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GCE ‘O’ Level Chemistry

Revision

Chapter 1 – Kinetic Particle Theory

Gases
Gases are easily compressed as the volume of gas particles is negligible compared to the volume
occupied by the gas.

Chapter 2 – Measurement and Experimental Techniques

Apparatuses for Measurement
The accuracies of apparatuses used for measurement in ascending order are beaker, graduated
measuring cylinder, burette then pipette.

Collection of Gases
The collection of poisonous gases (e.g. chlorine) when carrying out downward delivery should be
carried out in a fume cupboard.
Method Suitability Examples
 Hydrogen
 Insoluble or slightly
Displacement of water  Carbon dioxide
soluble in water
 Oxygen
 Soluble in water  Hydrogen chloride
Downward delivery
 Denser than air  Chlorine
 Soluble in water
Upward delivery  Ammonia
 Less dense than air

Drying of Gases
We can dry a gas by passing it through a drying agent. Using conc. sulfuric acid to dry ammonia
is unsuitable as the sulfuric acid will react with the ammonia to produce ammonium sulfate.
Drying agent Suitability and examples
Conc. sulfuric acid  Most gases
Quicklime  Ammonia
Calcium chloride  Most gases

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Chapter 3 – Separation and Purification

Desert Survival Kit
The desert survival kit question makes use of distillation.

Chapter 6 – Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding is between metallic and non-metallic elements and it refers to the transfer of
electrons from one element to another. Ionic compounds are solids at room temperature.

Melting and Boiling Points

Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. Strong electrostatic
forces between the positive and negative ions which are arranged in a giant
crystal lattice. It requires much energy in order to separate the ions.

Electrical Conductivity
Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity since the ions are held firmly in place, indicating
the absence of free-moving ions to conduct electricity.

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Ionic compounds only conduct electricity when dissolved in a solution or in the molten state. When
an ionic compound melts or when it’s dissolved in a solution, the charged ions are free to move.
When an electric current passes through, solutions of ionic compounds can be decomposed into
their individual elements.

Chapter 7 – Covalent and Metallic Bonding

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is between non-metallic and non-metallic elements and it refers to the sharing
of electrons between elements. Covalent compounds are usually gaseous or liquids at room
temperature.

Diamond – Melting and Boiling Points

Diamond has high melting and boiling points. 1 carbon atom is
bonded to 4 other carbon atoms, making it having a tetrahedral
structure. Much energy is required in order to separate the atoms
which are connected by strong covalent bonds. Since diamond
contains many covalent bonds, it has a high melting and boiling
point.

Diamond – Electrical Conductivity

Diamond does not conduct electricity. Since all the electrons in carbon are used up in bonding,
there is no presence of free-moving ions to conduct electricity.

Silicon(IV) Dioxide
Silicon(IV) dioxide has a structure similar to diamond.

Graphite – Melting and Boiling Points

Graphite has high melting and boiling points. 1 carbon atom is
bonded to 3 other carbon atoms, making it having a hexagonal
structure. Like diamond, graphite has strong covalent bonds
connected between the atoms and since there are many bonds,
much energy is required to separate the atoms.

Graphite – Electrical Conductivity

Graphite can conduct electricity since 1 carbon atom is bonded to
3 other carbon atoms, graphite has delocalised electrons which carry the charges from place to
place and allowing it to conduct electricity.

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Graphite – Being Slippery

Graphite contains layers of carbon atoms and these layers are held by weak intermolecular forces.
The layers slide over each other very easily, making graphite slippery.

Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding is between metallic and metallic elements. Metals have free-moving electrons in
their outer shells which form a sea of delocalised electrons around the closely-packed positive
ions. These electrons carry electric charges, which explains why metals can conduct electricity.
When an electric current passes through a metal, the metal will not decompose.

Metallic Bonding – Melting and Boiling Points

Compounds which consist of metallic bonds have high melting and boiling points. There are
strong electrostatic forces between the positive and negative ions holding the particles together.
It requires much energy to separate the particles. When electricity is passed through a compound
consisting of metallic bonds, the electrons will be disrupted and will return to their original positions.
Chapter 11 – Acids and Bases
Types of Oxides
Most oxides can be grouped into four types: acidic oxides, basic oxides, amphoteric oxides and
neutral oxides.
Acidic oxides Basic oxides Amphoteric oxides Neutral oxides
React with acid? No Yes
Yes No
React with alkali? Yes No
Examples CO2, SiO2 Na2O, K2O Al2O3, PbO CO, H2O

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When passed through powdered calcium carbonate, carbon monoxide will not be removed.
However, oxides such as sulfur dioxide are removed. The reason is that calcium carbonate is
basic and it reacts with acidic gases. Since carbon monoxide is a neutral gas, it will not react with
calcium carbonate.

