Diagnosis and Assessment of Distress - NDT

Investigation of the damage:

A systematic investigation of damage of the concrete structure is very

important to

 Find out the cause of the damage

 Assess the condition of the structure during damaged state
 Formulate the recommendations for repairing the damaged portions of the
structure
 General procedure for an investigation

 Documentation of the damage

 Visual observation
 Measurements on geometrical properties such as deflections
 Tests for evaluating material properties and behavior
 Interpretation and analysis of the test results
 Formulation of the repair measures
 Post repair evaluation
 Diagnosis of the cracks
Following information are very helpful in diagnosing the cracks
 Whether the crack is active or dormant(static)
 Whether the crack is new or old
 Pattern of the cracks
 Whether cracks appear on the opposite side of the member
 Soil condition, type of foundation
 Study of the specification, method of construction used and test results at
the site
 Weather, during which of the structure has been constructed.
 Purpose of evaluation of cracks

 To identify the causes of the cracking

 To assess the structure for its safety and serviceability
 To establish the extent of cracking
 To establish the extent of further deterioration
 To study the suitability of various remedial measures
 To make the final assessment for serviceability after repairs.
 Procedures for conducting case study

Inspection Schedule Methods

First Survey •History of Structure

•Visual Inspection
•Second Survey •Rebound hammer
•Ultra Sonic testing
•Cover Test
•Arrangements of rebars
•Other NDT (if necessary)
 Contd.,

Inspection Schedule Methods

Third Survey •Core Test

•Displacement test
 Visual Inspection

 Cracks
 Spalling
 Dampness
 Corrosion of steel and rust staining
 Honeycombing due to poor compaction
 Area in which remedial finishing works had already been done
 External contamination (surface deposits)
 Cracks due to bending and shear stresses

Cracks due to differential settlement of columns

Cracking in columns and beams due to earthquake Effect of heating and thawing effects
Non-uniformity of admixtures Effect of atmospheric conditions
Minor Bridge
Minor Bridge - Abutment
Minor Bridge
T- Beam Bridge
T- beam Bridge – 1st Girder near shoulder side
Pier
Dirt Wall
Bearing
Sides of Girder
Sides of Girder
Location near Drain Pipe
Deck Slab
 Non- Destructive Tests

 Non –destructive testing is used to assess the quality of concrete in its

damaged state without any disturbance of the surrounding concrete
 Non- destructive testing is less time consuming, easy to use in the site and
relatively less expensive
Purpose of the NDT
 To test the actual structure instead of the sample
 To test more places and at any location
 To assess the quality control of the actual structures
 To assess the structure for various distressed conditions
 To detect cracks, void, fractures and honeycombs
 Purpose of the NDT (contd.,)

 To monitor the progressive changes in the properties of the concrete and

reinforcements
 To assess the overall stability of the structures
 To assess the uniformity of the concrete
 To monitor the repair and rehabilitation systems
 Used for damage assessment due to chemical attack etc.,
 To find the reinforcement locations, stress locations
 To assess the poor construction practices
 To assess the materials used and workmanship with specification
 Non- Destructive testing methods

 Rebound hammer method  Electromagnetic method

 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity method  Acoustic emission technique
 Windsor Probe method  Radiography method
 Cover meter  Resonance Frequency method
 Carbonation depth test method  Dynamic or vibration method
 Half Cell electrical potential method  Pulse attention method
 Carbonation depth test method  Pulse echo method
 Nuclear method
 Radar technique
 Magnetic method
 REBOUND HAMMER TEST
Principle
Rebound of elastic mass depends on surface
hardness, which is related to compressive strength of concrete.

Standards
Test is carried out as per IS-13311(Clause-2)
 This is a simple, handy tool.
 It consists of a spring controlled hammer that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing.

Applications
1. Checking the uniformity of concrete quality
2. Comparing a given concrete with specified requirement
3. Approximate estimation of strength
4. Abrasion resistance classification
EQUIPMENT
Test Procedure
METHODOLOGY
Results are influenced by
a) Mix Characteristics
 Cement Type
 Cement Content
b) Coarse Aggregate Type
c) Member Characteristics
 Mass
 Compaction
 Surface type
 Ager, Rate of hardening and curing type
 Surface Carbonation
 Moisture Condition
 Stress state and temperature
 Cement Content
Interpretation of results
 ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TESTER
 Principle
The measurement of time travelled by the electrically generated pulses through
the concrete.
Longitudinal pulse velocity (km/s)
v=(l/t)
l – Path Length.
t – Time taken by the pulse to travel that length.

