:

Items Factors
Direct Cost
Equipment Erection 0.40
Piping 0.40
Instrumentation 0.15
Electrical 0.10
Building, Process 0.10
Utilities 0.40
Storage 0.02
Site Development 0.05
Ancillary Buildings 0.20
Σ Factors: 1.82

Indirect Cost
Design & Engineering 0.25
Construction Feed 0.05
Contingency 0.10
Σ Factors: 0.4
Table 9 Factors for Estimation of F.C.C. [18]
Thus,

Fixed Capital Cost = 1.82 * 439466 + 0.4 * 439466 + 439466

5.1.4. Estimation of Working Capital

Working capital is refer to what must be invested to get the plant into productive
operation which is money invested before there is a product to sell.It is the
additional money needed, above what it cost to build the plant, to start the plant run
up, and run it until it starts earning income. Generally, most of the chemical plant
used an initial working capital estimation to be 5 to 10 % of the F.C.C. [18].

Working Capital = 0.05 * 1415080.4 (Assumed 5% of F.C.C)

5.1.5. Calculation of Total Capital Investment (TCI)

TCI = Fixed Capital Cost + Working Capital

5.2. Revenue Generation

Annual Revenue is obtained from the total annual sales of products produced by the
plant and in this case it’s the sale of syngas that is produced. The total annual
revenue from the sale of products is obtained when price of each product per unit is

41
 multiplied by the total units of the product that is produced annually. The relation
for calculating annual sales revenue is expressed below:

Price of Synthesis Gas = $0.01/m3 [19]

The plant is assumed to be operated 320 days per year (24 hours per day):

5.3. Total Production Cost (TPC)

Total Production Cost (TPC) or product costs refer to every cost incurred by a
chemical plant from manufacturing a product or providing a service. Production
costs can include a variety of expenses, such as labor, raw materials, consumable
manufacturing supplies, laboratories expenses, and general overhead cost. TPC is
divided into variable production costs, fixed charges and plant overhead costs.

5.3.1. Variable Production Cost

These are directly associated with the manufacturing operation which include raw
materials expenditures (purchase, shipping, unloading, etc.), direct operating labor,
supervisory and clerical labor applicable to manufacturing operation, utilities, plant
maintenance and so forth.

5.3.1.1. Raw Material Cost:

In coal gasification plant, bituminous coal is the major raw material that
is consumed directly in the manufacturing operation, the cost of raw
material that is mentioned below, is assumed to consist the shipping cost,
material handling cost and so forth.

Bituminous Coal:

Cost Per Ton: $ 55.6 [20]

Cost of coal at full operation:

: $ 427008

42
5.3.1.2. Operating Labor Cost:
The labor can be divided as skilled or unskilled and although there is the
presence of the variation in the hourly wages of the operating labor in
different industries at various locations, literature shows that cost of
operating labor usually amounts to 10 to 20 percent of the TPC. Since this
coal gasification plant comprises of just 4 major operating unit, the
appropriate number of skilled and unskilled labor is allocated below along
with their monthly wages which is significantly higher than that as
allocated by the Nepal Government.

Skilled Labor = 6 labors * $ 400/month * 12 months = $ 28800

Unskilled Labor = 8 labors * $ 180/month * 12 months = $ 46080

Hence, Total Operating Labor Cost = $ 74880 per annum.

5.3.1.3. Utilities Cost:

The major factors that determine the overall utilities cost in this coal
gasification plant are steam and oxygen that is primarily used in fluidized
bed gasification unit. The minor utilities cost factor includes electricity,
waste disposal, sewage, etc.

i. Steam

Cost of steam: (From table 6.14

[18])

Cost of steam: $ 20580

This was the price in 2000, so assuming that there is 2.5% price
increment each year.

So, cost in 2019:

ii. Oxygen

Cost of oxygen:

43
 5.3.1.4. Other factors in Variable Cost:
Items Factor

Maintenance & Repair 7% of TCI

Laboratory Cost 15% of OLC

Patents & Royalties 3% of TPC

Operating Supplies 15% of Maintenance Cost

Table 10 Factors for Estimation of Variable Cost [18]

5.3.2. Fixed Cost

These are the cost that do not change at all or not to a significant amount with the
amount of production are fixed costs. Included in the cost are taxes, insurance, loan
interest and so forth. From literature, the rough approximation for study estimation
suggested average of 10 to 20 percent of the TPC that is 15 percent has been used.
Several fixed cost along with their cost factor is tabulated below.

