GEOGRAPHY GRADE 9, SECOND

SEMESTER WORK SHEET

PREPARED BY; ARGATA ABDISSA

Phone ;(0917341413), E-mail;(argataabdisa68@gmail.com)

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 CHAPTER TWO

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD

3. FRIGID (COLD) ZONE

 This region is known as the highest latitude and polar region, it also found at the tip of the
two poles. Frigid Zone lies between 66½ o to 90o, both N and S of the equator. The Lichens,
mosses, grasses, cushion plants, and low shrubs are the common parasite plants found in the
region. This is caused by insufficient sunlight that serves as a source of energy for life.
 The most widespread people in the region are Eskimos, Indians, Lapps, Chukchi, Koyaki,
and Yakut’s which are found in Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Finland, Norway, Sweden and
Siberia who have thick skin to survive the frigid climate. The main human activities of the
region are Hunters, reindeer herders, fishing, fur and trappin. Land and sea animals and fish
provide their main source of food. The Frigid Zone has categories. These are tundra and the
polar ice caps.
Tundra Region

 Tundra is area where the growth of trees is prevented due to low temperatures and short
seasons that restrict growth. It is the transitional zone between the polar ice caps and the
coniferous forest belt and is found only in the northern hemisphere. The very epidemic birds
that live in the region is penguin.
 The climatic condition of Tundra region is during the summer season, there is long daily
duration of sunshine, totally very low temperature is observed. Because the sun’s rays are
very slant, and therefore lack heat. Winter is cold and long. During the daytime, the sky is
dark, and stars can be seen shining. Plants such as lichens, mosses and sedges grow during
the summer season.
 There are a few primitive societies scattered tribes such as Eskimos (Inuit), Lapps, Finns,
Aleuts and Tunguses. Their economic activity is characterized as Hunting, fishing, and
reindeer herding. In North America, the Eskimos settle along the seashores in igloos (houses
made up of blocks of ice) in the cold winter.

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 Polar Ice Cap Region
 A polar icecap is a highest latitude region of the earth that is covered with ice. Located near
the North and South poles. These natural regions include Greenland and the Arctic islands
and Arctic Ocean in the northern hemisphere and the continent of Antarctica and the South
Sea in the southern hemisphere.
 The climatic condition of the polar ice cap is generally characterized by negative
temperatures. The precipitation is very low and falls in the form of snow b/ of very oblique
san rays.
 Plant growth is impossible as the regions are permanently covered by ice and snow and the
soil permanently frozen. is covered with ice.Little vegetation, like mosses, lichens, and algae
may grow with the help of the light of the very short summer.
 No one human race is live there except scientists and hunters. The Arctic region is also
important for military strategies. For example, the USA has an air base at Thule in
Greenland.
ECOSYSTEM
 Ecosystem is a community of living things and their non-living environment. Ecosystem
consisting of organisms (plants and animals) and their environment (air, water, soil and
rock). The non-living features of the environment are the abiotic factors, and the organisms
in the environment are the biotic factors.
 Populations and communities make up an ecosystem. Living things in ecosystem not live
alone without nonliving things; they are interdependent and have biological and non-
biological association.
 All ecosystems require energy in order to exist. The living things necessitate heat energy and
light energy from the sun to survive. Ecosystems have lots of different living organisms that
interact with each other. The living organisms in an ecosystem can be divided into three
categories Producers, consumers and decomposers. They are all important parts of the
ecosystem.
1. Producers
 Plants are the best example of producers and make their own food by means
of photosynthesis. Green plants are the primary passage from one organism
to another along the food chain.

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2. Consumers
 Consumers are animals, which get their energy from the producers or from
organisms that eat producers.
There are three types of consumers:

2.1.Herbivores (primary consumers) are animals that eat plants.

2.2.Carnivores (secondary consumers) are animals that eat herbivores and
sometimes other carnivores.
2.3.Omnivores are animals that eat both plants and other animals.
3. Decomposers
Decomposers are plants and animals that break down dead plants and animals into organic
materials that go back into the soil.
 When organisms die, their bodies decompose and form a source of energy and
nutrients for other organisms. Decomposers are microorganisms, mainly fungi
and bacteria, which live on dead organic matter.
VILLAGIZATION OF THE WORLD THROUGH DISTANCE-TIME DECAY

Villagization

 Villagization refers to the time-space compression which has resulted from the increasing,
rapid movement and interaction of people from all parts of the world.
 Currently, due to advancements in transportation and other communications technologies, the
world’s populations are much “closer” than ever before.
 The technological improvements have reduced the time needed to travel from one corner of
the world to any other and to communicate over distances.
Distance-time decay

 Distance-time decay is described as the effects of distance and time on cultural or spatial
interactions, the production of goods and the location of activities.
 The distance-time decay effect is the decline in interaction between two localities as the
distance and time between them increases.
 The advances in communications and technological devices such as phones, radio and
television broadcasts, and the internet, have further decreased the effects of distance and
time.
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 The socio-economic impacts of world villagization

World villagization impacts many socio-economic and cultural features of our world. Although
some of them operate primarily in the developed countries, their effects are increasingly evident
in developing countries such as Ethiopia.

1. On production of goods and service delivery

 In the past, time and distance had a profound impact on the location of markets and the
production of goods. Perishable goods, such as vegetables, fruits, and fresh milk, used to be
primarily produced and sold close to urban centers in order to sell and consume them fresh.
 Today distance and time have little or no impact on the production and market of
perishable goods. Fast communications such as the internet have improved the delivery of
goods and services even without face-to-face contact.

2. On location of settlements and industries:

 In the past, the distance-time decay effect deeply affected the location of settlements and
industries. They had to be located near resources and energy. Similarly, industrial workers
needed to live near their work places. Currently, advancements in transportation networks
have allowed many industrial workers to commute daily from their homes to workplaces
many kilometers away.
 Generally, the time-distance-decay effect that used to profoundly affect our socioeconomic
and physical environments on local, regional, and global scales has been mostly overcome
in many parts of the world. Another term for this process is globalization. It has greatly
affected the social, cultural, political and economic landscapes of our world.