 Standards
Test is carried out as per IS-13311(Part-1) 1992.
EQUIPMENT
 Cont…

The equipment consists of

 Electrical pulse generator
 Transducer – one pair; (One – Exciter, other one – Receiver)
 Electronic timing device
METHODOLOGY
 Direct Transmission (on opposite faces)

 The transfer of energy between transducers is maximum in this arrangement

 The accuracy of velocity determination is governed by the accuracy of the path

length measurement.
 Indirect transmission

 Sound concrete-sound waves travel the larger distance up to bottom of the

member so transit time gets increased.

 Shallow crack-waves travel around the crack, the transit time will decrease
with increased apparent velocity.

 For a given path length, the receiving transducer get signal of only about 2%
or 3% of amplitude that produced by direct transmission
 Cont…

 The indirect velocity is invariably lower than the direct velocity on the same
concrete element.

 This difference may vary from 5% to 20% depending on the quality of the
concrete
 Advantages

The ultrasonic pulse velocity method could be used ,

 To ensure the strength of concrete.
 the homogeneity of the concrete
 the presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections
 the quality of concrete in relation to standard requirement
 the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another
 Results Analysis

 Sound concrete-sound waves travel the shortest distance between transducers.

 Shallow crack-waves travel around the crack, the transit time will increase and
apparent velocity gets reduced.
 narrow crack-waves are partially reflected and partially transmitted with large
loss in amplitude.
 Wide crack-sound waves are wholly reflected and no signal received
 Voids and micro cracks-travel around or across the crack.
 If water presents the transit time increased and velocity gets reduced.
 Contd.,

 For good quality concrete pulse velocity will be higher and for poor quality it
will be less.

 If there is a crack, void or flaw inside the concrete it passed around the
discontinuity, thereby making the path length longer. Consequently, lower
velocities are obtained.
Interpretation of Results
 Factors Influencing

 Surface Condition
 Moisture Content
 Temperature of Concrete
 Path Length
 Shape and Size of the specimen
 Reinforcement
 Factors influencing pulse velocity measurement

 Moisture Content
 Path Length
-minimum path length
100mm- 20mm or less than the nominal size of aggregate
150mm- for 20-40 mm of nominal size
 Size and shape of the specimen
The velocity of pulses of vibrations is independent of the size and shape of
specimen, unless its least lateral dimension is less than a certain minimum
value.
Relation between ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength for concretes of
different mix proportions.
 WINDSOR PROBE TEST

Principle
Under standard conditions, penetration of probe is inversely proportional to
compressive strength.

Standards
Test is carried out as per BS-1881(Part 207), ASTM C-803

Types of probe
Based on density of concrete two type are available
 Low power – when concrete strength is less than 19.4 Mpa
 High power – when concrete strength varies from 19.4 Mpa – 110 MPa
 EQUIPMENT

The equipment consists of

 Powder -actuated gun or driver
 Hardened alloy steel probes
 Loaded cartridges
 A depth gauge for measuring the penetration of probes
METHODOLOGY
 LIMITATIONS

 The minimum distance between any two test locations is of order of 150 mm
to 200 mm, while minimum thickness of member is about three times expected
depth of penetration.
 The minimum thickness of the member, which can be tested, is about three
times the expected depth of probe penetration.
 The distance from reinforcement can also have an effect on the depth of probe
penetration especially when the distance is less than about 100mm.
 On an exposed face the probes have to be removeand the damages area
repaired.
Cover Meter Test
 Procedure

Working principle
 Electromagnetic Pulse induction technology

 Non – destructive pulse induction technology

The surface has to be cleaned and it should be free from

dust, oil etc ., to facilitate scanning
 Contd.,

The pulse-induction method is based on electromagnetic

pulse induction technology to detect rebars.

Change in voltage can be utilized for the measurement.


Rebars that are closer to the probe or of larger size
produce a stronger magnetic field.
 Contd.,

It locates

 Reinforcing bar

 Spacing of bar

 Diameter of bar

 Concrete Cover
 Limitations

Only peripheral rebars can be detected

Accuracy generally vary between 10% to 20%.

Actual number of rebars cannot be located if the rebars are closely spacend
in one location

Depth of cover greater than 60mm then the estimation of rebars will not be
accurate or possible.
 Half-cell electrical potential method
Principle
 The measuring the potential of an embedded reinforcing bar related to a
reference of a half-cell placed on the concrete surface.
 The half-cell is usually a copper/ copper sulphate or silver/silver chloride sell
is used
 The concrete functions like an electrolyte amd the risk of corrosion of
reinforcement in the immediate region of the test location is identified
 Based on emprically to the measured potential difference.
Standards
Test is carried out as per ASTM C876 - 91.
 Half-cell electrical potential method

Equipment Consist of
 Half-cell
 Electrical junction device
 Contact solution
 Voltmeter
 Electrical lead wires.
 Cont…

procedure
 either grid pattern or random pattern

 An area with greater than 150mv –high corrosion activity.