Factors relating to fixed cost:

Items Factor

Financing 15% of TCI

Taxes 1.5% of TCI

Table 11 Factors for Estimation of Fixed Cost [18]

5.3.3. Plant Overhead Cost

These include the expenditures for routine plant services. Nonmanufacturing
equipment and buildings, medical, packaging, restaurant, recreation, storage
facilities costs for chemical plants have been suggested to amount to 50 to 60
percent of the total expenses for operating labor cost from the literature.

Assuming the plant overhead cost to be 40% of operating labor cost (OLC).

Thus, Plant Overhead Cost = $ 29952 per annum.

5.3.4. Calculation of Total Production Cost (TPC)

TPC = Variable Cost + Fixed Cost + Plant Overhead Cost

TPC = $ 915684.62

5.4. Economic Performance Assessment

These are the tools that helps to assess the economic performance of a chemical
plant over a certain time duration. These help to provide a vital insight about the
worth in investing in a chemical plant beforehand analyzing the projected economic
performance of a plant.

44
5.4.1. Gross Profit
It equals to the total product sales revenue minus the total product cost and in our
design project is given as,

Gross Profit (GP) = Total Revenue - Total Production Cost

= 1520544.274 - 915684.62

= $ 604859.65 per annum

5.4.2. Depreciation
Here we are going to employ a straight-line depreciating method, with 10 years as
the recovery period as recommended for the chemical plants.

Assuming salvage value of 0 & service life of 10 years, the depreciation amount
for each year in recovery period is given as,

Depreciation per year per annum.

5.4.3. Net Profit without taxes

It equals to the total gross profit per year minus yearly depreciation amount, and in
our design
is given as,

Net Profit (NP) = Gross Profit (GP) - Depreciation

= 604859.65 – 148583.442

= $ 456276.208 per annum

5.4.4. Total Payback Period

Payback period in economic evaluation refers to the period of time required to
recoup the funds expended in an investment, or to reach the break-even point. Here,
the payback period is estimated without considering the time value of money.

Total Capital Investment (TCI) = $ 1485834.42

Net Profit (NP) = 456276.208

TPP

5.4.5. Return of Investment (ROI)

Return on investment is a ratio between net profit and cost of investment. As a
performance measure, ROI is used to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or to
compare the efficiencies of several different investments.

45
 ROI

5.4.6. Comparing ROI with Minimum Acceptable Rate of Return (MARR)

A commonly used profitability standard is the minimum acceptable rate of return
(also known as the minimum attractive rate of return, or MARR). The minimum
acceptable rate of return is a rate of earning that must be achieved by an investment
in order for it to be acceptable to the investor. Since our plant is a new process
technology entering into an established market with existing application of coal
with medium level of risk, literature suggest the MARR in this case to be 16 to
24 % [18]. Assuming an average value of MARR to be 20 % and with ROI of
30.7 % which is higher than MARR, this invest provides acceptable rate of return.

46
6. Plant Safety and Environmental Assessment
6.1. Plant Safety
As the gasification process deals with high temperature, pressure, combustible and
abrasive nature of gas, corresponding safety precautions should be installed in the
plant in order to deal with the possible accidents. In the plant workers may be
exposed to chemical and safety hazards. In the case those hazards are not identified,
protective measures against them are less well established. So generally, potential
hazards are studied on the basis of the known presence of variety of toxicants in the
streams and the wastes, probability of leaks through the pipes and equipment,
equipment failure and particular precautions are taken accordingly [21].

6.1.1. Worker Safety

In the plant, workers are exposed to the toxicants by the inhalation of the gas or air
borne particles, skin deposition of airborne material, physical contact with
contaminated surfaces or accidental ingestion. Also, the range of the toxicants and
their possible health effects are extremely wide, from simple chemicals like carbon
monoxide to complex mixtures of organic carcinogens This is further complicated
by the problems associated with the carcinogens; long latent period, doubt about
safe levels and unpredictable multi agent interactions.

These conditions can’t be met by protective measures, monitoring procedures and

medical tests. This type of complexity of potential hazards imposes innovative
control strategies.