Chapter 12 – Salts
Preparation of Salts
We can prepare salts 3 ways.
 Reaction of an acid with a metal, insoluble base or carbonate
 Titration
 Precipitation
Reaction of an acid with a metal,
Titration Precipitation
insoluble base or carbonate
Example of salt Copper(II) sulfate Sodium chloride Barium sulfate
Starting Sodium hydroxide, Barium nitrate,
Copper(II) oxide, sulfuric acid
materials (i.e.) hydrochloric acid sodium sulfate

 Filter the mixture.  Crystallise the

 Collect the filtrate. salt solution.  Filter the
Steps
 Crystallise the filtrate.  Filter to obtain mixture.
 Filter to obtain the salt crystals. the salt crystals.

Preparation of Copper(II) Sulfate

Fill a beaker with dilute sulfuric acid. Stir and add excess copper(II) oxide powder until no more
reaction occurs with the acid. Filter to remove the excess copper(II) oxide powder. Collect the
filtrate. This is the copper(II) sulfate solution. Heat till the filtrate becomes saturated. Allow the
saturated solution to cool so that the salt can crystallise. Filter to collect the crystals. Wash the
crystals with a little cold water to remove any impurities. Dry the crystals between 2 sheets of filter
paper.

Preparation of Sodium Chloride

Fill a burette with dilute hydrochloric acid. Note the initial burette reading (V1 cm3). Pipette 25.0cm3
of sodium hydroxide solution into a conical flask. Add 1 or 2 drops of methyl orange indicator to
the sodium hydroxide solution. The solution turns yellow. Swirl the conical flask while adding
hydrochloric acid from the burette slowly until the solution turns orange permanently. This is the
end-point. Record the final burette reading (V2 – V1 cm3).

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To obtain a pure sample of sodium chloride, pipette 25.0cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution into a
conical flask. Dispense V2 – V1 cm3 of hydrochloric acid from the burette. Do not add the indicator
as it will make the salt impure. Heat the solution until it is saturated. Allow the saturated solution
to cool so that the salt can crystallise. Filter to collect the crystals. Wash the crystals with a little
cold water to remove any impurities. Dry the crystals between 2 sheets of filter paper.

The substances in the conical flask and the burette can be swapped (i.e. you can fill the burette
with sodium hydroxide and the conical flask with hydrochloric acid).

Methyl Orange Colour Change

Acidic Neutral Alkaline
Yellow Orange Red

Preparing Barium Sulfate

Pour barium nitrate solution into a small beaker. Add excess sodium sulfate solution and stir until
no more precipitate forms. Filter to collect the precipitate. Wash the precipitate with distilled water
to remove impurities. Allow the precipitate to dry on a piece of filter paper.

Nitrate Salts
Nitrate salts cannot be used in a reaction to prepare another salt since all nitrates are soluble.

Qualitative Analysis
Concepts are test for cations, test for anions and test for gases.

Identifying Cations
The tests for lead and aluminium ions result in the same observations. We do not carry out tests
for lead in the laboratory since lead is a toxic substance.
Aq. sodium hydroxide Aq. ammonia
Few drops Excess Few drops Excess
Precipitate dissolves Precipitate dissolves
Zinc White ppt. in excess, forms White ppt. in excess, forms
colourless solution colourless solution
Aluminium
White ppt. Insoluble in excess White ppt. Insoluble in excess
Lead

Identifying Anions
The solubility rules for salts are very important in the test for anions. When asked for the purpose
of adding dilute nitric acid in the tests for sulfates, chlorides and iodides, the reason is to remove
any carbonate in the solution to prevent false results.

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As barium sulfate and silver halides are insoluble, it accounts for the reason that precipitates are
formed in the test for sulfates, chlorides and iodides.
Anion Test Observations and inference
 Effervescence is observed.
Add dilute acid. Pass the
 Gas given off forms a white ppt. in limewater.
Carbonate gas given off into
Ppt. is soluble in excess.
limewater.
 Carbon dioxide gas is liberated.
Add aq. sodium hydroxide,
then a piece of aluminium  Effervescence is observed.
Nitrate foil. Warm the mixture.  The moist red litmus paper turns blue.
Test the gas with a piece  Gas is ammonia.
of damp red litmus paper.
Add dilute nitric acid, then
Sulfate  White ppt. formed (barium sulfate)
barium nitrate solution.
Chloride Add dilute nitric acid, then  White ppt. formed (silver chloride)
Iodide silver nitrate solution.  Yellow ppt. formed (silver iodide)

Chapter 13 – Oxidation and Reduction

Redox Reactions and Disproportionation Reactions
A redox reaction is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two
substances. All neutralisation reactions are redox reactions.