Risk of corrosion against the potential difference readings

Potential difference levels (mv) Chances of re-bar being corroded

Less than – 500 Visible evidence of corrosion

-350 to -500 95%

-200 to -350 50%

More than 200 5%

Interpretation of test results
 Limitations

 Not possible to measure the actual corrosion rate

 Surface preparation, drilling a small hole to enable electrical contact

with the reinforcement.

 Experience operator – interpretation of results

 CARBONATION DEPTH MEAUREMENT
OBJECTIVE
Carbonation of concrete in cover results in loss of protection to the steel
against corrosion

Integrity of the steel bars is a direct function of the capacity of the concrete to
meet the durability of the reinforced concrete
 PROCESS

 Process by which CO2 from air penetrates into concrete and reacts with
calcium hydroxide.

 The presence of CO2 reduces the alkalinity of concrete. It drops from the usual
pH of around 13 to 9 leads to depassivation of the reinforcements, exposing
them to corrosion.
 TEST FOR CARBONATION

 The depth of carbonation can be measured by spraying the fractured concrete

surface with a 0.2% solution of phenolphthalein in ethanol. The pink coloured
area presents uncarbonated concrete and the colourless portion, the carbonated
area.
Cont.,
 RATE OF CARBONATION

 Relative humidity or pore water availability.

 Grade of concrete- because of low w/c ratio.
 Permeability of concrete.
 Depth of cover.
 Whether concrete is protected or not.
Correlation of depth of carbonation with grade of concrete.

Age-years Depth of carbonation(mm)

M 20 M40
2 5.0 0.5
5 8.0 1.0
10 12.0 2.0
50 25.0 4.0
 Carbonation testing

 simple colored dye field test for carbonation.

 a type of pH indicator which will indicate the change of pH on a freshly

exposed concrete surface
Cont..
 laboratory test

 using concrete cylinders ,the compressive strength test will be

conducted before and after the carbonation tests.

 The correlation between the strength and the properties allowed the
evaluation of the action of CO2 in concrete.
Impacts
 flexural strength can be decreased.

 Carbonation provoked a reduction of 5% to 12% of the open porosity of

concrete.
 limitations

 It allows a minor damage to the concrete surfaces due to drilling or

boring.
 Pulse Echo method

Objective
 a) to measure the presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections

 b)to measure the thickness of depth of concrete.

Principle
The measurement of the time interval between transmitting an ultrasonic
impulse into the structure and receiving an echo.
 VARIOUS METHODS OF NDT

1 . ACOUSTIC EMISSION

2 . ELECTROMAGNETIC -CONCRETE RESISTANCE METER

3 . FIBRE SCOPE(ENDOSCOPE)

4 . GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

 ACOUSTIC EMISSION

Principle:
 When a material is loaded, part of it may be loaded beyond its elastic limit.
Kinetic energy is released.

 They are inaudible but can be detected by sensors attached to the surface of a
tested object.
Main application:
 By continuous monitoring-to detect impending failure and monitor performance
of structure during proof testing.
User practice:
 Extensive knowledge is required to plan the test and to interpret results.
Advantages:
 Detecting the onset of failure & locating the source of possible failure.

 Since acoustical signals come from defects throughout the structures, a few
transducers are enough to detect and locate defects over large areas.
Limitations:

 The equipments cost are high.

 Complex electronic equipment.

 The method is not fully developed.

 CONCRETE RESISTANCE METER

Principle:
 Resistivity of concrete is related to its moisture content and to a lesser degree to
chloride content.
 Gives the rate of corrosion due to
 Oxygen-moisture
 Chloride-Oxygen-moisture in reinforcement
 Procedure

 Consist of four electrodes

 Placed in straight line on or just below the concrete surface.
 Low frequency alternating current is passed between the two outer electrodes
 Voltage drop between the inner electrodes is measured

ρ = 2 * π * a *V/ I
 Where
 ρ - Resistivity – (ohm-cm)

 V – Voltage drop

 I – Applied current

 a – electrode spacing
Experimental setup
 Interpretation of the measurements during Corrosion Assessment

Sl.No Resistivity (ohm cm) Likely Corrosion Rate

1. Less than 5,000 Very high

2. 5,000 – 10,000 High

3. 10,000 – 20,000 Low/ Moderate

4. Greater than 20,000 Negligble

Main applications:
Used for
 Measuring ability of concrete to conduct corrosion current.
 Higher the resistance slower the corrosion.
 Measure moisture content.
 Map moisture migration patterns.
User expertise:
 Low expertise is sufficient.
Advantages:
 Inexpensive and simple
 Rapid measurement
 Can be used in conjunction with other method of testing.
Limitations:

 Not reliable at higher moisture content.