6.1.2. Overview of Process Hazard Safety

If the coal that is to be fed is not dampen to minimize the dust, milling areas may
show substantial concentration of coal dust in the air and surface of the equipment
around will be subjected to dust buildup. Likelihood of coal dust explosions is
dependent on several factors, like the presence of a suitable ignition source, type of
coal used, moisture content of the coal, particle size and shape, ratio of dust
concentration to oxygen content of the gas [22].

Primary hazard in gasification process is the gasifier unit as it operates in high

pressure and temperature dealing with combustible and abrasive nature of gasifier
effluents. Also, pipes/conveyer carrying crushed coal or char at the inlet or outlet
of the gasifier are prone to erosion, overheating and rupture. Such rupture might
force hot process gas into the atmosphere at high pressure which can ignite
immediately resulting in dangerous self- contained gas fires. Additionally, the
escaping gases can drift several hundred feet before ignition, creating a serious
explosion potential. Also, the routine procedure of manually sampling gasifier bed
solid creates the possibility of leaks. This is done by screwing a steel cylinder onto
a sample tee, which opens a valve and allows the cylinder to fill with solids, and if
the valve of sample tee has failed to reset properly because of the intense heat,

47
process gas may then escape into air and ignite presenting a hazard to worker in the
area. Using double valve sample train eliminates many of the leak hazards [21].

Failure may also occur in automatic process control systems which may result in
hazardous conditions especially if failure results in overheating of vessels and
piping due to insufficient water jacket cooling or excess oxygen introduced into the
gasifier. However, “fail safe” design can reduce these hazards to a negligible level
by providing for emergency shutdown when the process parameters exceed preset
limits.

48
 6.1.3. HAZOP Risk Management
Hazards identification and risk assessment studies can be performed during the initial design of a process. Various events are
suggested for a specific piece of equipment with the participants determining whether and how the event could occur and whether the
event creates any form of risk [23].
In this design process, syngas is generated from coal through gasification process. A number of equipment are involved in this change
process, and given the parameters for their operation, this equipment is highly subjected to risk and can cause serious damage under
some uncertain situation. Prior to designing of the process, a HAZOP (Hazard and Operational) study can be done to identify likely
threat and their possible consequences. Analysis of such risk can be done to prevent any potential damage in future endeavor. [21]

Param- Guide Possible Cause Consequence Safe Guard Recommendation Action

eter word Deviation (Existing)
Gasifier Pressure Low Very low feed Less amount of raw Installation of low Install flow meter and Designing a proper control
flow rates of gas produced, pressure indicator and control valve for feed system
stream, coal decrease in rate of controller stream
reaction
Pressure High Feed Flow rate too Overpressure reactor Installation of high- -Install a backup pressure Designing proper control
high pressure indicator and relief valve in the system
controller equipment
- Install flow meter and
control valve for steam
Tempe- Low -Malfunctioning of - Reaction rate -Installation of - Timely maintenance of -Regular maintenance of
rature temperature affected, yield temperature indicator temperature control system equipment must be done and
controller in filler reduced and controller in feed and equipment temperature of reactor must be
streams checked during the process
Tempe- High -Malfunctioning of - Reaction rate -Installation of - Timely maintenance of -Regular maintenance of
rature temperature affected, temperature indicator temperature control system equipment must be done and
controller in filler composition alters and controller in feed and equipment temperature of reactor must be
-Reactor gets streams checked during the process

49
 overheated
Flow Less -Impurities present -Rate of reaction -Installation of flow - Quality of coal feed must -Ensuring the consistency of
in the feed gets affected and meter and control be checked quality of feed stock
-Leakage in the yield gets reduced valve -Pipeline should be -Maintenance of pipeline
pipeline maintained on regular basis
Flow High - High flow rate - Affects equilibrium - Installation of flow - Monitoring flow rates - Proper control of flow rates
from coal feed reaction in reactor meter and control regularly should be done from control
valve room
Table 12 HAZOP Study of Gasifier

50
Equipment Parameter Guid Possible Cause Consequences Existing Recommendations
ewor safeguard
d
Heat Pressure Low - Low flow rate of - High temperature -Pressure -Installation of Pressure
Exchanger syngas and/or water of product gas indicator at Transmitter, Alarm
(HE-101) produced streams
High -High flow rate of -Overpressure of -Pressure -Installation of Pressure,
syngas and/or water vessel may lead to indicator at Transmitter, Alarm
-clogging of tube if collapse if pressure streams
the heat exchanger exceeds safety limit
Contamination - - clogging in -over pressure in Flow Indicator, The flow rates of feed must
pipeline, tubes heat exchanger Flow Transmitter be monitored.
- uncooled product and valve -Pipeline must be
gas passes maintained regularly
Temperature High - less flow rate -Insufficiently -Temperature - Installation of alarms
cooled syngas Indicator,
received Temperature
-Overheated Transmitter
equipment