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 CHAPTER THREE

HUMAN POPULATION AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

INTRODUCTION

In this unit you are going to deal with human population, economic activities and natural
resources During the course of human history, people have transformed and modified to the
earth. They have done so in order to survive.

Humans have been very successful. Today there are several billion people living on the earth.
The study of human population has long been of interest to geographers. The burden of
population growth in today’s world adds great industriousness to the study of population for
everybody.

Population distribution is the way that a population is spread out over a given area, whether a
small region or the earth as a whole. This distribution of population forms a pattern. While some
areas are densely populated, others are sparsely populated.

Concept and Facts about Human Population

 Population geography emphasizes the spatial aspects of human population and the
interaction with physical environment. Population is group of similar species organism
living in a definite geographical environment. Various forms of living things which has
specific habitat, living style, and distinct social organization.
 The major types of population are; plant population, animal’s pop and human population.
We study human population.
Human population is studied for many reasons including the following.

 To demonstrates significant quantitative and qualitative changes over time and space.
 Enforcing elites to deal population size, composition, structure and the location of
human populations and policy implications.
 Knowing about the characteristics of the human population.
Human population is also necessary for development and socio-economic activities in terms of
source of the labor force for the productive and non-productive economic sectors, such as
agriculture, manufacturing, teaching, health services, etc.

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Human population is also the main productive force and creator of material wealth. This makes
the study of population extremely important for the overall socio-economic development of a
country

The rapid increase in the size of the human population is attributed to many factors that include:
advancements in scientific knowledge, agriculture, industry, medicine, and social organization.

Now a day, Humans ability to control famine and disease, which have been major killers of
humans; the relatively lower cost of importing vaccines, antibiotics, insecticides, and high-
yielding varieties of seeds; improvement in peoples living conditions, which have resulted in the
decline of deaths from infectious and parasitic diseases and increase in life expectancy in most
developing countries.

 As a result of these and many other factors, the human population has increased rapidly since
the 15th and 16th centuries. As some sources indicate, by 1750 there were only about 791
million people in the world.

 However, in a matter of 250 years, the world’s population reached over 6 billion. The growth
of the human population between 1750 and 2000 has been very rapid. The trend of growth
during that period was shown as follows

 The rapid increase in human population over the course of the 20th century had raised
concerns. Though, earth is experiencing over population scientific consensus is that the
current rate of population expansion and the accompanying increase in usage of resources are
linked to threats to the ecosystem, such as rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide,
global warming, and pollution.

 Thus, population growth has a direct effect on socio-economic development and on the
quality of the environment of a given society. The distribution of human population shows
great variation. For example, Africa and other developing regions account for the largest
share of the world’s population. As world population rose from 2.5 billion in 1950 to 6.7
billion in 2008, the proportion of people living in the developing countries of Africa, Asia
and Latin America has expanded from 68 percent to more than 80 percent.

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 India and China alone make up about 37 percent of the world’s total. The share of the
developed countries is projected to drop from about 18 percent in 2008 to less than 14
percent in 2050. Asia accounts for over 60 percent of the world population, with almost 4.1
billion people. Africa follows with 999 million people, accounting for about 14.7 percent of
the world’s total. Europe’s 738 million people make up 10.8 percent of the world’s
population. Likewise, the populations of Latin America and the Caribbean, North America
and Oceania account for about 8.5 percent, 5 percent and 0.5 percent of the world’s
population, respectively.
 Country wise, while some countries have smaller population sizes, others are home to a much
larger number of people. Of the world’s countries, the ten most populous ones are shown in
the following table with their respective population sizes.
Sources of Population Data
 Population data refers to population information, such as number, age, marital status,
births and deaths, occupation, religion, educational status, and other characteristics of the
human population. Such information is vital for studying the different aspects of the
human population.
 That is why we say that studying human population is dependent on reliable population
data. Statistical information about human population is obtained through a variety of
ways.
Population information is important for many reasons. For example;

Used to making decisions related to social and economic affairs.

It indicates future requirements of the population in terms of social, health,
education, employment and other socio-economic needs.
It helps policy makers to forecast the needs of the population and to understand
how to meet them.
The most methods used to gather information about human populations are;

i. Population census

ii. Sample survey

iii. Vital registration

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 I. Population Census
 Population census is the main source of population data. Census is the total process of
collecting, analyzing, compiling and publishing demographic, economic and social data of all
persons in a country or delineated territory at a specified time.” Official counting of all the
people of a certain geographical area with a well-defined boundary so as to collect
socioeconomic and demographic information about the population.
 Census is the way of gathering the demographic and socio-economic data such as size,
growth rate, fertility and mortality characteristics, marital status, employment situations,
religion, ethnicity, income, educational status, housing conditions, sex and age structures and
much more information about the population.
In Ethiopia, the census is one of the most important ways of collecting population data. So far,
three censuses have been taken. The first was in 1984, the second in 1994 and the last one in
2007. Census in Ethiopia is conducted every ten years.

The Main Features of Census

The following are the main features that distinguish census from the rest of population data
sources.

1. Government Sponsorship; The responsibility of the national government to provide

resources necessary to conduct census and obtaining legislative support.

2. Defined territory; Occurred at specified geographical unit such as state, country, or

province.
3. Universality; Enumeration must include every person within the scope of the territory
without omission or duplication everyone in the country as of a fixed day.

4. Simultaneity; Conducted at specific well-defined time throughout the country.

5. Individual Units; The information that is obtained normally relates to individuals rather
than groups. It is compiled and published.