 Needs calibrations
 Precise results are not obtained.
 Readings may be affected by poor electrode contact
 FIBRE SCOPE(ENDOSCOPE)

Principle:
 Consists of bundles of flexible optical fibre with lens and illuminating system.

 Inserted into pre-drilled boreholes of elements and its condition is examined.

Main applications:
Used to
 Check condition of
 Materials in cavities,
 Concealed piping,
 Honeycombing in reinforced masonry constructions.
 Detect voids along grouted stressed tendons.
User expertise:
 Interpretative visual skill is required.
 Experience and training are required for correct result
Advantages:
 Affords direct visual inspection of inaccessible parts of an element.

Limitations:
 Semi destructive
 Must be drilled and connected to a cavity.
 GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Principle:
 Radio frequency waves(0.5 to 2GHz) from radar are directed into material.
 Transducer is drawn over the surface from the reflected wave.
 It forms a continuous profile of the material condition below.
Main applications:
To detect
 The location of reinforcement
 The depth of cover
 The location of voids
 The location of cracks
 In-situ density
 Moisture content variations.
User expertise:
 Must have good knowledge of wave propagation in different materials.
 Experience and training are required
Advantages:
Used to survey large area rapidly for locating
 Reinforcement.
 Voids and cracks.
Limitations:
 Results musts be correlated with sample result
 Any features screened by steel will not be recorded.
 Larger the depth harder to receive signal.
 Uneconomical for small areas.
 PARTIAL DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

Pullout test
There are two options for the pullout test:
 Danish lok test which requires that the head be cast into the concrete at the time
of construction.
 This test gives a good indication of near surface compressive strength.
 UK (BRE) Pullout involves drilling a hole and inserting a “fixing” which is
pulled out.
 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE

 The advantage of this test is that it does not require a head to be cast into the
concrete during construction.

 The disadvantage is that the test really measures tensile strength and is then
calibrated to compressive strength.
Category
 The pullout test is a test that falls in the transition area between a destructive test
and a non-destructive test.
 It is destructive in the sense that a relatively large volume of the concrete is
damaged but non-destructive because the damaged can be repaired.
 PROCEDURE

 The pullout test measures the force required to pull an embedded metal insert
with an enlarged head from a concrete specimen or a structure.

 The insert is pulled by a loading ram seated on a bearing ring that is concentric
with the insert shaft.

 The bearing ring transmits the reaction force to the concrete.

Schematic view of pull-out test
 Contd….
 Frustum geometry is controlled by the inner diameter of the bearing ring (D), the
diameter of the insert head (d), and the embedment depth (h).

 The apex angle (2α) of the idealized frustum is given by:

2α = 2tan-1 (D-d/2h)

 As the insert is pulled out, a conical shaped fragment of concrete is extracted

from the concrete mass.
 Contd.,

 Pullout test subjects the concrete to a slowly applied load and measures an
actual strength property of the concrete.
 An important step in implementing the method is choosing the locations and
number of pullout tests in a given placement of concrete.
 The inserts should be located in the most critical portions of the structure and
there should be a sufficient number of tests to provide statistically significant
results.
 BRE pullout test

 BRE pullout test was developed to permit testing in an existing construction by

drilling a hole and inserting some type of expansion anchor.

 The results of these tests are difficult to interpret if a correlation curve does not
exist for the concrete used in the construction.
 PULLOFF TEST

 This test involves attaching a plate to the concrete using epoxy resin and, after
curing
has taken place, measuring the force required to pull the plate off.
 This test scars the concrete but gives a measure of the near surface tensile strength
which can be converted to the compressive strength provided a correlation exists
between the compressive strength and tensile strength for the concrete mix being
investigated.
PULL OFF- TEST
 CORE TEST

 Extraction of core samples is essential.

 Cores are extracted by drilling using a diamond tipped core cutter cooled with
water.
 Broken samples, for example, due to popping, spalling and delamination, are also
commonly retrieved for further analysis as these samples may provide additional
evidence as to the cause of distress.
 covermeter can be used to ensure there are no reinforcing bars where the core is
to be taken; or the ultrasonic pulse velocity test can be used to establish the areas
of maximum and minimum pulse velocity that could indicate the highest and
lowest compressive strength areas in the structure
The extracted cores can be subjected to a series of tests and serve multiple functions
such as:
 confirming the findings of the non-destructive test
 identifying the presence of deleterious matter in the concrete
 ascertaining the strength of the concrete for design purposes
 predicting the potential durability of the concrete
 confirming the mix composition of the concrete for dispute resolution
 determining specific properties of the concrete not attainable by non-destructive
methods such as intrinsic permeability.