Flow Low - leakage in pipeline - Insufficiently -Flow Indicator, -The flow rates of feed must
cooled syngas Flow Transmitter be monitored.
received and valve -Pipeline must be
maintained regularly
More - clogging in -over pressure in Flow Indicator, The flow rates of feed must
pipeline, tubes heat exchanger Flow Transmitter be monitored.
- uncooled product and valve -Pipeline must be
gas passes maintained regularly
Table 13 HAZOP Study of Heat Exchanger

51
Equipment Parameter Guid Possible Cause Consequences Existing Recommendations
ewor safeguard
d
Dryer Temperature High - malfunction of - possibility of fire -Temperature -Installation of
(D-101) control valve at air hazard indicator, extinguisher gas stream
stream Temperature (CO2) in case of fire
transmitter
Low - malfunction of - insufficient - -Installation of moisture
control valve at air moisture removed Temperature sensor at inlet and outlet
stream hindering indicator, of coal feed to
gasification Temperature automatically maintain
process transmitter, required moisture level
FIC
controller
Flow High - malfunction of - ratio of flow rate - Flow -Installation of solid
control valve at air of coal to that of Indicator at flow meter at after screw
stream and/or air if low may lead air inlet conveyor.
reduced efficiency to fire hazard else
of screw conveyor may lead to
insufficient
moisture removal
Low - malfunction of - ratio of flow rate - Flow -Installation of solid
control valve at air of coal to that of Indicator at flow meter at after screw
stream and/or air if low may lead air inlet conveyor.
reduced efficiency to fire hazard else
of screw conveyor may lead to
insufficient
moisture removal
Table 14 HAZOP Study of Dryer

52
Equipment Parameter Guid Possible Cause Consequences Existing Recommendations
ewor safeguard
d
Cyclone Pressure High -Ineffective removal - Reduced -Pressure -Installation of Pressure
(C-101) of ash efficiency of indicator at Transmitter, Alarm
- Affected cyclone streams
mechanical of the
cyclone

Table 15 HAZOP Study of Cyclone Separator

53
 6.2. Environmental Impact Analysis
An environmental impact analysis is typically conducted to assess the potential
impact a proposed development project will have on the natural and social
environment. This may include an assessment of both the short- and long-term
effects on the physical environment, such as air, water and/or noise pollution; as
well as effects on local services, living and health standards, and aesthetics [21].

Activity Affected Aspect Potential Impact Mitigation Actions

Release of Air Quality - Air Pollution - Installation of CO2
waste gas from - Green House gases and H2S removal unit
process Emission
Operation of Noise Pollution - Operation of large -The plant should be
Gasifier and machineries produces located away from
other noise which leads to residential area.
Equipment stress, hypertension,
disturbances during
sleep.
Thermal Release -Slight Climate -Proper heat recovery
change may lead to system should be
humid and warm designed to minimize
surrounding heat emission
Release of Waste -- Might lead to - Installation of
Unconsumed reactants landfill problems unreacted feed
circulation system
Release of other Landscape - Might lead to landfill -Implementation of
waste produced problems proper solid waste
due to plant management
personnel strategies
Plant(Startup, Landscape -Landscape of the site -Plant site should be
Construction) is usually disrupted designed such that
resulting in there is minimal
topographical changes disruption
Ecosystem -Excessive Site must be
deforestation may developed following
occur hindering the regulations to
habitat wildlife minimize ecosystem
disruption
Accidents: -Community Health - Pose dangers such as -Plant should be
Leakage, Fire, and Safety injury and sometimes properly equipped
Explosion even death with safety measures
-Periodic
maintenance should
be kept in check
Table 16 EIA of Coal Gasification Plant