6. Periodicity; Census should be taken at certain specified time interval. For example,
United States and Ethiopia, conducted at every ten years, while Canada and the UK are at
every five years.
7. Expensiveness; Census is the most expensive method of data gathering. This is because
of its universality which necessitates complete coverage of the entire territory.

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 II. Sample Surveys
A sample survey is the second most important and widely used source of population data which
is employed to arrive at estimates of demographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, etc.),
population size, population distribution, mortality, fertility and migration. Important source of
population statistics in areas where census is not conducted and used to fill population
information gaps. Most countries used sample survey.

 Collects information only from a part of the whole population.

 Generate the socio-economic and demographic data in greater detail than conventional
censuses can provide.
 Conducted during a period of transition between two consecutive censuses.

As compared to census, sample survey is:

 Less expensive because it does not involve the entire population;
 Capable of providing very detailed information.
 The well-trained and strict supervision can provide data of a better quality than census

and the accuracy of the data.

III. Vital Registration

 The continuous registration of the vital events population births, deaths, marriages and
divorces. The personal information recorded as after an event is occurred. Data on vital
events are gathered from birth and death certificates, marriage licenses, divorce records and
other official registers.
 The reliable vital registration system has an expensive and extensive process. The
completeness of registration and the reliability of the data gathered through vital registration
can be affected by the following reason;

 Level of literacy and awareness of population

 Social custom may lead to non-registration

 The widely dispersed or inaccessible of rural population.

Factors Affecting the Quality of Data

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 The gathered information may not necessarily be accurate. Some of these problems include:

 Financial inadequacy;

 Enumeration mechanism;

 Inadequate awareness;

 Double entry (counting of a person twice).

 Neglecting certain groups of people

 False information

 Lack of equal acceptance societies

Distribution and settlement patterns

Population distribution is the way that population is spread out over a given area. Human
population is spread very unevenly over the earth’s surface. While some areas are densely
populated, others are sparsely populated. The availability of natural resources, the nature of
topography, the productivity of the soil, and many other factors has resulted in an uneven
distribution of people.

A. Densely Populated Regions

There are three main densely populated areas in the world. in the world. These areas are;

 Asiatic population belt

 Peninsular Europe

 Northeastern of North America

A. Densely populated
1. Asiatic population belt (supports more than 60% of world population).

1.1. East Asia- China, Japan and Korean Peninsula (supports 25% of world population).

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 1.2.South Asia - India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma) and Sri Lanka
(supports) accounts for about 25% of world population.

Favorable climatic condition for agriculture, Birthplace of one of the principal

human races and high industrial development causes densely population of the
region.

2. Europe (more than 10% of world population). This is caused by;

 Favorable climate.
 Conducive agriculture land.
 High industrial development.

. B. Sparsely populated areas

 The following regions are the sparsely populated regions of the world.
a. Tundra (part of N. America and Eurasia).Very cold climate (no cultivation).

b. Hot and dry lands (tropical deserts). High temperature. Shortage of water.

c. Hot and humid regions Amazon, Congo and Indonesia basins. Very high humidity,
rainfall and temperature.

d. High relief areas High Mountains with rugged topography, Cold temperature. Areas
with poor soil. Poor soil, badly degraded lands.
 The condition that are encouraging population density are; adequate rain fall, fertile
soil/alluvia/,good weather, industrial congestion, agglomerated economy, good market
center and etc.
 The conditions that may discourage population density are; Low rainfall ,Little water for
farming ,infertile soil ,very leached , Very hot and dry climate, Warm & humid climate and
Icecaps regions.

Settlement Pattern
 A settlement is defined as a place in which people live, carrying out a variety of
activities, to make their livings, such as trade, agriculture and manufacturing.

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  There are varieties of settlements. These include hamlets, villages, towns, cities,
metropolises, megalopolises, etc.

 Naturally, settlements are situated with respect to natural features, such as water, fuel,
food, and protection, as well to access to transportation and communications.
Settlements may broadly be divided into rural and urban settlement, based on the
density of human made structures, population concentration and dominant economic
activity.

Rural settlement
 Rural settlement are considered to all villages and widely dispersed and are dominated by
isolated homesteads settlements. Rural settlers are mainly engaged in agriculture.

Urban settlement
 Refers to town or city settlements. People engaged non-agricultural activities. The criteria
used to identify urban centers are; the official status of urban settlement, size of
population, and occupation of the population.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

Economic activity is the production, distribution and exchange of goods and services. Some
examples of these activities are hunting, fishing, farming, grazing, mining, manufacturing,
transportation, trade and others. Human must provide for his/her basic necessities such as food,
clothing and shelter. Economic activity indicates the level of development of the country.

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 Classification of Economic Activities

The economic activities practiced in the world are grouped into five, namely primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary and quinary.

Primary economic Agriculture Gathering Extensive industry Extraction

activity
Secondary economic Manufacturin Construction Power production Value added industry
activity g
Tertiary economic Retail and Communication Professional service Service industry
activity trade
Quaternary activity Info Research management High level Decision
making
Query activity Decision White color
maker information
service
The summary of world economic activities

1. Primary Economic Activities

Focus directly on the extraction of resources from the environment and Production of food stuffs
and raw materials. The primary economic activity is the beginning of the production cycle,
where people live in close contact with the resources of the earth.

Primary economic activities are characterized by dependent on the natural environment. The
main types of primary activities include: Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Mining.

Agriculture

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivation and the rearing of livestock for either local
consumption or commercial purposes. It is one of the most important activities of human beings,
because it provides them with the most basic necessity.

Agriculture, as a primary economic activity, aims at solving the basic problems of any society. It
provides foodstuffs for the population and raw materials for industries. In Ethiopia about 85
percent of the population is engaged in agricultural activities.