When the same element is both oxidised and reduced, the reaction is known as a
disproportionation reaction.

Oxidising and Reducing Agents

An oxidising agent is a substance that causes another substance to be oxidised. A reducing agent
is a substance that causes another substance to be reduced. Potassium iodide is a reducing
agent and KMnO4 is an oxidising agent.

Test for an Oxidising Agent

Test Observation
Add KI (aq.) Brown solution formed.
Dip a piece of starch-iodide paper Starch-iodide paper turns from white to blue.

Test for a Reducing Agent

Test Observation
Add acidified KMnO4 Colour of the KMnO4 solution changes from purple to colourless.

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Chapter 14 – Metals
Pure Metals
Pure metals are not widely used in industries as they are soft. In a pure metal, the atoms are
packed regularly in layers. The layers of atoms can slide over one another easily when a force is
applied. Moreover, pure metals may react with air and water and wear away or corrode easily.

Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or a few other elements. Alloys are stronger and harder
than their constituent metals because in an alloy, the atoms of the different metals or elements
have different sizes. The regular arrangement of atoms in the pure metal is disrupted. The atoms
of different sizes cannot slide over one another easily when a force is applied.

Malleability and Ductility

Metals are both malleable and ductile. This means that they can be hammered into different
shapes (malleable) and drawn into wires without breaking (ductile). When a force is applied to a
metal, the layers of metal atoms can slide over one another through the sea of electrons. The
metallic bonding is undisrupted.

Reactivity Series

In the experiment shown above, steam is passed over a heated metal sample. Hydrogen gas is
collected. Reactive metals react with cold water or steam to produce hydrogen gas. A possible
option for the metal sample is zinc as it is moderately reactive. It reacts with steam to form zinc
oxide and hydrogen.

To obtain the most vigorous reaction from a metal and metal oxide reaction, one must react a
very reactive metal with an unreactive metal oxide.

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Summary of Reactions
In this section, we will study the reactions of metals with cold water, steam, dilute hydrochloric
acid and metallic oxides. Some metal oxides can also be reduced by carbon and hydrogen. Heat
can decompose the metal carbonate as well.

Cold Water and Steam

Zinc and iron cannot react with cold water. However, hot zinc reacts readily with steam to produce
zinc oxide and hydrogen gas. Red-hot iron reacts slowly with steam to form iron oxide (Fe3O4)
and hydrogen gas.

Hydrochloric Acid
No reaction takes place for lead, copper and silver. Lead does not appear to react with
hydrochloric acid since it forms an insoluble layer of lead(II) chloride.

Carbon, Hydrogen and Carbonate

The more reactive a metal is, the more difficult it is to reduce its oxide to the metal by
carbon/hydrogen/decompose its carbonate by heat.

The oxides of reactive metals are very thermally stable, they do not decompose easily.

Extracting Metals
There are 3 main stages involved in obtaining metals from their ores:
 Concentrating the metal ore: Earth and rock are removed before the metal is extracted from
the ore. This results in a metal ore that contains little waste materials.
 Extracting crude metal from the ore: Depending on the position of the metal in the reactivity
series, the metal is extracted by reduction with carbon or using electricity.
 Refining crude metal: Generally, electrolysis is used.

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The Blast Furnace – Extracting Iron

from Haematite
Haematite contains iron(III) oxide
mixed with impurities like sand and
clay. Iron is extracted from haematite in
a blast furnace. Haematite (iron(III)
oxide), coke (carbon) and limestone
(calcium carbonate) are added at the
top of the blast furnace. Blasts of hot air
are blown into the furnace near the
bottom.

The following reactions take place in sequence:

Carbon dioxide is produced.

The carbon in coke burns in a blast of hot air to produce carbon dioxide. This reaction is highly
exothermic.
Carbon + oxygen  carbon dioxide

Carbon monoxide is produced.

As the carbon dioxide rises up the furnace, it reacts with coke to produce carbon monoxide. This
reaction is also highly exothermic.
Carbon + carbon dioxide  carbon monoxide

Haematite is reduced to iron.

The carbon monoxide formed acts as a reducing agent as iron(III) oxide gets reduced to iron. The
product iron is molten and it runs to the bottom of the furnace.
Iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide  carbon dioxide + iron

Impurities are removed.

Limestone is decomposed by heat to produce carbon dioxide and quicklime. This process is
known as thermal decomposition.
Calcium carbonate  carbon dioxide + calcium oxide

Some lime compounds are listed below.

