APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Novel Hybrid Powerfactor Controller

PROJECT REPORT

In partial fulfilment of requirements for award of the degree

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

AJMAL AZAD
(PRP16EE004)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA
JULY 2020
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT, PUNNAPRA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that group project entitled “NOVEL HYBRID POWERFACTOR

CONTROLLER” is a bonafide report of the group project presented during eighth semester
AJMAL AZAD, PRP16EE004 under my supervision and guidance, in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology (B. Tech) in
Electrical & Electronics Engineering from the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
during the academic course 2016– 2020.

Guide Coordinator Head of the Department

SUNILA SUSAN THOMAS SHIBIN D H GIREESH KUMAR A

Asst. Professor Asst. Professor Asst. Professor
Department of EEE Department of EEE Department of EEE

PLACE: ALAPPUZHA
DATE:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I concede the surviving presence and the flourishing refinement of
The Almighty God for his concealed hand yet substantial supervision all through my project
work.
This project work would not have been possible without the sincere guidance of a
number of eminent people. I take the opportunity to acknowledge my heartfelt gratitude to
our respected principal Dr. Roobin V Varghese for providing all necessary facilities in this
institution.
I express profound and sincere thanks to Mr. Gireesh Kumar A, Head of The
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, for giving me the opportunity to
undertake this project work. I render my sincere and heartfelt thanks to Mrs.Sunila Susan
Thomas, Mr. Shibin D H, Mr Muneer T, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical &
Electronics Engineering for their guidance throughout the project work.
Above all I would like to express my gratitude to my parents and friends who gifted
me the necessary driving force and the boost to remain positive always with high spirits.
Last but not the least I thank all the faculty members of the Department of Electrical
Engineering for their help, advice and suggestions, which contributed either directly or
indirectly to my work.

AJMAL AZAD

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 ABSTRACT

This paper deals with a hybrid converter topology power factor correction (PFC) for DC
drives which is fed through a diode bridge rectifier from a single phase AC mains. In this project
both buck and boost converter topologies are combined together and operated alternatively
according to the rectified DC input voltage level. DC drives are mostly operating with variable
load and variable speed. So, active PFC method is suitable for DC drives fed from the AC supply.
In active PFC method, the buck and boost converters are most popularly used. Both are having
their own limitations. The limitations are eliminated in this paper by adding two auxiliary
switches (one for buck operation and another one for boost operation) and two auxiliary diodes.
In this paper buck PFC converter performance is improved by implementing constant ON-time
control which is utilized to force it to operate in critical conduction mode (CCM). By selecting
suitable control parameters, nearly unity power factor can be achieved within the nominal input
voltage range. The proposed converter for drives is designed and modeled in MATLAB-2010-
SIMULINK environment and its performance is evaluated. The simulated results are presented to
demonstrate an improved power quality at AC mains of the DC drives system. .

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 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................................................................i

ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................ii

LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................v

LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................vi

1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................1

2. LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................................................................2

2.1 LIVE HUMAN DETECTION ROBOT.......................................................................2

2.2 WIRELESS HUMAN DETECTION ROBOT............................................................3

2.3 MOBILE RESCUE ROBOT FOR HUMAN BODY DETECTION.........................6

2.4 COMPARISON OF OTHER WORKS WITH OUR SYSTEM................................7

3. PROJECT OVERVIEW.....................................................................................................8

4. PROJECT STAGES............................................................................................................9

5. STAGE 1 : DRONE SYSTEM..........................................................................................10

5.1 BASIC MATERIALS REQUIRED............................................................................10

5.1.1 KK 2.1.5 MULTI ROTOR LCD FLIGHT CONTROLLER.............................10

5.1.2 BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS................................................................................12

5.1.3 ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER...........................................................13

5.1.4 QUADCOPTER FRAME.....................................................................................16

5.1.6 CTB 6 CHANNEL REMOTE CONTROLLER AND RECEIVER.................18

5.1.7 SENSORS...............................................................................................................20

5.2 DRONE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION..............................................................25

5.3 MOTION AND PROPELLER CONTROL...............................................................27

5.4 WORK COMPLETED AT THE END OF STAGE 1...............................................31

6. STAGE 2 : HUMAN DETECTION SYSTEM................................................................32

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 6.1 BASIC MATERIALS REQUIRED............................................................................32

6.1.1 RASPBERRY PI 3 MODEL B+...........................................................................32

6.1.2 PI CAMERA..........................................................................................................36

6.1.3 5V POWER BANK................................................................................................38

6.1.4 BUZZER.................................................................................................................38

6.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE...........................................................................................38

7. STAGE 3 : SMART HUMAN DETECTION DRONE DURING DISASTERS..........42

7.1 WORKING..............................................................................................................42

7.2 THE FINAL HARDWARE PROTOTYPE..........................................................43

7.3 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE PROJECT..................................................43

7.3.1 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY.................................................................................44

7.3.2 GEOGRAPHICAL MAPPING............................................................................44

7.3.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT..............................................................................44

7.3.4 SHIPPING AND DELIVERY..............................................................................44

7.3.5 LAW ENFORCEMENT.......................................................................................44

7.3.6 PRECISION AGRICULTURE............................................................................45

7.3.7 WILDLIFE MONITORING................................................................................45

8. RESULT..............................................................................................................................46

9. CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................47

10. REFERENCE...................................................................................................................48

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Comparison with related works................................................................................7

Table 5.1: BLDC motor technical data....................................................................................12
Table 5.2: BLDC ESC connections.........................................................................................15
Table 5.3: LiPo Battery features..............................................................................................17
Table 6.1: Board connectors....................................................................................................34
Table 6.2: Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ technical specifications.................................................34
Table 6.3: Camera pin configurations......................................................................................36

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Block diagram of Live human detection robot........................................................2