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 Forestry
Forestry is the extraction of forest products for different purposes by people. Forestry is
important for the production of wood, timber, gums, nuts and barks used for various domestic
and industrial purposes. The following are among the main importance of forestry; For
construction purposes; Used as a source of industrial raw materials; Used as a source of
foodstuffs such as roots, leaves, fruits, barks, gums, stems, flowers, Control soil erosion.,
Controlling the climate of the local environment and Used as habitat for wild animals,

Fishery
Fishing is a primary economic activity concerned with the catching and harvesting of fish and
other marine creature. Fishing is one of the oldest occupations of humankind. A nations depend
on fishing as the mainstay of their livelihoods, are; Norway, Iceland and Japan.

As compared to other primary economic activities, fishing is not a very basic economic activity.
Provides employment opportunities for only a very small percentage of people. Ethiopia known
with plentiful water resource. But, Fishing as an activity is at infant level of development in
Ethiopia.

Mining

Mining is the extraction of mineral bearing substances from the earth’s crust is closely associated
to manufacturing industries. A mineral is an inorganic chemical element found naturally in the
crust of the earth. There is also some organic minerals, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Minerals are not evenly distributed on the crust.

1. Secondary Economic activities

Secondary economic activities include manufacturing, construction and power production.

Manufacturing is the activity which turns raw materials into products by using labor, energy and
equipment,

Industry refers to the place where manufacturing takes place. Manufacturing uses machines,
tools and labor to make things for use or sale and range of human activities, from handicraft to
the use of high technology. Raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale.

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Manufacturing activities are characterized by the following features;

 Dependency on raw materials

 Transformation of raw materials into finished or semi-finished product;
 Manufacturing need power, skilled manpower, huge capital and modern
technology;
 Characterized by a high level of division of labor;
 The end products that are ready for consumption
2. Tertiary Economic Activities
Tertiary economy sector known as the service sector or the service industry. The basic
characteristic of this sector involved the provision of services to other businesses as well as to the
final consumers.

Tertiary economic activities include education, legal services, medical services, trade,
transportation services, tourism and etc. Among these the main classification of Tertiary
economic activities include: Trade, Tourism, Transportation and Communication.

2.1. Trade
Trade is a tertiary economic activity; indicate the process of buying, selling, or exchanging of
commodities. The earliest form of trade was bartering, which was an exchange of one article for
another of equal value. The emergence of trade is related to the unequal distribution of
resources that are essential to satisfying human needs.

Later on they started using metal, salt, and paper as medium of exchange. The surplus of
production demand for commodities; differentiation of culture, access transport and suitable
world condition are the main bases of trade.

2.2. Transportation
Transportation is the movement of people, commodities, and mail. Now days the quality and
types of transportation shows much progress. This makes people travel long distance with lower
cost.

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The flows of ideas, beliefs and innovation become faster and wider currently. This makes the
world closer to each other. Transportation tools are important to spread benefit, health care and
education.

The local transportations are; horse, donkey, camels, which lacks speed, with inefficient and
backward tools. The international transportation tools are highly interactive, fast, efficient are
road, railway, in land water, and air way are systematically coordinated Transport.

2.3. Communication

Communication is the transmission of words and messages from one place to another. The major
types of communications are:

Mail; is the distribution of letters, packages as well as money. Example, Postal services.
Telephones; is a point-to-point communication system whose most basic function is to allow
two people separated by large distances to talk to each other .Example: Mobile phone, land line
telephone.

Radio; It is one of the most important means of communication. All over the world,
information is transmitted using radios, with the help of electromagnetic waves.

Television; It is a means of communication used to transmit messages using both images and
sounds. Nowadays, it is possible to receive information and entertainment via TV from any
corner of the world with the help of satellites.

Internet and other modern communications tools; by using satellites and other electronic
equipment like the computer and telephone, new methods of communication have been
introduced to the world. Some of them include fax, e-mail and internet.

2.4. Tourism
Tourism is a collection of natural and human- made features, services and industries that deliver
a travel experience, and they include transportation, accommodations, eating and Drinking
establishments, retail shops, entertainment businesses, and other facilities Tourism is a source of
both job opportunities and income. It is known as a smokeless industry.

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Some of the reasons for tourism are; Site-seeing; Conferences; Port activities Skiing,
Mountaineering, Boating, Yachting Fishing, Hunting, Swimming, Secure Fresh Air Shot Springs
,Research and Religious Ceremonies.

Features that encourage the development of a tourist industry are: Good weather conditions;
Physical landscape features (scenic attractions); Services, such as bathing, boating, recreation,
hotels, restaurants, etc. Accessibility (transport facilities) and Historical sites, parks, etc.

Primary Economic Activity: Mining Minerals, such as iron, aluminum, coal, etc. are extracted
from the earth’s crust. They serve as raw material for manufacturing industries.

Secondary Economic Activity: Manufacturing industries such as air craft/automobile industries

use iron, aluminum, and other minerals to produce air planes or vehicles.

Tertiary Economic Activity: Whole sellers and retailers sale the semi-finished industrial
products to individual consumers.

3. Quaternary Economic Activities

The Quaternary Sector seen as an advanced form of service activity involving specialized
knowledge, technical skills, communication ability, or administrative competence.

These activities include education, research, development, financial services, and the
entertainment industry and government activities and concentrated in large urban places and
require higher levels of education Quaternary economic activity performed in office buildings,
elementary and university classrooms, hospitals and doctors’ offices, theatres and television
stations.

4. Quinary Economic Activities

Quinary economic activities are generally considered to be a sub-set of quaternary activities and
are those that involve high-level decision making and scientific research skills. The sector
representing the special and highly paid skills of top business executives, government officials,
research scientists, financial and legal consultants, and the like.

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 Land Use
Land is one of our most precious possessions. It provides food and shelter; it stores and filters
water, and a base for urban and industrial development which is limited in quantity. Land use
refers to the human activities related to use of its resources, or having an impact on it.Land
must be cleverly managed to meet the needs of people. The term land use has both rural and
urban aspects. The concepts of optimizing land use potential, and of land-use planning.