Chemical name Lime type
Calcium carbonate Limestone, chalk
Calcium hydroxide Slaked lime
Calcium oxide Quicklime

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As calcium oxide is a basic oxide, it reacts with silicon dioxide which is acidic and other impurities
in haematite to form molten slag. The molten slag runs to the bottom of the furnace. It floats on
top of the molten iron. Silicon dioxide is also known as silica.
Calcium oxide + silicon dioxide  calcium silicate

Hot waste gases like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen escape through the top of
the furnace. The only gases which react with the reactants in the blast furnace are carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen. Nitrogen is not involved in any reaction.

Steel
Mild steel is hard, strong and malleable as its composition of carbon is little. However, when the
composition of carbon increases, it becomes high-carbon steel. High-carbon steel is strong but
brittle.

Chemical name Alternative name

Iron(III) oxide Haematite
Silicon dioxide Silica
Calcium silicate Slag

Chapter 15 – Electrolysis
A useful acronym is AOCR (anode oxidation, cathode reduction). Recall that oxidation is the
loss of electrons and reduction is the gain of electrons. Inert electrodes consist of carbon/graphite
and platinum whereas reactive electrodes consist of copper.

Electrolysis of Molten Compounds

A binary compound consists of only 2 elements, usually a metal cation and a non-metal anion.
We will conduct a case study of the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride in the next section.
Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride
In the electrolysis of molten sodium
chloride, the only ions present are Na+
and Cl-.

The state symbol is (l) since we are

referring to molten sodium chloride.

Anode Cathode
Chlorine gas Molten sodium

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Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions of Compounds

We will investigate how the reactivity series affects the selective discharge of cations and anions,
as well as how concentration affects the selective discharge of anions.

Electrolysis of Dilute Sodium Chloride Solution

The ions present in this solution are sodium,
chloride, hydrogen and hydroxide.

The ratio of the volume of hydrogen gas to

oxygen gas collected is 2:1. They are gases so
the molar volume is the same.

Since oxygen is soluble, some oxygen

dissolves into the solution so less oxygen gas
is collected. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
gas collected increases. However, after the
electrolysis has been running some time, the
solution becomes saturated with dissolved oxygen. The oxygen gas can no longer dissolve in the
solution and is collected as a gas.

This process is known as they electrolysis of water. Water is gradually removed from the solution
and the concentration of sodium chloride solution gradually increases.

Anode Cathode
Oxygen gas, water Hydrogen gas

Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium Chloride Solution

The ions present in this solution are sodium, chloride, hydrogen and hydroxide.

Anode Cathode Remaining solution

Chlorine gas Hydrogen gas Sodium hydroxide

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Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulfate Solution using Inert Electrodes

The ions present are copper, sulfate, hydrogen and hydroxide.

Anode Cathode Remaining solution

Oxygen gas, water Copper metal Sulfuric acid

Electrolytic Purification of Copper

Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulfate using Copper Electrodes
Copper electrodes are reactive electrodes. The ions present in the solution are copper, sulfate,
hydrogen and hydroxide. The cathode increases in mass, the anode decreases in mass. The
decrease in mass of the anode = the increase in mass of the cathode.

Anode Cathode Conc. of CuSO4 solution

2+
Copper dissolves to form Cu ions Copper metal is formed Unchanged

Refining Copper by Electrolysis

Similar. The impure copper at the anode slowly dissolves and decreases in mass. It falls to the
bottom of the trough containing the electrolyte as anode sludge. A pure layer of copper is
deposited on the cathode.

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Electroplating
Electroplating is an application of electrolysis. The
following are some reasons why we electroplate:
 To make a metal object look more expensive/give
a decorative finish
 To prevent rusting

At the cathode, we place the object which we want to

electroplate. The anode will be the pure metal electrode. Electrons travel from the negative to the
positive terminal. The silver anode undergoes reduction and the silver ions are deposited into the
electrolyte. The travel to the wire and silver metal is deposited onto the surface of the teapot.

Simple Cells
A simple cell is a device which converts chemical energy to electrical energy. The further apart
the 2 metals are in the reactivity series, the greater the voltage produced in the cell.

Zinc-Copper Cell with Copper(II) Sulfate Solution

Zinc is more reactive than copper. Electrons will flow through the wire from the zinc electrode to
the copper electrode. The direction of conventional current is in the opposite. At the zinc electrode,
the zinc atoms give up electrons to form zinc ions. At the copper electrode, copper(II) ions receive
electrons from the solution to form copper.