Figure 2.2: Circuit Diagram of Live Human Detection Robot..................................................3
Figure 2.3: Wireless Human Detection Robot...........................................................................3
Figure 2.4: Remote control Circuit diagram..............................................................................4
Figure 2.5: Decoder Circuit diagram.........................................................................................4
Figure 2.6: Microcontroller Circuit Diagram.............................................................................5
Figure 2.7: Receiver Circuit diagram.........................................................................................5
Figure 2.8: Hardware Design of Mobile rescue robot and Control room..................................6
Figure 5.9: Proppeller directions..............................................................................................29
Figure 5.10: Motion-trust flow diagram of quad copter..........................................................30
Figure 5.11: Drone system completed at the end of stage 1....................................................31
33
35
37
37
38
41
43
46

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The ever-present trend of size reduction of power supplies requires even higher
efficiency and power density. For power supplies above certain power rating, a front-end
PFC converter is necessary to meet the harmonic current and power factor (PF)
requirements, such as IEC61000-3-2 and Energy Star specifications . At present, the Boost
(step-up) converter is the most popular PFC topology due to its simplicity and good
performance. However, the output voltage of Boost PFC converter should be higher than
the maximum input peak voltage. It is preferred that the AC input voltage range of a power
supply should be wide to cover different applications in different countries. For typical
universal input, the AC input voltage ranges from 90Vrms to 264Vrms considering the
voltage variation. However, the input voltage will be even wider for some applications like
LED lighting, which may connect to 277Vrms grid or even 480Vrms grid (the North
American industrial power grid). Therefore, the output voltage will be unbearably high for
1
Boost PFC converter. Besides, the efficiency of a Boost PFC converter will much lower at
low input condition for such wide input condition .
Recently, using a Buck (step-down) converter as a front-end PFC converter has
been introduced. The Buck PFC converter has higher low-line efficiency and lower EMI
noise compared to the Boost PFC converter. The traditional Buck PFC converter and its
steady state operation waveforms are shown in Fig. 1. Due to the inherent dead time in the
input current when the input voltage is lower than the output voltage, the Buck PFC usually
has limited PF and high current distortion, which is hard to meet the current harmonic
requirements, especially for lighting applications.

A lot of researches have been conducted to analyze and improve the PF

performance of the Buck PFC converter . One method to improve its PF is using improved
control scheme. An improved Variable On-Time (VOT) control scheme is introduced .
This control scheme can reduce the harmonic current contents and improve the PF
compared to the traditional Constant On-Time (COT) control scheme. However, the
parameters should be very carefully designed and the harmonic current contents margins
are small to meet IEC61000-3-2 Class C limits. In literature, an improved peak current

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 NOVEL HYBRID POWERFACTOR CONTROLLER

control scheme is presented. Although the PF and harmonic current contents are better than
the traditional control scheme, it is still hard to meet IEC61000-3-2 Class C limits due to
the dead angle of the input current.
Another method is compensating the current during the dead time to further improve its PF
performance, and an extra converter can be integrated with the Buck PFC converter. A Buck
PFC with an active buffer was proposed and almost unity power factor can be achieved, but
the circuit needs extra active switches and bulky high voltage capacitor and inductor. A Buck
PFC integrated with a Buck-Boost and a Flyback circuit has been proposed in [19] and [20],
respectively. Unfortunately, no systematical derivation methodology has been proposed to
give a thorough insight for these kinds of topologies.
In order to solve the issues mentioned above, this paper proposes a family of single
phase hybrid step-down PFC converters with high power factor. The objective of hybrid
PFC converter is to combine the advantages of the step-up PFC and the Buck PFC to
further improve their performance. The derivation methodology of hybrid step-down PFC
converters is discussed and two optimal topologies are selected to further disclose their
operation principles. The control method and design considerations of the two proposed
converters are presented in Section III. Finally, the experimental results from two 150W
2
prototypes with universal AC input and 80Vdc output voltage are presented in Section IV.
Section V concludes this paper.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Buck Power Factor Correction has attracted a lot of research interests for its low
output voltage and high efficiency at low input condition. However, the traditional Buck
PFC converter usually has low power factor and poor harmonic performance due to the
inherent dead angle of the input current, especially at low input condition.

2.1 LIVE HUMAN DETECTION ROBOT

Live Human Detection Robot is an embedded system having a set of well-defined

sensors which includes temperature, PIR, Ultra sonic, IR, vibration detector and more
sensors that indicates the system about the status of the human body. An alert message is
sent to the control rooms of affected areas using GSM technology to give immediate rescue
to the victims using PLC logical programming.

Figure 2.1: Block diagram of Live human detection robot

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Figure 2.2: Circuit Diagram of Live Human Detection Robot

2.2 WIRELESS HUMAN DETECTION ROBOT

Wireless Human Detection Robot deals with the live human detection. It is a remote
controlled robot that utilizes PIR sensors to detect the existence of humans and indicate
user via a signal. As it is a remote controlled robot it can easily be controlled and
mobilized. This can be also utilized to detect thieves and terrorists.

Figure 2.3: Wireless Human Detection Robot

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The circuit diagrams for different units of the human detection robot are shown in
fig 2.4, fig 2.5, fig 2.6 and fig 2.7. In these circuits the transmitter and receiver units at
remote control unit as well as robot setup is separately shown. The four circuit diagram
forms the entire human detection robot.

Figure 2.4: Remote control Circuit diagram

Figure 2.5: Decoder Circuit diagram

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Figure 2.6: Microcontroller Circuit Diagram

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Figure 2.7: Receiver Circuit diagram

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2.3 MOBILE RESCUE ROBOT FOR HUMAN BODY DETECTION

Mobile Rescue Robot for Human Body Detection in Rescue Operation of Disaster
project proposes a rescue robot which moves in earthquakes, disasters prone area to help in
detecting injured people, living people, their location and other rescue operations. Hence
due to timely detection of people in natural disasters this system can rescue precious lives
and reduce the percentage of a massive loss along with less percentage of rescue
operations. The proposed system comprises of a mobile rescue robot and a PC controlled
module.