Population growth, limited expansion of arable land, and the rising of human need of land for
non-agricultural purposes increases competition on the land. Currently Land is under threat of
degradation which is caused by over cultivation, mining, poor management, and population
pressure.

Land Use in Ethiopia

 Only 21 % of Ethiopian total land is under cultivation and 51 % is pasture. More than 60%
of the cultivated area is cropland. Furthermost agricultural producers are subsistence
because of inaccessibility, water shortage, and prevalence of disease-causing insects,
mainly mosquitoes.
 The following reasons prevent the use of large parcels of potentially productive land in
Ethiopia.

These are;
 Sandy desert soils cover much of the arid lowlands.
 Because of low rainfall, these soils have limited agricultural potential.
 Inaccessibility water in low land areas
 Incidences of disease-causing insects such mosquitoes
 An engagement of people of lowland areas on livestock rearing and etc.

Driving Forces in Changing Land Use

Land use is influenced by human and natural or environmental causes either negatively or
positively direction.

 Negative land use: leading to land degradation and loss of (production) potential,.
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  Positive influences are resulting in a higher value or potential of land productivity.
The following are the main artificial and natural factors affecting land use either negatively or
positively. These are; Local culture; different economic activities; environmental conditions
(soil quality, terrain, and moisture availability); land policy and development programs
(agricultural programs, road building, zoning); Past human activities on the land (land
degradation, irrigation and roads).

Rural Land Use versus Urban Land Use

Land use /utilization/ varies from place to place.

 Rural land is characterized as; scattered Settlement and are used for farming, forestry,
pasture.

 Urban lands characterized as; most areas are used for housing, industries transportation
and other business and their Settlements are closely constructed.

NATURAL RESOURCES

A natural resource is often characterized by the amount of biodiversity that exists in various ecosystems.
Many of them are essential occur naturally within environments or human life, while others are used for
satisfying our wants. Natural resources include fertile soil, clean water, minerals, wildlife,
vegetation, and energy sources. People use all these resources to improve their lives.

Types of Resource
Natural resources categorized in to two Based on their renewability.

Renewable resources: are types of resources that can be replaced as they are used and
replaceable if they are exploited scientifically and managed. Example Forests, water, soil, plant
and animal life all can be renewable resources.

Non-renewable resources: non-renewable resources cannot be replaced once they have been
used and non-replaceable in character. Example fossil fuels like, coal, oil and natural gas and
minerals.
There is a great disparity in the distribution of natural resources (distributed unevenly) on the
earth. The resource exploitation traditions of human being led to the occurrence of environmental

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problems. The over used and misused of natural resources paved the way for environmental
degradation. The wisely and sustainably used of natural resource is the best instrument of
overcoming environmental deterioration and disasters.

Natural Vegetation
The term natural vegetation refers to the original cover of plants of a region resulting from
normal conditions of climate, soil, drainage and other natural conditions. The vegetation
modified by people, because of agricultural or urban development.

Direct use of natural vegetation

 Used as source of construction materials.

 Serves as a source of food such as nuts, fruits, roots, leaves, barks etc.
 Serves as a source of energy such as fuel wood, charcoal
 Serves as a source of industrial raw materials such as gums, lumber, nuts.
 Serves as a source of income.
 Regulates local climatic conditions.
 Maintains the balance of nature.
 Maintains soil fertility and regulates soil erosion.
 Serves as habitats for wild animals
The natural vegetation in Ethiopia is a most important source of raw materials for the
construction and furniture industries.

Among the most common woods that are used for these purposes are junipers (tid), pod carpus
(zigba), Aningeria (kerero), Arundineria (kerkaha), (weira), wanza, tikur inchet and bamboo.

Bamboo is one of the largest species natural vegetation over 1,200 different species of bamboo
forest which grown in ecological zone between 2200 – 3500 meters above sea level.

 Alpine bamboo; used as a material for making fences and water pipes, as well as a
variety of handicraft, items.
 The culms; are used by cottage industries for woven and plaited products such as
basketry, mats, and other decorative items.
 Highland Bamboo; used for manufacturing industrial products such as parquet
flooring, window blinds, curtains and bio-energy.
21
 Wild Animals
All wild living creatures such as Mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians and insects are
regarded as wildlife. The most common important functions of wild animals for human
beings are ; Source of food, Source of industrial raw materials ,Scientific and educational
purpose ,Maintaining the balance of nature ,Add beauty to the environment and Source of
individual and national income.

Minerals
A mineral is either inorganic or organic chemical elements or compounds found naturally in the
crust of the earth. The major uses of minerals are as follows:

 Minerals are raw materials for a variety of manufacturing establishments.

 Sources of energy that is used to run machinery. Examples: coal, petroleum and
natural gas.
 Used for making fertilizers like phosphates, sulphur, potash, and nitrates.
 Used for construction. Example minerals such as limestone, marble, granite, clay.
 Used for both aesthetic and ornamental purposes (silver and platinum are used in the
minting of coins as well as for other industrial purposes.
 Diamonds, gold and some others are useful ornamental minerals.

Soil
Soil is a natural resource consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses.
Soil composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and environmental
processes that include weathering and erosion.

Soil differs from its parent rock due to interactions between the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and the biosphere and the mixture of mineral and organic constituents that are in
solid, gaseous and liquid states.

The following are the major uses of soil:

 Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the primary nutrient base for plants.
 Soil resources are critical to the environment and food production.