54
 6.3. Material Safety Data Sheet

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

1. Chemical Identification
Product Name Syngas (Synthesis Gas)
Chemical Name Mixture
Chemical Family N/A
Formula Mixture

2. Composition Information
Component Amount (%)
CO 15.115
CO2 13.924
H2 55.823
N2 0.1410
O2 5.8920

3. Hazard Identification
3.1 Emergency Overview
Appearance Transparent Colorless
Physical State Gas
Odor Odorless
Hazards of Product Extremely flammable liquid and gas under
pressure.
May form mixtures with air.
Harmful or fatal if inhaled.
Can cause rapid suffocation.
May cause dizziness and drowsiness.
May cause nervous system damage.
3.2 Potential Health Effects
Inhalation Duration of exposure may cause headache,
drowsiness, dizziness, excitation, rapid
breathing, excess salivation, rapid breathing,
nausea, vomiting, hallucinations, confusion,
convulsions and unconsciousness. With well-
established poisoning, the mucosal surfaces
will be bright red (cherry red) in color. Lack
of oxygen can cause death.
Effects of Repeated Over-exposure Repeated hypoxia from carbon monoxide
exposure will cause gradually increasing
central nervous system (CNS) damage, with
loss of sensation in the fingers, poor memory,
positive Romberg’s sign mental
deterioration. Chronic exposure may
facilitate the development of atherosclerosis.

4. Medical Conditions Aggravated Due to the hypoxia from carboxyhemoglobin

formation, may aggravate established heart

55
 and cerebral circulation diseases.
5. First Aid Measures
Inhalation Expose to fresh air. Give artificial respiration
if not breathing.
Eye Contract Flush eyes thoroughly with water for several
minutes.

6. Fire Fighting Measures Do not extinguish due to possible hazard of

explosive re-ignition. Use water spray to cool
containers and structures and to protect
personnel attempting to shut-off flow.

7. Handling and Storage Use equipment rated for pressure

Keep away from heat, sparks and flame
Keep container tightly closed
Use with adequate ventilation
Table 17 MSDS for Syngas

56
7. Recommendations
Since the scope of the design project is limited to production of syngas only, we recommend
the use of produced syngas after removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. So,
addition of carbon dioxide scrubber and desulfurizing unit is advised. Release of H2S gas into
the atmosphere is not desired as it may lead to acid rain whereas CO2 gas acts as greenhouse
gas.

We suggest implementation of more robust instrumentation system by addition of more

instruments for better monitor and automated control of the plant especially at the reactor
section. Since we are dealing with pulverized coal, fire hazard is more likely to occur. So,
water sprinkler should be installed in dryer and screw conveyors.

A R&D department should be established in the plant facilities to optimize the plant. By
minimizing loss of material and consumption of energy, the plant can be run in more
economical way. To minimize loss of pulverized coal, we advise installation of baghouse
after screw conveyor where coal is fed to rotary dryer. It is also suggested to add a storage
hopper after dryer before feeding it to gasifier. The gasification of biomass is similar process,
hence R&D engineers and scientists can research to convert it to use biomass as raw material
instead of pulverized coal in future.

57
8. Conclusions
Currently the world currently demands less use of fossil fuels but it seems renewable
resources are lagging behind in terms of both efficiency and economy. Although renewable
resources may catch up soon for household applications, we do not expect renewable
resources to take over anytime soon for industrial applications. Currently most of the large-
scale industries rely on their inherent power plant. Coal based thermal power plant is the most
common power plant among them where combustion of pulverized coal occurs and the plant
pumps lot of flue gas into the atmosphere. So, the proposed design uses coal gasification
technology which is more versatile and environment friendly for industrial use. The product
syngas that can be produced from this basic design project produces less pollutants and burns
cleaner. The refined syngas can then be used for multiple purposes such as production of
synthetic chemicals, generation of electricity or used as fuel for cooking.

For the basic design of coal gasification process, material and energy balance on every unit
were performed. Based on results from the material and energy balance, process flow
diagram was prepared and later on piping and instrumentation diagram was also prepared.
According to the results from material and energy balance hourly 116.059 kg of H2 and
439.140 kg of CO was obtained from 1000 kg of bituminous coal.

The economic analysis concludes that Total Capital Investment is $1485834.42 with annual
production cost of $915684.62 has Total Payback Period of 4.26 years with ROI of 30.7%.
The ROI is compared to the suggested MARR of 16% to 24% and since value of ROI is
greater than that of MARR, we can safely say that this investment provides acceptable rate of
return.

58
9. References

[1] M. D. Higman, Coal Gasification, 2003.

[2] P. Basu, Combustion and Gasification in Fluidized Beds, First ed., New Delhi: CRC
Press, 2006.