Figure 2.8: Hardware Design of Mobile rescue robot and Control room

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2.4 COMPARISON OF OTHER WORKS WITH OUR SYSTEM

Smart Human Detection Drone during disasters is designed on Drone that makes
the rescue operations efficient. The system has image processing and objection detection
technology to detect human body. The system sends location of the victims to the rescue
teams, so that the rescue teams can locate the victims at the earliest. It captures images and
send further for monitoring the effective area.

Table 2.1: Comparison with related works

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CHAPTER 3

PROJECT OVERVIEW

 Our system is designed on Drone that makes the rescue operations much more
efficient.
 This drone can be used at the time of natural calamities to save the lives of humans
for rescue purposes.
 It uses image processing and object detection technology to detect human body.
 Rescue teams can access live streaming of the affected area.
 This system can also provide aid to humans in areas where rescue teams cannot reach.

Figure 3.1: Work flow diagram of our system

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CHAPTER 4

PROJECT STAGES

Our project mainly divided into three stages. Each stages are vital parts of the
project. The three stages are:

 STAGE 1: Assembling the drone system.

 STAGE 2: Assembling the human detection module.
 STAGE 3: Integrating STAGE 1 and STAGE 2 to the final product “SMART
HUMAN DETECTION DRONE DURING DISASTERS”.

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Figure 4.1: Project Stages

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CHAPTER 5

STAGE 1 : DRONE SYSTEM

In this stage the unmanned aerial vehicle (Drone) is designed and assembled. It is
designed in such a way that it has to carry a payload of at least 1000 grams. Here a quad
copter of X-configuration is designed for our system.

5.1 BASIC MATERIALS REQUIRED

 KK 2.1.5 Multi rotor LCD Flight controller.

 Brushless DC motors.
 Electronic Speed Controller (E.S.C).
 Quad copter Frame.
 Lithium Polymer Battery.
 Propeller.
 CTB 6 Channel Remote controller and receiver.
 Sensors.
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5.1.1 KK 2.1.5 MULTI ROTOR LCD FLIGHT CONTROLLER

• Size: 50.5mm x 50.5mm x 12mm.

• Weight: 21 gram (Inc. Piezo buzzer).
• IC: Atmega644 PA.
• Gyro/Acc: 6050MPU.
• Auto-level: Yes.
• Input Voltage: 4.8-6.0V.
• AVR interface: standard 6 pin. .
• Signal from Receiver: 1520us (5 channels).
• Signal to ESC: 1520us.
• Firmware version 1.6.

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Figure 5.1: KK 2.1.5 Multi rotor Flight control board

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KK2.1 Multi-Rotor controller manages the flight of (mostly) multirotor Aircraft (Tri
copters, Quadcopters, Hex copters etc.). Its purpose is to stabilize the aircraft during flight
and to do this, it takes signals from on-board gyroscopes (roll, pitch and yaw) and passes
these signals to the Atmega324PA processor, which in-turn processes signals according
the users selected firmware (e.g. Quadcopter) and passes the control signals to the installed
Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs) and the combination of these signals instructs the
ESCs to make fine adjustments to the motors rotational speeds which in-turn stabilizes the
craft. The KK2.1 Multi-Rotor control board also uses signals from your radio system via a
receiver (Rx) and passes these signals together with stabilization signals to the
Atmega324PA IC via the aileron; elevator; throttle and rudder user demand inputs. Once
processed, this information is sent to the ESCs which in turn adjust the rotational speed of
each motor to control flight orientation (up, down, backwards, forwards, left, right, yaw).

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5.1.2 BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS

2 - 3 Li-Poly
No. of Cells:
6 - 10 NiCd/NiMH

Kv: 1000 RPM/V

Max Efficiency: 80%

Max Efficiency Current: 4 - 10A (>75%)

No Load Current: 0.5A @10V

Resistance: 0.090 ohms

Max Current: 13A for 60S

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Max Watts: 150W

Weight: 52.7 g / 1.86 oz

Size: 28 mm dia x 28 mm bell length

Shaft Diameter: 3.2 mm

Poles: 14

Model Weight: 300 - 800g / 10.5 - 28.2 oz

Table 5.1: BLDC motor technical data

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Figure 5.2: BLDC motor

A small yet powerful motor for planes up to 800 grams (28 oz) using 3 li-poly cells.
We suggest propping for around 140 watts continuous power with short bursts up to 180
watts. An excellent higher-powered replacement for geared Speed 400-480 motors in slow-
flying or 3D planes that require a larger 10" propeller. Use on sailplanes up to 28 oz,
trainers up to 25 oz, aerobatic aircraft up to 18 oz and 3D airplanes up to 15 oz.
14 Recommended prop is 10 x 5 on 3 li-poly cells.
The motor features a 3.2mm hardened steel shaft, dual ball bearings, and has
3.5mm gold spring male connectors already attached and includes 3 female connectors for
your speed control. Now includes collet type prop adapter and radial motor mount.
Mounting holes have 16mm and 19mm spacing on centers and are tapped for 3mm (M3)
screws.

5.1.3 ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER

This is fully programmable 30A BLDC ESC with 5V, 3A BEC. Can drive motors
with continuous 30Amp load current. It has sturdy construction with 2 separate PCBs for
Controller and ESC power MOSFETs. It can be powered with 2-4 lithium Polymer
batteries or 5-12 NiMH / NiCd batteries. It has separate voltage regulator for the
microcontroller for providing good anti-jamming capability. It is most suitable for UAVs,
Aircrafts and Helicopters. Its specifications are:
• Output: 30A continuous; 40Amps for 10 seconds
• Input voltage: 2-4 cells Lithium Polymer / Lithium Ion battery or 5-12 cells NiMH /

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NiCd.
• BEC: 5V, 3Amp for external receiver and servos
• Max Speed: 2 Pole: 210,000rpm; 6 Pole: 70,000rpm; 12 Pole: 35,000rpm
• Weight: 32gms
• Size: 55mm x 26mm x 13mm

Its features includes:

• High quality MOSFETs for BLDC motor drive
• High performance microcontroller for best compatibility with all types of motors at
greater efficiency
• Fully programmable with any standard RC remote control
• Heat sink with high performance heat transmission membrane for better thermal
management
• 3 start modes: Normal / Soft / Super-Soft, compatible with fixed wing aircrafts and
helicopters
• Throttle range can be configured to be compatible with any remote control available
15
in the market
• Smooth, Linear and Precise throttle response
• Low-Voltage cut-off protection
• Over-heat protection
• Separate voltage regulator IC for the microcontroller to provide anti-jamming
capability
• Supported Motor Speed (Maximum): 210000RPM (2 poles), 70000RPM (6poles),
35000RPM (12 poles).