Chapter 16 – The Periodic Table

Group I Elements – Alkali Metals
Down the group, the:
 Melting and boiling points decrease
 Reactivity increases
 Densities increases

Group VII Elements – Halogens

Down the group, the:
 Melting and boiling points increase
 Reactivity decreases
 Appearance of the elements becomes darker

Displacement of Halogens from its Aqueous Solution

A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from its halide solution. This only
applies to aqueous compounds. It will not work on solids. For example, when aqueous chlorine is
added to sodium bromide (aq.), sodium chloride (aq.) and aqueous bromine are formed.

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Transition Metals
Transition metals have the following properties:
 High melting and boiling points and high densities
 Have variable oxidation states
 Form coloured compounds

For example, manganese, a transition metal, can have variable oxidation states. In manganese(IV)
oxide, the oxidation state of it is +4 but in potassium permanganate, the oxidation of it is +7.

It is good to know the colours of some coloured compounds. As such, here’s a table for reference.
Name Colour Remarks
Copper(II) oxide Black
Copper(I) oxide Red
Copper(II) sulfate is white
Copper(II) hydroxide/sulfate/nitrate Blue
when anhydrous.
Copper(II) carbonate
Green
Iron(II) sulfate
Iron(III) chloride Yellow
Potassium dichromate(VI) Orange
Potassium permanganate Purple
Orange, green when
Potassium dichromate
reduced
White when cooled,
Zinc oxide
yellow when heated

Chapter 17 – Energy Changes

Summary of Endothermic and Exothermic Changes
Endothermic changes Exothermic changes
 Heat taken in from surroundings  Heat given out to surroundings
 Enthalpy change is positive  Enthalpy change is negative
 Energy content of reactants is higher than  Energy content of reactants is higher than
that of the products that of the products

Activation Energy
Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that reactant particles must possess in order
for a chemical reaction to occur. Catalysts are used to lower the activation energy to speed up
the reaction.

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Combustion of Fuels
Most fuels contain carbon and hydrogen. When these fuels burn, carbon dioxide, water vapour
and heat energy are produced. Combustion equations can be represented by hydrocarbon/fuel +
oxygen  carbon dioxide + water vapour. The state symbol for the water vapour is (g).

If a limited supply of air is used, carbon particles (in the form of soot) and carbon monoxide are
produced. This is known as incomplete combustion. As all combustion reactions give off heat
energy, combustion is an exothermic process.

When Bunsen burners emit a yellowish-orange flame, it implies that the air hole is closed, limiting
the oxygen supply for burning. As such, soot is produced. Opening the air hole allows more
oxygen to enter, ensuring that complete combustion takes place.

Fuel Cells
A chemical cell in which reactants are continuously supplied to produce electricity directly is called
a fuel cell. There are advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Hydrogen does not cause pollution. In the
 It is not cheap to obtain hydrogen. One
combustion of hydrogen, only water is
can either obtain it by cracking of
produced.
petroleum or electrolysis.
 Hydrogen is a renewable source of energy as
 Hydrogen is extremely flammable and
it can be obtained by electrolysis through the
explosive.
decomposition of water.
 Hydrogen cannot be stored and used
 Hydrogen is an efficient source of energy.
as easily as liquid fuels since it has a
When it burns, it releases much more energy
low boiling point.
compared to other fuels.

Chapter 18 – Speed of Reaction

Factors affecting the Speed of Reaction
There are different factors which affect the speed of a chemical reaction which are namely:
 Concentration of the reactants
 Pressure (for gaseous reactants)
 Surface area (for solid reactants)
 Temperature
 Presence of a catalyst

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Concentration
When the concentration of the reactant is increased, the speed of the reaction increases. This is
because at a higher concentration, there are more reactant particles per unit volume. More
particles are available to collide with one another, meaning that the collisions become more
frequent. As such, the frequency of effective collisions increases.

Pressure
When the pressure of a gaseous reactant is increased, the speed of reaction increases. At a
higher pressure, the particles of the gaseous reactants are closer together. The collisions between
the particles become more frequent. As a result, the frequency of effective collisions increases
and the speed of reaction is higher. Moreover, the concentration of the gaseous reactants will
increase.

Surface Area
When the surface area of a solid reactant is increased, the speed of the reaction increased. When
a solid reactant is broken up into smaller pieces, its total surface area is increased. The exposed
surface area to volume ratio increases, resulting in the collisions between the reacting particles
to become more frequent. This increases the frequency of effective collisions, speeding up the
reaction.

Temperature
When the temperature of a reactant is increased, the speed of the reaction increases. At higher
temperatures, the reactant particles possess more kinetic energy equal to or greater than the
activation energy, move faster and collide with one another more often. It results in a higher
frequency of effective collisions, speeding up the reaction.

Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance which is used to speed up a chemical reaction but remains chemically
unchanged at the end of the reaction. The characteristics are as follows:
 It lowers the activation energy by providing an alternative pathway for the reaction to proceed.
 The physical appearance of a catalyst may change at the end of the reaction (i.e. from a lump
of solid to fine particles) but its chemical properties remain unchanged.
 A catalyst is selective in its action.
 Participates in the chemical reaction.

Enzymes are biological catalysts as they catalyse the chemical reactions in plants and animals.

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Chapter 19 – Ammonia
When ammonia is converted to nitrogen gas, it undergoes oxidation.

Manufacturing Ammonia by the Haber process

Ammonia is manufactured industrially by the Haber process. The raw materials are nitrogen and
hydrogen which are mixed in the ration of 1:3. This ratio is chosen since the percentages by
volume match the ratio of the number of moles of gases in the balanced equation to manufacture
ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen. Nitrogen is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid
air and hydrogen is produced from the cracking of petroleum.

Conditions required for the Haber process

Optimal conditions are a temperature of 450°C, a pressure of 250atm and the presence of an iron
catalyst.

The higher the pressure, the higher the yield of ammonia. However, maintaining high pressure is
costly as expensive equipment is required. The lower the temperature, the higher the yield of
ammonia. However, a lower temperature results in a slower speed of reaction. An iron catalyst is
used to speed up the reaction.

Displacement of Ammonia from its Salts

The equation is ammonium salt + alkali  ammonia + water + salt. For example, when ammonium
chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide, the products are ammonia, water and sodium chloride.

Neutralising Acidity in Soils

Calcium hydroxide and quicklime are widely used to neutralise acidity in soil. However, both
compounds will react with nitrogenous fertilisers to form ammonia which escapes into the
atmosphere. This causes the loss of nitrogen from fertilisers already added to the soil by farmers.
Nitrogenous fertilisers and lime should not be added to the soil at the same time.

Chapter 20 – The Atmosphere and Environment

Composition of Air
Air is a mixture of several gases. It contains nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and other gases (1%)
which include argon and carbon dioxide. To separate air into its constituent gases, the air is cooled
and compressed until liquid air is obtained. The gases are distilled by fractional distillation.

Air Pollution
There are a variety of air pollutants. It is important to understand the sources and effects of these
air pollutants.

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Sources Properties Effects

 Incomplete
Carbon combustion of  Colourless,  Talk about
monoxide petrol in car odourless. carboxyhaemoglobin.
engines.
 Fossil fuels, natural  Kill bacteria in
 Breathing difficulties.
Sulfur dioxide gas. the preservation
 Acid rain.
 Volcanic eruptions. of dried fruit.
 High temperatures
Oxides of in car engines/  Similar to sulfur
nitrogen factories. dioxide.
 Lightning.
Unburnt
 Car exhaust fumes.  Carcinogenic.
hydrocarbons
 Rubbish in landfills.
 Colourless,
Methane  Animal matter  Global warming
odourless.
decay, cows.
 Unburnt
 Irritates the eyes and
hydrocarbons +
Ozone lungs.
nitrogen dioxide
 Breathing difficulties.
under sunlight.

Case Study of Helium

Helium is an inert gas as it can be found in Group 0 of the periodic table. Since it has a very low
density (0.17g/dm3), it can easily rise into the upper atmospheres and escape into outer space. It
is extremely low in concentration so this makes it difficult to be recovered.

Some people think that the use of helium to fill party balloons should be discouraged. This will
cause more helium to be lost to the atmosphere. As helium cannot be easily recovered, the finite
resource of helium will be depleted.

Acid Rain
Sources of acid rain are sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide. Sulfur dioxide
dissolves in water to form sulfurous acid, which is then oxidised to sulfuric acid. In the presence
of oxygen and water, oxides of nitrogen form nitric acid. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form
carbonic acid.

Acid rain reacts with metals and carbonates like marble and limestone. Metal bridges and stone
buildings are damaged. It also lowers the pH values of water bodies.

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Reducing Air Pollution

It is possible to reduce air pollution via 2 means. They are by using catalytic converters and flue
gas desulfurisation.

Catalytic converters are made of ceramic-coated with rhodium and platinum catalysts to speed
up the reaction. Carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen are reduced
to nitrogen and unburnt hydrocarbons are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water.

Flue gas desulfursation (FGD) minimises the effects of sulfur dioxide pollution. In FGD, calcium
carbonate plays an important role in reducing the effect of acid rain.

