Topic Name: RADAR.

First principles of natural sciences and engineering sciences:

Radar in Natural Science:
The modern use of field deployed remote sensors generates large amounts of
environmental data on natural systems, and this benefits natural sciences. Today’s
automated sensors are fast, run nearly continuously, eliminate the need for “people
power”, are cost effective to operate and maintain, and monitor the environment in ways
humans cannot. The US network of more than 200 weather radars, the largest terrestrial
sensor network in the world, is a case in point. Although designed for meteorological
applications, these radars readily detect the movements of hundreds of species of birds,
bats, and insects. Recent research suggests these radars show enormous potential to
inform on a wide range of biological applications across many fields including wildlife
ecology, conservation, and management; weather-related modeling and forecasting;
energy development; human safety; and public education. from wildlife management to
improved flight safety. Researchers see a need to develop data processing methods that
enable biologists, meteorologists, and others to both mine biological information from
existing weather radars and distinguish among different types of flying animals.
Radar in Engineering science:
Radar is one of the best technology in Engineering Science. Radar is a detection system
that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used
to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations,
and terrain. A radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in
the radio or microwaves domain, a transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna (often the
same antenna is used for transmitting and receiving) and a receiver and processor to
determine properties of the object(s). Radio waves (pulsed or continuous) from the
transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the
object's location and speed.
The Radar Science and Engineering Section conducts research, development, and flight
missions in the field of radar remote sensing of the Earth and the planets. Techniques
utilized include synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) imaging, radar interferometry, altimetry,
subsurface sounding, scatterometry, and cloud and rain radars. Radars are developed for
both airborne and spaceborne platforms. The section is also a leader in the area of
planetary landing radars .
Marine radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to prevent collision
with other ships, to navigate, and to fix their position at sea when within range of shore or
other fixed references such as islands, buoys, and lightships. In port or in harbour, vessel
traffic service radar systems are used to monitor and regulate ship movements in busy
waters.
Relate in Electrmegnetic Field And Wave Principle:
Radar systems detect the presence, direction or range of aircraft, ships or other, usually
moving objects. This is achieved by sending pulses of high frequency electromagnetic
fields (EMF). Invented some 60 years ago, radar systems have been widely used for
navigation, aviation, national defence and weather forecasting. Their primary objective is
individual and collective safety and protection.

Radar systems send electromagnetic waves in pulses and not continuously. This makes
the average power emitted much lower than the peak pulse power.
Radars are directional and the RF energy they generate is contained in beams that are
very narrow and resemble the beam of a spotlight. RF levels away from the main beam
fall off rapidly. In most cases, these levels are thousands of times lower than in the
main beam.
Electromagnetic Waves spectrum of Radar:
Radar Frequency Equation:

Where;
Speed of light, c
c= 3x108 m/sec = 300,000,000 m/sec

Analyze The Wide Ranging Of Radar :

There are 6 major parts of a RADAR System:

 A Transmitter: It can be a power amplifier like a Klystron, Travelling Wave

Tube or a power Oscillator like a Magnetron. The signal is first generated using a
waveform generator and then amplified in the power amplifier.
 Waveguides: The waveguides are transmission lines for transmission of the
RADAR signals.
 Antenna: The antenna used can be a parabolic reflector, planar arrays or
electronically steered phased arrays.
 Duplexer: A duplexer allows the antenna to be used as a transmitter or a receiver.
It can be a gaseous device that would produce a short circuit at the input to the receiver
when transmitter is working.
 Receiver: It can be super heterodyne receiver or any other receiver which consists
of a processor to process the signal and detect it.
 Threshold Decision: The output of the receiver is compared with a threshold to
detect the presence of any object. If the output is below any threshold, the presence of
noise is assumed.
Radar range equation:
The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the equation:

Where;
 Pt = transmitter power
 Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna
 Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna; this can also be
expressed as 

where;

 λ = transmitted wavelength
 Gr = gain of receiving antenna[37]
 σ = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target
 F = pattern propagation factor
 Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target
 Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.