[3] D. A. Bell, B. F. Towler and M. Fan, Coal Gasification and its Applications, First ed.,
Burlington: ELsevier, 2011.

[4] P. William, Combustion and Gasification of Coal, First ed., New York: CRC Press,
2000.

[5] R. Cocco, S. B. R. Karri and T. Knowlton, "Introduction to Fluidization," Chemical

Engineering Progress , pp. 21-29 , 2014.

[6] D. Neogi, C. C. Chang, W. P. Walawender and L. T. Fan, "Study of Coal Gasification in

an Experimental Fluidized Bed Reactor," AIChE , pp. 17-28, 1986.

[7] Hydrogen and Syngas Production and Purification Technologies, New Jersey: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010.

[8] J. M. Lee, Y. J. Kim, W. J. Lee and S. D. Kim, "Coal Gasification Kinetics Derived from
Pyrolysis in a Fluidized-bed Reactor," Elsevier Science Ltd., vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 475-488,
1998.

[9] R. Sinnot and G. Towler, Chemical Engineering Design, vol. 6, Burlington: Elsevier
Ltd., 2009.

[10] Engineering Standard for Process Design of Piping Systems, Tehran, Iran, 1996.

[11] W. M. Vatavuk, Estimating the Costs of Air Pollution Control, Chelsea: Lewis
Publishers, 1990.

[12] University of Calgary, "Cyclone Separator - Energy Education," 3 September 2018.

[Online]. Available: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Cyclone_separator.
[Accessed 18 September 2019].

[13] N. Soundarrajan and N. Krishnamurthy, "Characterization of Size and Density Separated

Fractions of a Bituminous Coal as a Feedstock for Entrained Slagging Gasification,"
International Journal of Clean Coal and Energy, pp. 58-67, 2013.

59
[14] J. M. SMith, H. C. V. Ness and M. M. Abbott, Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics,
Seventh ed., New York: McGraw Hill, 2010.

[15] O. Levenspiel and D. Kunii, Fluidization Engineering, Stoneham: Reed Publishing Inc.,
1991.

[16] A. Bamido, "Design of a Fluidized Bed Reactor for Biomass Pyrolysis," Research Gate,
pp. 50-62, 2019.

[17] J. R. Couper and W. R. Penney, Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and Design,
Second ed., Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

[18] M. S. Peters and K. D. Timmerhaus, Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineers, Fifth ed., Colorado: McGraw Hill, 2003.

[19] Palladian Publications Ltd., "LNG Industry," 5 May 2015. [Online]. Available:
https://www.lngindustry.com/regasification/05052015/syngas-sales-strong-in-first-
quarter-686/. [Accessed 07 September 2019].

[20] U.S Energy Information Administration, "Coal Explained: Coal prices and outlook," 26
November 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/coal/prices-
and-outlook.php. [Accessed 18 August 2019].

[21] N. J. Bahr, System Safety Engineering and Risk Assessment: A Practical Approach,
Second ed., London: CRC Press, 2015.

[22] M. L. Cohen, RECOMMENDED HEALTH AND SAFETY GUIDELINES FOR COAL

GASIFICATION PLANTS, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1978.

[23] D. A. Crowl and J. F. Louvar, Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with

Applications, Third ed., Boston: Prentice Hall , 2011.

[24] O. Levenspiel, Chemical Reaction Engineering, Third ed., New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1999.

[25] F. P. Incropera, D. P. Dewitt, T. L. Bergman and A. S. Lavine, Fundamentals of Heat

and Mass Transfer, Eighth ed., Boston: Wiley, 2010.

[26] S. T. MUN, L. R. JIE and M. IRENE, "SYNGAS PRODUCTION USING AGRI-

WASTE TECHNOLOGY," IChemE Student Chapter, Malaysia, 2016.

[27] D. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, Second ed., New York: McGraw Hill, 2000.

60
 10. Appendices
10.1. Appendix I: Material and Energy Balance
10.1.1. Material Balance around Dryer

(Feed) (Product)

F1 1000 kg/hr F3 760 kg/hr

Solids 70% Rotary Dryer Solids 92.11 %
Water 30% Water 7.98 %

(Moisture Outlet)

F2 240 kg/hr
Solids 0%
Water 100%

Basis: 1000 kg/hr of Coal Feed

Efficiency of Dryer is 80%

So, F2 (Moisture Outlet) is:

F2 = F1 * (% of water) * (dryer efficiency)

= (1000 kg/hr) * (30%) * (80%)

= 240 kg/hr

Overall Material Balance,

F1 = F2 + F3

1000 = 240 + F3

61
F3 = 760 kg/hr

Component Balance

For Water:
(x1) (F1) = (x2) (F2)+ (x3) (F3)
(0.3) (1000) = (1) (240) + (x3) (760)
x3 = 0.0789

Thus, the moisture content in the product stream is 7.89 %.