In case the BLDC ESC is connected directly to the remote control receiver, never
ever switch off the remote control before switching off power to the BLDC ESC.
Depending on the model of the remote control, it may result in full throttle applied to the
motor and it will rotate at full speed.
BLDC ESC has three Blue wires coming out from the one end which are to be
connected to the BLDC motor. On the other end, it has red and black wires which are to be
connected to the battery. It also has a 3 pin servo connector which is used for receiving the

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throttle command and for giving out regulated 5V, 3Amp supply for the remote receiver and
the servo motors.

Connection type Wire Colour Function

Power Red 7.4 to 14.8V
Black Ground

BLDC Motor Connections Three Blue Wires BLDC ESC connections

Servo Connector White Throttle Input

Red 5V, 2Amp Out
Black Ground

Table 5.2: BLDC ESC Connections

30A BLDC ESC requires standard 50-60Hz PWM signal from any remote control
as throttle input. You can also generate similar input signal from the microcontroller for
making your own customized flying platform. Throttle speed is proportional to the width of
the pulse. Maximum throttle position is user programmable. In general throttle is set at zero

16 for 1mS pulse width and full at the 2mS pulse width.
If motor fails to start within 2 seconds of throttle application then ESC will cut-off
the output power. Throttle stick should be brought to zero position again to resume
operations. Such case may arise if connection between ESC and motor is not reliable,
propeller or motor is blocked or gearbox (if installed) is damaged etc. If ESC gets heated
above 1100C then it reduces the output power.

Figure 5.3: 30A BLDC ESC

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5.1.4 QUADCOPTER FRAME

The frame used is F450 quad copter frame which weighs 95 gms. This F450
Quadcopter Frame PCB Board is a well thought out 450mm quad frame built from quality
materials. The Board is made of glass fiber. This board provides integrated PCB
connections for direct soldering of your ESCs. This eliminates the need for a power
distribution board or messy multi-connectors keeping your electronics layout very tidy. It
also comes with stronger moulded construction so no more board breakage at the hard
landing. It can carry a payload 1000 gms and carries all the quad copter and human
detection components. It is used in X configuration.

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Figure 5.4: F450 Quad copter frame in X configuration

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5.1.5 LITHIUM POLYMER BATTERY

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Table 5.3: LiPo battery features

Figure 5.5: LiPo battery

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5.1.6 CTB 6 CHANNEL REMOTE CONTROLLER AND RECEIVER

The transmission parameters are:

 Charger port: Yes

 Frequency band: 2.4GHz
 Simulator port: PS-2
 Power resource：1.5V*8 "AA"Battery
 Program type: GFSK
 Modulation type:FM
 RF power：19db
 Static current：≤250mA
 Voltage display type：LED
 Size：189*97*218mm
 Weight: 575g
 Color: black
 Antenna length：26mm
19  Heli-140/Heli-120/Heli-90/Acro
 Sub Trim：Yes
 Thro Cuv: Programmable
 Pith Cuv: Programmable
 Support multiple user model
 Support trim movement
 Support rudder angle overturned
 Support rudder angle adjustment
 Support both hand software adjustment
 Support swashplate adjustment
 Support programmable channel output

The receiver parameters are:

 Channel：6
 Frequency band: 2.4GHz

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 Power resource：1.5V*4 "AA"Battery

 Program type: GFSK
 Modulation type: FM
 RF Receiver sensitivity：-76db
 Static current：≤85mA
 Size：45*23*13.5mm
 Size：25*16.8*6.5mm
 Weigth: 12g
 Color: Gray semi-transparent
 Antenna length：26mm

The receiver is connected with the flight controller to establish connection between remote
controller and flight controller. The switching layout of the remote controller is shown in
figure.

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Figure 5.6:Switching layout of CTB remote controller

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5.1.7 SENSORS

With modern drones being made to maximize ease-of-use, it’s also become easy to
take for granted just how complex and well-designed these drones are. Aside from the
mechanical components that allow a drone to generate lift and maneuver in mid-air, drones
also employ an array of sensors that constantly collect information from their surroundings.
With this information, drones can maintain their positions, determine how fast they are, and
avoid obstacles.
1. Gyroscope
The most basic of drone sensors, gyroscopes are cheap and basic enough to
be integrated into even cheap mini-drones. Despite the very simple scientific
principles that govern how gyroscopes work, they are still highly essential tools that
are used for navigation in high-end aircraft and space shuttles.

Gyroscopes work on the principle of conservation of angular momentum.

Simply put, a gyroscope consists of a spinning disk that is mounted on a frame.
While the disk is spinning, the axis of its rotation remains in place, regardless of the
tilting or rotation of the frame where it is mounted. By establishing an inertial
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reference frame, a gyroscope can be used to determine the rate of rotation, degree of
tilt, and angular velocity of a moving object.

Gyroscopes are an all-around tool used for measuring or maintaining

orientation. By integrating three accelerometers, each of which is oriented in a
different axis, the degree of motion of a drone in any axis can be determined. This
helps in collecting information on the drone’s roll, pitch, and yaw, and feeding back
this information to the drone’s proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller.

In practically all drones, gyroscope technology is heavily employed to help

maintain a stable hover. When there is no input from the pilot, any wayward drifting
or wobbling by the drone is detected by the gyroscope. This information is then
relayed to the PID controller, which commands the drone’s motors to counteract the
unwanted movements. Gyroscopes are so essential to the stable operation of a drone
that a malfunction in the gyro sensors will very likely result in a crash.