Basic Types Of Radar:

Radars can be classified into the following Basic two types based on the type of
signal with which Radar can be operated.
  Pulse Radar
 Continuous Wave Radar
Now, let us discuss about these two types of Radars one by one.
Pulse Radar:
The Radar, which operates with pulse signal for detecting stationary targets, is
called the Basic Pulse Radar or simply, Pulse Radar. It uses single Antenna for
both transmitting and receiving signals with the help of Duplexer.
Antenna will transmit a pulse signal at every clock pulse. The duration between
the two clock pulses should be chosen in such a way that the echo signal
corresponding to the present clock pulse should be received before the next clock
pulse.
Continuous-wave radar ( CW radar): This is a type of  radar  system where a
known stable frequency  continuous wave radio energy is transmitted and then
received from any reflecting objects. Individual objects are detected using
the Doppler effect, which causes the received signal to have a different frequency
than the transmission, allowing it to be detected by filtering out the transmitted
frequency.
Advantages of Radar:
1. The main advantage of RADAR, is that it provide superior penetration capability
through any type of weather condition, and can be used in the day or night time.
2. Very flexible - can be used in a number of ways !
3. Stationary mode 
4. Moving mode
5. Two Directional mode 
6. Beam spread can incorporate many targets !
7. Can often select fastest target, or best reflection !
8. Still very reliable.
Conflicting Factors Affecting Of Radar Performance:
Some of the major factors that affect performance are discussed in this section The
performance of a radar system can be judged by the following:
 the maximum range at which it can see a target of a specified size,
 the accuracy of its measurement of target location in range and angle,
 its ability to distinguish one target from another,
 its ability to detect the desired target echo when masked by large clutter echoes,
unintentional interfering signals from other “friendly” transmitters, or intentional
radiation from hostile jamming (if a military radar),
  its ability to recognize the type of target, and
 its availability (ability to operate when needed), reliability, and maintainability.
Some of the major factors that affect performance are discussed in this section.
Stakeholder involvement of Radar:
There are many stakeholder company who invest to manufacture in radar system. One of
the best manufacture company is Raytheon.

Raytheon was founded in 1922, and it is headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts, US.

It along with its subsidiaries provides innovative technologies, products, services, and
solutions to defense and other government markets across the world.

Raytheon manufactures and supplies a comprehensive array of radar systems and

technologies for diverse range applications in both military and civil aviation industries.
Its product portfolio includes land-based surveillance and search radars, upgraded early
warning radars, transportable radars, missile defense radars, high-definition radars, and
airborne radars and Weather radar.

This stakeholder stand to gain considerably by enabling the biological capabilities of the
US network of weather radars (and other radar systems). Research demonstrates the
ability of these radars to capture a variety of animal movements and other behaviors .
Specific disciplines that can benefit from the information gained through remote sensing
tools are described below:

 Agriculture: Weather radars can estimate abundance and track the migratory

movements of agricultural pest insects as well as forecast the economic impact of
their control by natural predators (bats).

 Earth science: The weather radar data archive goes back nearly 20 years, a
sufficiently long time frame to consider exploring climate change and its influence
on the timing of biological activity of many species at continental scales.

 Ecology and Conservation: A wide range of potential applications in the

ecological sciences from understanding reported declines in North American
songbirds to tracking population changes in cave-dwelling bats to examining how
flying animals confront barriers to migration.

 Education: Fifty million Americans claim to be bird watchers and feed birds, a ~4

billion dollar industry. These same people have also grown familiar with radar
imagery showing weather. These facts suggest a large constituency would take an
active interest in seeing colorful, animated imagery of bird movements across the
US (Think the Weather Channel or as part of your local weather forecast.)
  Energy development: The wind energy industry is experiencing enormous
growth. This growth will continue and wind developers are required to perform
environmental assessments for new facilities, and radar is commonly used to
assess potential impacts to flying animals. Distinguishing birds and bats from
insects is a central, but often unaddressed, concern in these studies. When insects
are inadvertently identified as birds or bats, the costs of wind energy development
increases.

 Flight safety: Across aviation (civilian and military), collisions with flying

animals result in human casualties and account for hundreds of millions in losses
annually, and there is room to further develop and refine use of radar to improve
air safety.

 Health: By monitoring the continental scale movements of birds and bats, weather
radars could play a role in tracking infectious disease.

 Wildlife management: Weather radars can monitor movement and habitat use by

waterfowl and other species and document changes in habitat use in response to
habitat restoration or other management actions. Where applicable, such use of
radars in lieu of field-intensive monitoring may save costs and reduce risk to
humans associated with manned aerial wildlife surveys.

References:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar [accessed: September 2020]
2. https://www.usgs.gov [accessed: September 2020]
3. “Radar Basics”, Infoplease, September 22, 2012 [online].
Available: http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0860616.html
[accessed: September 2020]
4. John F.Autin, John Caserta, Mark A.Bates, “A New Gated CW
Radar Implementation” Horsham, 2010.
5. M. Kulkarni, “Microwave and Radar Engineering”, 3rd edition,
Umesh Publication, 2003, pp. 493 – 536
6. Merri.I.skolnik, “Intoduction to Radar System”, 3rd edition, Tata
McGraw Hill, 2003
7. https://www.who.int/Radar system [online]. [accessed:
September 2020]