10.1.2. Material Balance around Gasifier:

(Oxygen)

F4 5.4 Kmol/hr

(Syngas)
(Coal Feed)
F7 Kmol/hr
F3 760 Kmol/hr
kg/h CO 15.712
(wt %) CO2 14.475
C 57.21 % 36.233 H2 58.029
O2 25.79 % 6.125 N2 0.147
H2 6.36 % 24.168
Gasifier S 0.043
N2 0.27 % 0.147 C 6.047
S 0.18 % 0.043 H2O 3.331
Ash 2.30 % 0.220 O2 6.125
H2O 7.89 % 3.331 Ash 0.0439
Total 100% Total 103.952
70.267

(Steam) (Ash)

F5 33.861 Kmol/hr F6 0.1758 Kmol/hr

62
Reactions:

Combustion: C + 0.9 O2 0.2 CO + 0.8 CO2

Gasification: C + 1.4 H2O 0.6 CO + 0.4 CO2 + 1.4 H2

Assumptions:

Only fed oxygen and steam react, components other than carbon of composition
assumed to be inert.
Fed oxygen gets completely consumed
80% of carbon conversion in gasification reaction
20% ash exits through the product stream

Carbon Consumption:

Carbon consumed in combustion = 6 moles

Carbon consumed in gasificaion = 80% of remaining carbon = 80% of (36.233 – 6) =

24.1864 moles

Remaining Carbon = 6.047 moles

Applying Component Balance:

1. C Balance:
nC = nCO + nCO2 + nC’
36.233 = nCO + nCO2 + 6.047
nCO + nCO2 = 30.186 ………………………………. (1)

2. H Balance
2*nH2 + 2*nH2O + 2*nSteam = 2*nH2O’ + 2*nH2’
nH2 + nH2O + nSteam = nH2O’ + nH2’
24.168 + 3.331 + 33.86096 = 3.331 + nH2’
nH2’ = 58.029 ………………………………. (2)

3. O Balance
2*nO2 + nH2O + 2*nOxygen + nSteam = nCO’ + 2*nCO2’ + nH2O’ + 2*nO2’
2*6.125 + 3.331 + 2*5.4 + 33.86096 = nCO’ + 2*nCO2’ + 3.331 + 2*6.125
nCO’ + 2*nCO2’ = 44.66096 ………………………………. (3)

63
 4. N Balance
nN2’ = nN2 = 0.147
5. S Balance
nS’ = nS = 0.043

6. Ash Balance
nAsh = nAsh’ + nF6
0.220 = 0.2*nAsh + nF6
0.220 = 0.2*0.220 + nF6
nF6 = 0.1758

Solving:

nCO’= 15.712 nCO2’ = 14.475 nH2’ = 58.029 nAsh’ = 0.0439

10.1.3. Material Balance around Cyclone Separator

Solid particle entering into cyclone = 3.496 kg/hr

Flow rate of gas at inlet (excluding solids) = 1528.3988 - 3.496

=1524.9028 kg/hr

Cyclone efficiency assumed to be 80%

So, amount of solid separated = 3.496 * 0.8

= 2.7966 kg/hr

Amount of solid remain in the gas = 3.496 – 2.7966

= 0.6994 kg/hr

Therefore, flow rate of exiting gas = 1524.9028 + 0.6994

=1525.6022kg/h

64
 10.1.4. Energy Balance around Gasifier

Oxygen

F4 5.4 Kmol/hr

Syngas, 800ºC
Coal Feed, F7 Kmol/hr
35ºC CO 15.712
F3 Kmol/hr CO2 14.475
C 36.233 H2 58.029
Gasifier
O2 6.125 N2 0.147
H2 24.168 S 0.043
N2 0.147 C 6.047
S 0.043 H2O 3.331
Ash 0.220 O2 6.125
H2O 3.331 Ash 0.0439
Total 70.267 Total 103.952