22
 Soil provides minerals and water to plants.
 Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus preventing floods and drought.
 Soil cleans the water as infiltrates.
 Soil is the habitat for many organisms.
 The biological component of soil is extremely important for the carbon sink.
 Bacteria, lichens and mosses capture a significant amount of carbon by photosynthesis in
desert areas.
 Restoring the world’s soils could offset some of the huge increase in greenhouse gases

23
 REVIEW EXERCISE FOR CHAPTER THREE
I. Choose the correct word or phrase from the given alternatives
1. Among the following which one is not considered as the main Features of census?
A. Periodicity B. Simultaneity C. Cheapness D. Universality
2. Which population data source is collected through estimating apart of the whole population
in a certain place is known as-----
A. Sample survey B. Census C. Vital registration D. All
3. Which of the following statement correctly mention the difference between census and
Sample survey in population data source?
A. Sample survey is more expensive than census
B. Census is cheaper than sample survey
C. Census provide detail information than sample survey
D. Census is more expensive than sample survey
4. The completeness of registration and the reliability of the data gathered through vital
registration affected by the following except-----
A. Level of literacy B. Social awareness C. Social custom D. none
5. Which of the following is not the factor affecting the quality of population data.
A. Inadequate awareness B. False information C. Double entry D. Financial adequacy
6. Which of the following is the sparsely populated region of the world?
A. East Asia B. South Asia C. Tundra land D. European peninsula
7. Which statement is not true about the characteristics of rural population settlement?
A. Widely dispersed C. Isolated homesteads
B. Engaged in agriculture D. Engaged non-agricultural activities
8. Which activity is not part of primary economic activity?
A. Agriculture B. Forestry C. Mining D. Communication
9. Among the following nations one is not used fishery as the mainstay of their livelihoods?
A. Ethiopia B. Norway C .Iceland D. Japan
10. Which type of economic activity known as smokeless industry?
A. Forestry B. Mining C. Trade D. Tourism
11. All are an example renewable resource except------
A. Mineral B. Water C. Vegetation D. Soil

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 II. Match Items In Column ‘B’ With Items In Column ‘A’
(A) (B)
12. Primary economic activity A.Research
13. Secondary economic activity B. Service industry
14. Tertiary economic activity C. Power production
15. Quaternary economic activity D. White color information service
16. Query economic activity E. Extensive industry
III. Give short answer for the following question

17. State factors which influence land use changes in Ethiopia.

18. What are the differences between land use in urban and rural areas?
19. List the main characteristics of manufacturing activities.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

PUBLIC AND POLICY RELATED ISSUES IN ETHIOPIA

This public issues and policy related issues in Ethiopia such as ;HIV/AIDS, Environmental
Policy and Economic Policy are the main concern of this Unit .Ethiopia belongs to the countries
of sub-Saharan Africa that are heavily affected by Socio -economic and environmental factors.

The Human Immune deficiency Virus (HIV) is the virus that causes Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). HIV destroys the natural ability of the human body to fight off
opportunistic infections.

The aim of environmental policies and programs are to protect the environment from natural and
human-made problems. Ethiopia has formulated environmental policies and programs which
protect the environment by law. The law is designed to protect soil, water, forest, and minerals.

1. HIV/AIDS

 The spread of the HIV/AIDS epidemic has emerged as one of the most critical problems of
the population of the world, causing a high level of deaths as well as social and economic
problems. There are many ways in which a person can be infected with HIV/AIDS. Virus can
get into a person's with the direct contact of body fluids such as blood from the infected
person. A person infected with HIV can stay for a long time without showing any symptoms.
The most common ways of contracting an HIV/AIDS infection are through:

 Unsafe or unprotected sexual intercourse.

 Shared use of items such as needles, blades and other sharp objects.
 Transfusion of infected blood,
 Unsafe delivery and breast feeding.
 A person whose blood test shows an infection with HIV/AIDS is referred to as HIV-positive.
Any one cannot get infected with HIV/AIDS by sitting, eating, swimming or shaking hands,
etc. with a person who is HIV-positive.
 In the last two decades the expansion of HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia was risen a larger rate
because of absence of awareness in a society, vaccination and different cares.

26
 Due to this, millions of peoples, particularly youths or productive age groups left their life in
sub Saharan Africa including Ethiopia. Many orphans were vulnerable to poverty and
exploitation and to becoming infected with HIV themselves.
 They were often forced to leave the education system and find work, and sometimes to care
for younger siblings or to head a family. The first two AIDS cases were reported in 1986.
Since then, the disease has spread at an alarming rate. In sub-Saharan Africa, AIDS killed
approximately 1.4 million people in 2008.HIV prevalence varies considerably across this
region − ranging from less than 1 percent in Madagascar to over 25 percent in Swaziland
 Average survival in the absence of treatment is around 10 years after infection. The primary
mode of HIV transmission in Ethiopia is sexual contact. Even though of small magnitude at
present, the next most common modes of infection are harmful indigenous practices and
unsafe injections. These major causes for the spread of the virus, require due attentions.

Impacts of HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS has several multifaceted impacts on humanity. So far, it has

 Shortened life expectancy and caused an increase in tuberculosis.

 Increased hospital bed occupancy.
 Depleted the productive work force.
 Intensified food insecurity.

Vulnerability
 Women, young commercial sex workers, and orphans and children in general are the most
vulnerable groups in Ethiopia. Women, due to economic, educational and biological factors
as well as various harmful traditional practices, such as female circumcision and body
scarification, are considered more vulnerable than men. Age, emotional development and
financial dependence as well as poverty and lack of awareness about the disease, are major
factors of vulnerability among the youth.

2. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

 Environmental policies are guidelines formulated for a wise use of environmental

resources. They help us to form systematic conservation techniques, which help to
minimize miss use of resources.
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 Most solutions for major conservation problems are derived from environmental policies.
The main goal of these policies is the protection of the environment from natural and human-
made problems.
 When people use natural resources to make a living, they affect the environment. The
unwise use of resources is a threat to the environment. Many human activities can cause
pollution, putting toxic or poisonous substances into the land, water, and air.

Land and water

 Chemicals that farmers use may increase the productivity of their crops but some also
damage the land.
 Pesticides or chemicals that kill insects can pollute rivers and ground water.
 Illegal dumping of dangerous waste products also causes problems. Untreated sewage
reaching rivers pollutes lakes and groundwater as well.