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2. Barometer

Barometers are sensors that measure air pressure. In drones, this air pressure
information is used to determine the drone’s altitude. The principle and technology
behind this process are pretty simple, but air pressure readings are prone to drifting
due to winds or any rapid changes in the drone’s movements. To ensure their best
performance, barometers need to be periodically using air pressure readings at the
local sea level.
Barometers are found in almost all drones and are mostly used to aid in
maintaining a stable altitude. Autonomous drone missions were changes in altitude
are essential also make use of the readings from the onboard barometer. Although
GPS technology can also be used to determine the altitude of a drone, barometers
produce much more accurate data and provide faster feedback, as long as they have
been properly calibrated.

3. Accelerometer
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The accelerometer of a drone works together with its gyroscope to determine

changes in its position and movement. Where the gyroscope specializes in reading
rotational movements, an accelerometer performs better in reading linear movement
along any axis. Accelerometers, in combination with GPS technology, allow your
smartphone or fitness device to track your route when you are running or traveling.
So how do these accelerometers work? There are a couple of accelerometer
types that function in different ways, but most accelerometers rely on the
piezoelectric effect. A piezoelectric accelerometer uses microscopic crystals that
generate a current when they undergo stress. This stress can be brought about by
accelerative forces, such as the movement of an object.
Aside from the work done by gyroscopes, accelerometers also aid in allowing
a drone to maintain a stable hover. The principle is essentially identical. Any
movement of the drone caused by external forces, such as a strong gust of wind, will
be detected by the accelerometer and relayed to the PID controller. The controller
then commands the motors to counteract the movement.

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The combination of 3-axis accelerometer and 3-axis gyroscopes is what is

commonly referred to as 6-axis gyro stabilization. This setup allows a drone to
maintain horizontal, vertical, and rotational stability while hovering. For applications
such as professional-grade drone photography and 3D imagery, 6-axis gyro
stabilization is a must.

4. GPS

GPS technology has played a huge role in allowing drones to fly autonomous
missions. It’s not a feature that can be found in all drones but is a pretty standard
inclusion for prosumer-grade models. By comparing the actual position of the drone
with its targeted position, the PID controller determines which way the aircraft
should move and instructs the drone motors with the appropriate commands.

The principle behind GPS technology is pretty simple. A drone is outfitted

with a GPS receiver that can receive signals from several GPS satellites. Depending
on the location of the satellite source, the time it takes for the drone’s GPS module to
23 receive the signal will vary. By triangulating the relative position of the drone from
the different GPS satellites, the location of the drone in a specified geospatial
reference system can be determined. The accuracy of the location will depend on the
strength of the signal that the drone’s GPS module receives and the number of
satellites within its range.

Despite the prevalence of GPS technology, it is not a foolproof method for

determining a drone’s location. Since it relies on the reception of signals from
satellites located along the Earth’s orbit, flying under any canopy cover will
drastically reduce the ability of a drone to determine a GPS location.

Autonomous flight modes using GPS location will also only function if the
drone can identify a ‘heading’ – basically an indication of where the North direction
is. Although it’s possible to determine the heading based on the drone’s movements
and relative GPS locations, this can only be done as long as the drone is constantly
moving. There’s also a bit of latency using this method, so the ability of the drone to
follow a pre-programmed route may not be as accurate.

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5. Magnetometer

In cases where determining the drone’s heading using only GPS location is
not appropriate, a drone needs to have a magnetometer. As its name implies, a
magnetometer measures the strength and direction of a magnetic field. Using this
principle, a drone can always determine the direction of the magnetic North and
adjust its trajectory accordingly.

Unfortunately, it can be very easy to throw a magnetometer off its course.

Anything that emits a magnetic field – such as power lines, motors, and other
electrical devices – have the potential of disturbing the magnetometer’s ability. This
can be avoided from avoiding such disruptive sources and performing a calibration
of the magnetometer periodically.

6. Rangefinder
24

There are different types of rangefinders found in drones but all of them
perform a simple task: to determine how far away from the ground the drone is. If it
sounds like a rangefinder’s function would be redundant with that of the barometer,
then you’re right: a rangefinder is basically an alternative to a barometer that has a
more limited scope but is much more accurate.

For a rangefinder to function as intended, it needs to be pointed to the ground

at all times. The most common rangefinders use sonar technology. By receiving
sound waves from the direction of the ground, a sonar rangefinder can deduce the
altitude of the drone. A laser rangefinder works in pretty much the same manner
except it uses lasers in place of sound waves. Laser rangefinders have a bigger range
but are also more expensive.

The main drawback of using a rangefinder is that it only works when the
drone is hovering close to the ground. You may be wondering: given the limited
range, why use a rangefinder in the first place? The answer lies in accuracy. The

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altitude reading of a rangefinder is unaffected by drift or sudden changes in wind

strength. It also takes into account minor variations in topography.

7. Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)

An IMU is not exactly a separate sensor of the drone but is instead a

collaboration of several sensors. In most cases, a drone’s IMU consists of
accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers, each set of which works in all three
axes of movement. By combining the capabilities of all these sensors, an IMU can
detect changes in location and rotational attributes related to an aircraft’s roll, pitch,
and yaw. By detecting the orientation and strength of magnetic fields, an IMU can
even enforce on-the-fly calibration against orientation drift.

Before drones were even a thing, IMU modules have formed the backbone of
the navigation systems of manned aircraft, satellites, space shuttles, and missiles.
Nowadays, IMUs are so common that they can be found in almost all smartphones
25 and tablets, some game controllers, and self-balancing hoverboards.

IMUs allow drones to determine their location via a process called ‘dead
reckoning.’ In this method, the drone’s position is determined using a previously
determined location and the estimated speeds over the period of time from the
previous reading. In simpler terms, an IMU continuously integrates the acceleration
of the drone to calculate its velocity and position. This technology allows the drone
to determine its approximate location even when GPS signals drop off, such as when
flying indoors.