Depletion of the Ozone Layer

Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen. It is a pale blue gas with a pungent odour. Ozone filters out some
of the harmful UV radiation from the Sun. However, the ozone layer around the Earth is
disappearing quickly mainly due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Propellants in aerosols and coolants in refrigerators and air-conditioners release CFCs into the
atmosphere. In the presence of UV radiation, CFCs decompose to form chlorine atoms. These
chlorine atoms react with ozone molecules in the atmosphere to form chlorine oxide and oxygen,
destroying the ozone layer. As a result, harmful UV radiation reaches the Earth via holes in the
ozone layer.

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Chapter 21 – An Introduction to Organic Chemistry

In summary, here are the list of reactions and their respective conditions.

Homologous Series Reaction Conditions

Combustion  Oxygen
Substitution  UV light
Alkanes  High temperature
Catalytic cracking  Aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide
catalysts
Combustion  Oxygen
 200°C
Hydrogenation
 Nickel catalyst
 300°C
Alkenes Hydration  60atm
 Phosphoric(V) acid catalyst
Bromination  Aqueous bromine
 High temperature
AP
 Catalyst
Combustion  Oxygen
Alcohols
Oxidation  Oxygen from oxidising agent
Reactive metal
Carbonate
Carboxylic acids Base
 Concentrated sulfuric acid catalyst
Esterification (special)
 High temperature

Petroleum and Natural Gas

Natural gas and petroleum are sources of energy. Petroleum is a naturally occurring mixture of
hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons consist of only carbon and hydrogen. Petroleum must be separated
into fractions before it can be useful. It is separated by fractional distillation.

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Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil

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The process is as follows:

 Heat petroleum  vaporisation.
 Vapour passes through fractionating column.
 Vapour cools and condenses.
 Lighter fractions, which have lower BP are collected at the top as gases.
 Heavier fractions, which have higher BP are collected at the bottom.

As the molecular size of the hydrocarbon increases, the following changes take place:
 The flammability of the substance decreases.
 The viscosity of the substance increases.
 The melting and boiling points of the substance increases.

The uses of the different fractions are as follows:

Fraction Use(s)
Petroleum gas Fuel for cooking
Petrol/gasoline Fuel for motorcars
Naptha Feedstock for making petrochemicals (e.g. plastics)
Kerosene/paraffin Fuel for aircraft engines
Diesel oil Fuel for diesel engines in buses, lorries and trains
Lubricating oil Lubricating machines, making waxes and polishes
Bitumen Road surfaces, roofing

Chapter 22 – Alkanes and Alkenes

Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. As you go down the series, their melting and boiling points
increase, they become more viscous and they become less flammable. Alkanes are generally
unreactive.

Melting and Boiling Points

As the molecular sizes increase, the melting and boiling points of the alkanes increase. This is
because as the sizes of the alkane molecules increase, the forces of attraction between the
molecules become stronger.

Viscosity
Alkanes become more viscous as their molecular size increase. This is due to the stronger forces
of attraction between the molecules.

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Alkanes – Flammability
Alkanes are flammable. As the sizes of the alkane molecules increase, the percentage of carbon
in the alkane molecule also increases. They become less flammable.

Alkenes
They go through combustion and addition reactions.

Hydrogenation
At 200°C in the presence of a nickel catalyst, alkenes react with hydrogen to form alkanes. When
alkenes undergo hydrogenation, the C=C bond is broken.

Hydration
Alkenes react with steam to produce alcohols. The conditions required are a temperature of 300°C
and a pressure of 60atm. The reaction also requires a phosphoric(V) acid catalyst.

Bromination
Bromination is an irreversible reaction.

Catalytic Cracking
We can produce alkenes by catalytic cracking. Cracking refers to the break-down of long-chain
hydrocarbons into smaller molecules. During catalytic cracking, the long-chain alkanes produce
a mixture of short-chain alkenes and a mixture of short-chain alkanes or hydrogen gas.

Cracking is important. Alkenes are used as starting materials for making ethanol and plastics. It
is also used to produce hydrogen. It is an important starting material in the manufacture of
ammonia in the Haber process. Cracking is used to produce petrol. Hydrocarbons of higher
molecular mass are converted into smaller molecules which are ideal for petrol and refinery gas
(high demand).

Importances of cracking:
 Produce short-chain alkenes
 Produce hydrogen
 Produce petrol

Fats and Oils

Some fats and oils are polyunsaturated. This is because their hydrocarbon chains contain more
than 1 C=C double bond. Fats are solids at room temperature and pressure. They contain mainly
saturated fat molecules. Oils are liquids at room temperature and pressure. They contain a higher
percentage of unsaturated fat molecules.