Air

 Industries and vehicles that burn fossil fuels pollute air.

 Fumes from cars and other vehicles poison the air.
 The chemicals in polluted air can seriously damage people’s health.
 Acid rain corrodes the surfaces of buildings, kills fish, and can destroy entire forests.

Energy
 Fossil fuels are most often used to generate electricity, heat buildings, run machinery, and
power vehicles contribute to air trash. The above-mentioned problems are becoming very
serious. Therefore Ethiopia has launched a policy of environmental protection.

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 The Objectives (Goals) of the Environmental
Policy of Ethiopia
The overall goals of Ethiopia’s environmental policy are;
 To improve and enhance the health and quality of life of all Ethiopians and
 To promote sustainable social and economic development through the sound
management and use of natural, human-made and environment as a whole.
 This goal aims at meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

. Specific Policy Objectives

The specific objectives of the environmental policy of Ethiopia are to:

 Promote development that is sustainable and optimize resource use and management
opportunities.
 Ensure that environmental concerns are explicitly addressed and incorporated into the
decision-making process.
 Develop, implement and measure programs that promote management systems for the
environment.
 Prevent, minimize or offset the adverse impacts of municipal waste and other potential
pollutants.
 Prevent the adverse effects of developmental proposals that may generate hazardous
substances or wastes.
 Raise public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages between
environment and development.

Sectorial environmental Policies

Developing countries of the world, major environmental problems include deforestation, soil
degradation, wildlife destruction and misuse of water resources . Therefore, the environmental
policies of the developing countries focus on such problems. The environmental policies of
Ethiopia related to major resources are summarized as follows;

29
 1. Policy Related to Soil and Agriculture

 Increasing agricultural production on sustainably improving and intensifying existing

modern and technological farming systems.
 Planning for agricultural development in corporates in its economic cost-benefit analysis the
potential costs of soil degradation through erosion.
 To safeguard the integrity of the soil and to protect its physical and biological
properties, through management practices for the production of crops and livestock
 To promote the use of appropriate organic matter and nutrient management for
improving soil structure, nutrient status, soil conservation and land husbandry.
 Securing human and environmental health, prepare regulation of agricultural (crop
and livestock) chemicals.

2. Policy related to Forest, Woodland and Tree Resources

 To recognize the complementary roles of communities, private entrepreneurs and the

state in forestry development.
 To encourage all concerned individuals and communities as well as the government to be
actively involved in the planning and implementation of forestry.
 To ensure that forestry development strategies integrate the development, management
and conservation of forest resources.
 To pursue agricultural and other policies and programs that will reduce pressure on
fragile woodland resources and ecosystems
 To promote changes in agricultural and natural-resource management with limiting
over grazing.

3. Policy related to Genetic, Species and Ecosystem Biodiversity

 To promote the involvement of local communities inside and outside protected areas in
the planning and management of such areas.
 To ensure that the conservation of biological diversity outside the protected-area system
be integrated with strategic land use plans, local level plans and sustainable agricultural
and pastoral production strategies.

30
 4. Policy related to Water Resources
 To promote the protection of the interface between water bodies and land.
 To involve water resource users, particularly women and animal herders, in the
planning, design, implementation and follow up in their local water.
 To subject all major water conservation, development and management projects such as
watershed forests, wetlands and other relevant ecosystems.
 To improve the performance of medium to large-scale irrigation schemes.

5. Policy related to Energy Resources

 To adopt inter-sectorial planning and development with energy conservation,
environmental protection and sustainable utilization of renewable resources.
 To locate, develop, or adopt energy sources and technologies to replace biomass fuel.

6. Policy related to Mineral Resources

 To provide technical and material assistance to artisan miners to improve environmental
protection and output efficiency.
 To encourage and support small-scale miners to practice consistent application of
environmental laws, rules and regulations.
 To advise and train mining communities in methods of environmental protection and
reclamation of abandoned mining areas.

7. Economic Policy of Ethiopia

Economic policy covers the system for setting interest rates and government budget as well as
actions related to the labor market, national ownership and many other areas of government
intervention in the economy.

8. Types of Economic Policy

The following are the main economic policy of Ethiopia;
 Macroeconomic stabilization policy;
 Trade policy;
 Policies designed to create economic growth;
 Policies related to development economics and Industrial policy.
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Based on the new economic policy, the Ethiopian government formulated a long-term economic
development strategy known as Agricultural-Development-Led-Industrialization which is
devised to stimulate the country’s underdeveloped economic structure.

It is a two-sided strategy, integrating:

 The external sector (export-led)

 The internal sector which explains the forward and the backward relationship between
agriculture and industry.

The Objectives (Goals) of the New

Economic Policy of Ethiopia

 Changing the role of the state in the economy.

 Mobilizing external resources to the development efforts of the country.
 Involving regional administrations in economic management.
 Promoting public participation in development.
 Promoting private investment to Agriculture and Food Production.
 Increasing extension and research services with extension packages that provide better
solutions to respond to farmers’ needs.
 Adoption of new rural land proclamations in the four largest regions of the country.
 Shifting of the rural labor force from agricultural to non-agricultural activities, which
would improve productivity and ease the population pressure on rural land.

8.1. Policy Related to Industrial Sector

 This underlined the development of the manufacturing sector which produces materials
mainly for domestic markets.

8.2. Policy Related to Energy

 The energy sector policy strains the need for the expansion of hydro-power, the
exploitation of geothermal energy and the sustainable utilization of traditional energy
sources.

32
 9. Policy Related to Transport/Communication
 Focused on the expansion of facilities, especially rural roads, the improvement of
construction material supply and ultimately self-sufficiency, planned and coordinated
development
10. Policy Related to Education
 The main objective of the education policy is to improve the relevance and quality of
teaching methods and materials and to foster student success and equity.
 Upgrading standards, through the provision of educational abilities and instructional
materials as well as upgrading the quality of teachers.