A disadvantage of the IMU’s use of multiple sensors is that the error that the
sensors generate tend to accumulate. Since velocity and location are determined by
integrating the acceleration of the drone, any error in the acceleration numbers will
result in exponentially higher errors in both location and velocity. The ‘drift’ caused
by these errors can also get larger over time.

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For this reason, periodic calibration of a drone’s IMU is strongly

recommended. Software-assisted IMU calibration has been the norm for modern
drones, so this shouldn’t be much of a chore.

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5.2 DRONE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

The drone is designed to carry a payload of 1000g and X configuration is used.

The block diagram is shown below.

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Figure 5.7: Basic block diagram of drone

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The circuit diagram of the drone is given below.

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Figure 5.8: Circuit diagram of a drone

Basically, the movement on the remote control sticks, sends signals to the central
flight controller.  This central flight controller sends this information to the Electronic
Speed Controllers (ESCs) of each motor, which in turn directs its motors to increase or
decrease speed.

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Remote Control Stick Movement → Central Flight Controller → Electronic Speed

Control Circuits (ESCs) → Motors and Propellers → Quadcopter Movement or Hover.

Now the central flight controller also takes information from IMU, Gyroscope, GPS
modules and obstacle detection sensors if on the quadcopter. It makes computation
calculations using programmed flight parameters and algorithms, then sends this data to the
electronic speed controllers.

In fact, most flight controllers encompass the IMU, GPS, Gyroscope and plenty
more features to control the quadcopter flight and stability.  Quite often, they have dual
IMUs for redundancy and other safety features, such as Return-To-Home.

Each quadcopter motor has a circuit called an Electronic Speed Control

(ESC). An electronic speed controller is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary
an electric motor’s speed, its direction and also braking.

29 Electronic Speed Controllers are an essential component of modern quadcopters. 

They offer high power, high frequency, high resolution 3-phase AC power to the motors. 
At the same time these ESCs are really small and compact.

Quadcopters and drones depend entirely on the variable speed of the motors driving
the propellers. This wide variation and RPM thrust and control in motor/ propeller speed
gives the quadcopter all of the necessary control to fly.

A quadcopter must have 4 motors.  To have a balanced quadcopter, the propeller

rotation has to be toward the quadcopter main body. To achieve this you need the
quadcopter motor setup as follows:

 Front Left – Clockwise motor (CW)

 Front Right – Counter Clockwise motor (CCW)
 Back Left – Counter Clockwise motor (CCW)
 Back Right – Clockwise motor (CW)

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5.3 MOTION AND PROPELLER CONTROL

Before delving into the quadcopter motor and propeller setup, lets explain a bit
about the terminology used when it is flying forwards, backwards, sideways or rotating
while hovering.  These are known as Pitch, Roll and Yaw.

Yaw – This is the rotating or swiveling of the head of the quadcopter either to right or left. It
is the basic movement to spin the quadcopter.  On most drones, it is the achieved by using the
left throttle stick either to the left or right.

Pitch – This is the movement of quadcopter either forward or backward. Forward Pitch is
achieved generally by pushing the throttle stick forward, which makes the quadcopter tilt and
move forward, away from you.  Backward pitch is achieved by moving the throttle stick
backwards.

Roll – Most people get confused with Roll and Yaw.  Roll is making the quadcopter fly
sideways, either to left or right. Roll is controlled by the right throttle stick, making it fly
either left of right.
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VERTICAL LIFT

In order for a quadcopter to rise into the air, a force must be created, which equals
or exceeds the force of gravity. This is the basic idea behind aircraft lift, which comes
down to controlling the upward and downward force.

Now, quadcopters use motor design and propeller direction for propulsion to
basically control the force of gravity against the quadcopter.

The spinning of the quadcopter propeller blades push air down.  All forces come in
pairs (Newtons Third Law), which means for every action force there is an equal (in size)
and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Therefore, as the rotor pushes down on the air,
the air pushes up on the rotor.  The faster the rotors spin, the greater the lift and vice-versa.
Now, a drone can do three things in the vertical plane: hover, climb, or descend.

HOVER STILL

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To hover, the net thrust of the four rotors push the drone up and must be exactly
equal to the gravitational force pulling it down.

CLIMB ASCEND

By increasing the thrust (speed) of the four quadcopter rotors so that the upward
force is greater than the weight and pull of gravity.

VERTICAL DESCEND

Dropping back down requires doing the exact opposite of the climb.  Decrease the
rotor thrust (speed) so the net force is downward.

31

Figure 5.9: Proppeller directions

TURNING (ROTATING)

In this configuration, the red rotors are rotating counterclockwise and the green
ones are rotating clockwise. With the two sets of rotors rotating in opposite directions, the
total angular momentum is zero. Angular momentum is a lot like linear momentum.

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If there is no torque on the system (the system here being the drone), then the total
angular momentum must remain constant (zero in this case) i.e. the red counterclockwise
rotors have a positive angular momentum and the green clockwise rotors have a negative
angular momentum. I'll assign each rotor a value of +2, +2, -2, -2, which adds up to zero (I
left off the units).
Let's say you want to rotate the drone to the right. Suppose I decrease the angular
velocity of rotor 1 such that now it has an angular momentum of -1 instead of -2. So the
drone rotates clockwise so that the body of the drone has an angular momentum of -1 and it
rotates right.

Decreasing the spin of rotor 1 did indeed cause the drone to rotate, but it also
decreased the thrust from rotor 1. Now the net upward force does not equal the
gravitational force, and the drone descends. The thrust forces aren't balanced, so the drone
tips downward in the direction of rotor 1.

To rotate the drone without creating all those other problems, decrease the spin of
rotor 1 and 3 and increase the spin for rotors 2 and 4. The angular momentum of the rotors
32 still doesn't add up to zero, so the drone body must rotate. But the total force remains equal
to the gravitational force and the drone continues to hover. Since the lower thrust rotors are
diagonally opposite from each other, the drone can still stay balanced.

FORWARD AND SIDEWAYS

Basically a quadcopter drone is like a car where every side is the front. This means
that explaining how to move forward also explains how to move back or to either side.