Steam, 150 psig Ash, 800ºC

F5 33.861 Kmol/hr F6 0.1758 Kmol/hr

Reactions:

1) Combustion: C + 0.9 O2 0.2 CO + 0.8 CO2 ∆H= -331.006 MJ/Kmol

2) Gasification: C + 1.4 H2O 0.6 CO + 0.4 CO2 + 1.4 H2 ∆H= 137.905

MJ/Kmol

Assumptions:

i) 6 moles of C in feed is consumed in combustion, remaining C is consumed in gasification

with 80% conversion of C. [Amount of C reacting in both reactions were calculated by hit
and trial to minimize the amount of combustion required to fulfill the energy requirement]

ii) Complete consumption of supplied oxygen.

65
iii) Composition components in coal do not react with each other

Inlet Outlet
Stream F3 F4 F5 F6 F7
Flowrates (Kmol/hr) 70.267 5.4 33.861 0.1758 103.952
Temperature (ºC) 35 25 185 800 800
Component Composition (Molar Fraction)
C 0.5157 - - - 0.05817
O2 0.0872 1 - - 0.05892
H2 0.3439 - - - 0.55823
N2 0.0021 - - - 0.00141
S 0.0006 - - - 0.00041
Ash 0.0031 - - 1 0.00042
H2O 0.0474 - 1 - 0.03205
CO - - - - 0.15115
CO2 - - - - 0.13924

We have,

Extent of reaction for combustion ( )=6

Extent of reaction for gasification ( ) = 24.1864

Now for the heat balance [24, 25],

Where,

= Initial number of moles of species i

= Specific heat capacity of species i, in the given temperature range

= Initial temperature of species i

= Final Temperature

= Extent of reaction of reaction j

= Heat of reaction j at 25ºC

= Stoichiometric coefficient of species i in the reaction j

⸫ = 2557.32 MJ/hr

66
10.2. Appendix II: List of Abbreviations

HHV High Heating Value

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BS British Standard
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
TEMA Tubular Exchanger Manufacturing Association
PFD Process Flow Diagram
PID Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
CV Control Valve
TI Temperature Indicator
PI Pressure Indicator
FI Flow Indicator
TT Temperature Transmitter
FT Flow Transmitter
TE Temperature Element
FE Flow Element
TIC Temperature Indicating Controller
FIC Flow Indicating Controller
SS Stainless Steel
AI Analog Input
DO Digital Output
SFM Solid Flow Meter
TDH Total Disengaging Height
TCI Total Capital Investment
TPC Total Production Cost
TR Total Revenue
GP Gross Profit
NP Net Profit
PP Payback Period
ROI Return on Investment
MARR Minimum Attractive Rate of Return
ISBL Inside Battery Limit
OSBL Off – Site Battery Limit
EC Equipment Cost
OLC Operating Labor Cost

67
HAZOP Hazard and Operational
EIA Environment Impact Assessment
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet

68
 10.3. Appendix III: Nomenclature

F Flow rate of entering gas to cyclone, kg/s

Ρ Density of gas, kg/m3
U Velocity, m/s
G Inlet duct area of gas, m2
Ai Area of duct, m2
Dc Diameter of cyclone, m
Lc Length of upper section, m
Zc Length of lower section, m
Do Outlet diameter of duct, m
Ao Outlet Area of Duct, m2
Dd Diameter of dust collector, m
Ne Number of effective turns
ρP Density of particles, kg/m3
ρf Density of fluidizing element, kg/m3
Dp Diameter of particles, m
Μ Dynamic viscosity of steam, N.s/m2
M Mass flow rate of coal in gasifier, kg/hr
Umf Minimum fluidizing velocity, m/s
Remf Reynolds number
Umb Minimum bubbling velocity, m/s
Ꜫmb Voidage at minimum bubbling velocity
Vf Operating velocity of gas, m/s
Ꜫmf Voidage at minimum fluidization velocity
Lmb Bed level at minimum bubbling velocity, m
Lmf Bed level at minimum fluidization velocity, m
D Diameter of vessel, m
L Height of minimum bubbling bed, m
R Fluctuation parameter for correction of bed height, m
Lb Corrected bed height, m
tw Minimum wall thickness, inches
P Maximum allowable internal pressure, kPa
S Maximum allowable working stress, kPa
C Corrosion Allowance, m
E Joint efficiency expressed as fraction

69