The overall goal of the educational policy of Ethiopia is;

 To improve quality.
 Increasing student’s access to educational opportunities at the primary level and to
achieve universal primary education by the year 2015.
 To enhance efficiency and use resources wisely.
 To address equity issues by narrowing the gap between male and female, among regions,
and between rural and urban areas
 To provide increased access to Adult and Non-Formal Education in order to combat the
problem of adult illiteracy.
 To increase access to quality secondary education based on the demand of the economy
for skilled human resources and the intake capacity at the tertiary level.

11. In Technical and Vocational Education and Training /TVET;

 To provide relevant and demand-driven education and training to satisfy the needs of
economic and social sectors for employment and self-employment.
 To assure the quality of TVET training programs.
 To enable TVET institutions to generate their own income and thereby reduce
government allocations to the sub-sector.

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 11.1. In Tertiary Education
 To develop responsible and competent citizens who meet the nation’s quantitative and
qualitative demand for a high-level trained labor force.
 To set up cost-effective, efficient and results-oriented systems and develop modern and
effective human-resource management procedures and practices.
 To develop the volume, quality and relevance of research and consultancy services
directed to the needs of the country.

12. Policy Related to Health

 The health policy focuses on primary and preventive health measures, with a new five
year policy of health delivery, based on community-level services. In order to achieve the
Health Sector Developmental Program, the following strategies have been designed:
 Vigorous implementation of the Health Service Extension Program for the effective
prevention and control of communicable diseases and promotion of healthy living;
 Enhancing the capacity of district health offices in the expansion of Public Health
Centre (PHC) facilities and services;
 Improving the quality of health care through provision of adequate resources,
implementation of a two-way referrals system, and enhancing the capacity of Health
Education Workers.
 Strengthening secondary and tertiary hospitals and referral laboratories;
 Improving the number, skills, distribution and management of health workers;
 Ensuring the planned training of health managers in adequate numbers and providing
them with appropriate knowledge and skills;
 Mobilizing adequate financial resources, ensuring their efficient utilization, and
strengthening sustainable financing mechanisms for the health sector;
 Improving the health information system and the capacity for effective monitoring and
evaluation;
 Ensuring full community participation in the planning, implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of health care;
 Promoting and coordinating the activities of the public sector, private sector,
international organizations and NGOs in health intervention.

34
 REVIEW EXERCISE FOR CHAPTER FOUR
I. Choose The Correct Word Or Phrase From The Given Alternatives
1. The most vulnerable social group to HIV/AIDS infection are------
A. Women B. Elites C. Business men’s D. Researches
2. Among the following one is not the main impacts of HIV/AIDS?
A. Depleted the productive work force C. Shortened life expectancy
B. Food insecurity D. Prosperity
3. In the last two decades HIV/AIDS Vulnerability was very high in sub-Saharan Africa
because of; A. Lack of awareness B. Financial problem C. Poverty D. All are correct
4. All are the serious cause of air pollution in the world currently accepted----?
A. Industries wastes B. Fumes from Vehicles C. Acid rain Vegetation cover
5. Which of the following is the main environmental problem in developing regions?
A. Deforestation B. Soil degradation C. Wildlife destruction D. All are correct
6. Among the following which one is not considered as specific objectives of
environmental Ethiopia
A. Maintaining Impacts of municipal waste and other potential pollutants.
B. Promoting unwise use of resource
C. Preventing hazardous substances or wastes
D. Promote management systems for the environment.
7. Which one is true about over all educational policy of Ethiopia?
A. Increasing student’s access to educational opportunities
B. Addressing educational equity among female and male
C. increased access to Adult and Non-Formal Education
D. All are correct
8. Which one of the following is not an environmental problem?
A. Deforestation B. Soil degradation C. Wildlife depletion D .Reforestation

35
II. MATCH ITEMS IN COLUMN ‘B’ WITH ITEMS IN COLUMN ‘A’
-A- -B-
9. Policy related to Health A. Limiting over grazing.
10. Policy related Education B. Development of the manufacturing sector.
11. Policy related Transport C. Application of miners environmental laws
12. Policy related Energy D. Strengthen referral hospital laboratories.
13. Policy related Industrial Sector E. Exploitation of geothermal energy.
14. Policy related Forestry F. Promoting large-scale irrigation schemes.
15. Economic Policy G. copping soil erosion
16. Policy to Mineral Resources H. Combating the problem of adult illiteracy.
17. Policy Related to Soil I. Agriculture led industrialization
18. Policy to Water Resources J. Expansion rural roads inter connection
III. GIVE SHORT ANSWER FOR THE FOLLOWING QUESTION
19. Are forests, wildlife and soils legally protected in your area? What happens to people
who misuse these resources?
20. List some objectives of the Ethiopian environmental policy.

Answer key for chapter four

1. C
2. C
3. D
4. D
5. D
6. C
7. D
8. D
9. A
10. D
11. A
12. A
13. C
14. B
15. A
16. D

36
17. Cultivation culture, environmental condition, land productivity, different
economic activities.
18. Some the characteristic of urban land use are; used for house, used for
industrial accessibilities, are densely populated and engaged on
nonagricultural activities.
Some of rural land uses are; used for agricultural activities scattered in
settlement and mostly engaged on farming and forestry.
19. Manufacturing activities characterized by; Dependency on raw materials,
Transformation of raw materials into finished or semi-finished product; Manufacturing
need power, skilled manpower, huge capital and modern technology; characterized by a
high level of division of labor; and The end products that are ready for consumption
Answer key four chapter Four

1. A
2. D
3. D
4. D
5. D
6. B
7. D
8. D
9. G
10. H
11. J
12. E
13. B
14. A
15. I
16. C
17. G
18. F

37