In order to fly forward, I need a forward component of thrust from the rotors. Here
is a side view (with forces) of a drone moving at a constant speed.

Increase the rotation rate of rotors 3 and 4 (the rear ones) and decrease the rate of
rotors 1 and 2. The total thrust force will remain equal to the weight, so the drone will stay
at the same vertical level. Also, since one of the rear rotors is spinning counter clockwise
and the other clockwise, the increased rotation of those rotors will still produce zero
angular momentum. The same holds true for the front rotors, and so the drone does not
rotate. However, the greater force in the back of the drone means it will tilt forward. Now a

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slight increase in thrust for all rotors will produce a net thrust force that has a component to
balance the weight along with a forward motion component.

Figure 5.10: Motion-trust flow diagram of quad copter

5.4 WORK COMPLETED AT THE END OF STAGE 1

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Figure 5.11: Drone system completed at the end of stage 1

At the end of stage 1 the drone was designed and assembled as shown in figure 5.11.

CHAPTER 6
STAGE 2 : HUMAN DETECTION SYSTEM

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In this stage the human detection module is designed and assembled. Here the
Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ is used as the motherboard with LINUX as the operating system.
OpenCV-python language is used for the programming.

6.1 BASIC MATERIALS REQUIRED

 Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+
 Pi camera
 SD card
 5V Power bank
 5V Buzzer

6.1.1 RASPBERRY PI 3 MODEL B+

The Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ is the final revision in the Raspberry Pi 3 range.

The main specifications are:

35

 Broadcom BCM2837B0, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC @ 1.4GHz

 1GB LPDDR2 SDRAM
 2.4GHz and 5GHz IEEE 802.11.b/g/n/ac wireless LAN, Bluetooth 4.2, BLE
 Gigabit Ethernet over USB 2.0 (maximum throughput 300 Mbps)
 Extended 40-pin GPIO header
 Full-size HDMI
 4 USB 2.0 ports
 CSI camera port for connecting a Raspberry Pi camera
 DSI display port for connecting a Raspberry Pi touchscreen display
 4-pole stereo output and composite video port
 Micro SD port for loading your operating system and storing data
 5V/2.5A DC power input
 Power-over-Ethernet (PoE) support (requires separate PoE HAT)

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Figure 6.1: Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+

Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ is a development board in PI series. It can be considered

as a single board computer that works on LINUX operating system. The board not only has
tons of features it also has terrific processing speed making it suitable for advanced
applications. PI board is specifically designed for hobbyist and engineers who are
interested in LINUX systems and IOT (Internet of Things).

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Table 6.1: Board Connectors

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Table 6.2: Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ Technical Specifications

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Figure 6.2: Pin-out diagram

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6.1.2 PI CAMERA

The Pi camera module is a portable light weight camera that supports Raspberry Pi.
It communicates with Pi using the MIPI camera serial interface protocol. It is normally
used in image processing, machine learning or in surveillance projects. It is commonly
used in surveillance drones since the payload of camera is very less. Apart from these
modules Pi can also use normal USB webcams that are used along with computer.
Features:

 5MP colour camera module without microphone for Raspberry Pi

 Supports both Raspberry Pi Model A and Model B
 MIPI Camera serial interface
 Omnivision 5647 Camera Module
 Resolution: 2592 * 1944
 Supports: 1080p, 720p and 480p
 Light weight and portable (3gms only)

The Pi camera module when purchased comes along with a ribbon cable, this cable
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has to be connected to the CSI (Camera Serial Interface) port of the Pi. This port can be
found near the HDMI port. After interfacing the hardware, we have to configure the Pi to
enable Camera. Use the command “sudo raspi-config” to open the configuration window.
Then under interfacing options enable camera. Finally reboot the Pi and your camera
module is ready to use. Then, you can make the Pi to take photos or record videos using
simple python scripts.

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Table 6.3: Camera pin configurations

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Figure 6.3: Pi camera module

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Figure 6.4: Pi camera pin-out configuration

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6.1.3 5V POWER BANK

The recommended power supply is 5V and 2.5A, but that accounts for 1.2A to the
USB ports, which leaves 1.3A for the Pi itself. If planning on using the USB ports a 1.5A
supply should work, assuming it's not scrap quality or a phone charger (phone chargers are
not recommended because they often have poor voltage regulation).

If you do need to use the USB ports, then 1.5A may not be enough, but 2A could
suffice for USB devices that don't consume much power.

6.1.4 BUZZER

A 5V buzzer is used to alert the user when a human being is detected by this
system.

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Figure 6.5: Buzzer

6.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE

The human detection system works on the basis of image processing and objection
detection principles.

OBJECT DETECTION
Object Detection is the process of finding real-world object instances like car, bike,
TV, flowers, and humans in still images or Videos. It allows for the recognition,
localization, and detection of multiple objects within an image which provides us with a
much better understanding of an image as a whole. It is commonly used in applications
such as image retrieval, security, surveillance, and advanced driver assistance systems
(ADAS).
OpenCV is an open source C++ library for image processing and computer vision,

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originally developed by Intel and now supported by Willow Garage. It is free for both
commercial and non-commercial use. It is a library of many inbuilt functions mainly aimed
at real time image processing. Now it has several hundreds of image processing and
computer vision algorithms which make developing advanced computer vision applications
easy and efficient.
The OpenCV library gives us a greatly interesting demo for a object detection.
Furthermore, it provides us programs (or functions) which they used to train classifiers for
their object detection system (called HaarTraining). Thus, we can create our own object
classifiers using the functions.

OBJECT DETECTION STEPS

• Image is captured.
• Background subtraction is performed.
• Foreground mask is send to cvBlob or OpenCVBlobsLib (Python Object detection
libraries).
• The cvBlob library provide some methods to get the centroid, the track and the ID of
the moving objects.
43
• Check if the centroid of the moving object has crossed a virtual line (or region) in
our video.

The algorithm used in our program is:

 Import necessary packages.
 Initialize the list of class labels. ( MobileNet SSD was trained to detect, then generate
a set of bounding box colors for each class).
 Load our serialized model from disk named as net.
 Initialize the camera and grab a reference to the raw camera capture.
 Allow the camera to warmup.
 Capture frames from the camera.
 Process the image with required aspects to blob.
 Pass the blob through the opencv class network and obtain the detections and
prediction.
 Extract the confidence (i.e., probability) associated with the prediction.

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 Filter out weak detections by ensuring the `confidence` is greater than the minimum
confidence.
 Draw the prediction on the frame.
 Show the output frame.
 Clear the stream in preparation for the next frame.

FLOWCHART

Apply histogram equation

Gather image set of objects on image

Gather negative image set

without object of interest Load MobileNet SSD file

Create vector files of

positive image set
Store objects to a variable
faces while using detection
44 Create data file of negative method
image set

MobileNet SSD training of

+ve and –ve image sets to
generate xml file
While faces

Capture stream from camera

While
Capture
Draw rectangle on box

Query frame by frame

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grayscale
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6.3 WORK COMPLETE SO FAR

At the end of this step the human detection module is completed. The work is shown
in figure.

Figure 6.6: Work completed after stage 2

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CHAPTER 7
STAGE 3 :
SMART HUMAN DETECTION DRONE DURING DISASTERS

This is the final stage of our project. In this stage we integrate stage 1 and stage 2 i.e.
we combine the drone system and the human detection system.

7.1 WORKING

 The drone is controlled through the remote controller.

 The drone can be used to servile and monitor the disaster affected area using the pi
camera. It can give a live streaming.
 If the human detection module detects humans through pi cam it alerts by a buzzer
and also shows the person on the monitor using a remote desktop through Wi-Fi.
 It can also be programmed to detect animals trapped in disasters.
 It can also provide aid to humans in areas where rescue teams cannot reach.

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7.2 THE FINAL HARDWARE PROTOTYPE

The final finished working prototype of Smart Human Detection drone during
Disasters is shown in figure below.

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Figure 7.1: Final prototype

7.3 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE PROJECT

• Aerial Photography.
• Geographical Mapping.
• Disaster Management.
• Shipping and delivery.
• Law Enforcement.
• Precision agriculture.
• Wildlife monitoring.

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7.3.1 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Drones are now being used to capture footage that would otherwise require
expensive helicopters and cranes. Fast paced action and sci-fi scenes are filmed by aerial
drones, thus making cinematography easier. These autonomous flying devices are also used
in real estate and sports photography. Furthermore, journalists are considering the use of
drones for collecting footage and information in live broadcasts.

7.3.2 GEOGRAPHICAL MAPPING

Available to amateurs and professionals, drones can acquire very high-resolution

data and download imagery in difficult to reach locations like coastlines, mountaintops, and
islands. They are also used to create 3D maps and contribute to crowd sourced mapping
applications.

7.3.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Drones provide quick means, after a natural or man-made disaster, to gather

information and navigate debris and rubble to look for injured victims. Its high definition
48
cameras, sensors, and radars give rescue teams access to a higher field of view, saving the
need to spend resources on manned helicopters.  Where larger aerial vehicles would prove
perilous or inefficient, drones, thanks to their small size, are able to provide a close-up
view of areas.

7.3.4 SHIPPING AND DELIVERY

Major companies like Amazon, UPS, and DHL are in favor of drone delivery.
Drones could save a lot of manpower and shift unnecessary road traffic to the sky. Besides,
they can be used over smaller distances to deliver small packages, food, letters, medicines,
beverages and the like.

7.3.5 LAW ENFORCEMENT

Drones are also used for maintaining the law. They help with the surveillance of
large crowds and ensure public safety. They assist in monitoring criminal and illegal
activities. In fact, fire investigations, smugglers of migrants, and illegal transportation of

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drugs via coastlines, are monitored by the border patrol with the help of drones.

7.3.6 PRECISION AGRICULTURE

Farmers and agriculturists are always looking for cheap and effective methods to
regularly monitor their crops. The infrared sensors in drones can be tuned to detect crop
health, enabling farmers to react and improve crop conditions locally, with inputs of
fertilizer or insecticides. It also improves management and effectuates better yield of the
crops. In the next few years, nearly 80% of the agricultural market will comprise of drones.

7.3.7 WILDLIFE MONITORING

Drones have served as a deterrent to poachers. They provide unprecedented

protection to animals, like elephants, rhinos, and big cats, a favorite target for poachers.
With its thermal cameras and sensors, drones have the ability to operate during the night.
This enables them to monitor and research on wildlife without causing any disturbance and
provides insight on their patterns, behavior, and habitat.

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CHAPTER 8

RESULT

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Figure 8.1: Human Detection using our project

The picture in the left is captured as raw format by the pi camera. It then runs the
code and detects the humans in the image and shows the humans inside the frame as shown
in ficture in the right. The drone is used to host the human detection module.

RESULT
The Smart Human Detection Drone during disasters is tested and worked successfully.

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CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

The Smart Human Detection Drone during disasters system is built using drone,
minimizing the limitations associated with robots that are static. The use of drone makes
the system more efficient than robots that have failed in disastrous conditions like the
earthquake because when humans get stuck underneath the debris it makes it difficult for
the robots to walk over the broken and ruined buildings. It is a real time autonomous drone
technology system which is proposed for detecting humans in disastrous conditions and
intimating the rescue team about the exact positions of the effected human. It also provide
aids to people where rescue team is unable to reach. This system can be used to reduce
death rates during disasters up to an extent.

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CHAPTER 10

REFERENCE

 Gupta et al., “Live Human Detection Robot,” International Journal for Innovative
Research in Science (2014), vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 293–297, 2014.
 Shubham Yadav, “Thrust Efficiency Of Drones (QUAD COPTER) With Different
Propellers And Their Payload Capacity”, International Journal of Aerospace and
Mechanical Engineering, vol. 4, no. 2, ISSN (O): 2393-8609, April-2017.
• Fare´s Jalled, “Object Detection Using Image Processing”,Research Gate, arX
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