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Production of Margarine
Hydrogen is added to vegetable oil. A temperature of 200°C and a nickel catalyst are used. The
greater the amount of hydrogen used, the more solid the margarine becomes.

The difference between unsaturated and polyunsaturated is that saturated substances only have
1 C=C bond but polyunsaturated substances have many C=C bonds.

Chapter 23 – Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids

Alcohols
As the molecular size of the alcohol increases, the solubility decreases. The boiling point
increases as well. The boiling point increases as the size of the alcohol molecules increase and
the forces of attraction between the molecules also increase.

Oxidation
Alcohols can undergo oxidation when heated with an oxidising agent like potassium
permanganate. A carboxylic acid and water are formed.

Case Study – Ethanol

Ethanol can be prepared via 2 methods – from ethene or by fermentation.

Producing Ethanol from Ethene

Ethene undergoes hydration and in doing so produces ethanol. Steam is added to ethene. The
reaction is carried out at 300°C, 60atm with the addition of a phosphoric(V) acid catalyst.

Ethanol is used in alcoholic drinks, as a solvent in deodorants etc. and as a fuel in cars and in
cooking.

Producing Ethanol by Fermentation

The reaction in the fermentation process is as follows: glucose solution in the presence of yeast
 ethanol + carbon dioxide. Glucose solution is mixed with yeast and the mixture is kept at a
temperature of around 37°C. Its purpose is because enzymes in yeast work best at around 37°C.
If the temperature is raised beyond 37°C, then the enzymes will be denatured and are unable to
catalyse, stopping the reaction.

Think about it this way: ethanol is obtained from glucose which is widely available in sugary drinks.
Through fermentation, ethanol is produced. The profit margin is very large as sugar is cheap but
ethanol, an expensive liquor, is produced.

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Carboxylic Acids
Producing Carboxylic Acids
To produce a carboxylic acid, an alcohol must be oxidised. It can be oxidised by either two
methods – by acidified potassium manganate(VII) or atmospheric oxygen.

Special reaction to distinguish a normal acid from a carboxylic acid is that only carboxylic acids
undergo esterification.

Reactive Metal
When a carboxylic acid reacts with a reactive metal, the reactive metal displaces the hydrogen
from the O-H bond.

Esterification
When ethanoic acid is warmed with ethanol in the presence of a few drops of concentrated sulfuric
acid, water and an ester called ethyl ethanoate are produced. Concentrated sulfuric acid acts as
a catalyst for the reaction. Esters are colourless liquids which are insoluble in water. To separate
a mixture of ethyl ethanoate (an ester) and water, a separating funnel must be used since they
are immiscible liquids. Esterification is a reversible reaction.

During esterification, the ester produced will have a boiling point lower than its constituent alcohol
and carboxylic acid.

Esters are used in the preparation of artificial food flavourings and solvents for perfumes etc.

Isomerism

Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula. Now,
suppose you have two compounds, A on the left and B on the right. Are A and B isomers of each
other? No, they are not. The structural formulae are the same.

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Chapter 24 – Macromolecules
Addition Polymerisation
Addition polymerisation occurs when unsaturated monomers join together without losing any
molecules or atoms. The polymer formed is called an addition polymer.

Formation of Polyethene
At high temperature and pressure and in the presence of a catalyst, the C=C double bonds of the
ethene molecules break. Each monomer forms single bonds with 2 other monomers and
eventually, they join to form polyethene.

Condensation Polymerisation
Condensation polymerisation occurs when monomers combine to form a polymer with the
removal of a small molecule such as water. There are 2 main groups of condensation polymers:
the polyamides and polyesters.

Differences between Addition Polymerisation and Condensation Polymerisation

Addition polymerisation Condensation polymerisation
Does not involve the removal of small molecules Involves the removal of small molecules
Products are non-biodegradable Products are biodegradable
Monomers are unsaturated Monomers are saturated
Involves other bonds like -OH, -COOH
Involves C=C bonds
and -NH2
Uses: clothes, curtains, parachutes,
Uses: plastic bags, toys, buckets, cling film
fishing lines, plastic bags

Nylon – A Synthetic Polyamide

Nylon is made from a dicarboxylic acid
and a diamine. Recall that the functional
group for carboxylic acids is –COOH and
for amines, it is –NH2.

Nylon is a polyamide as it contains many

amide linkages. The amide linkage is as
shown.

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Terylene – A Synthetic Polyester

Terylene is made from a dicarboxylic
acid and a diol. Recall that the
functional group for carboxylic acids
is –COOH. Diol means an alcohol
with 2 –OH functional groups.

Terlyene is a polyester as it contains

many ester linkages. The ester
linkage is as shown.

On the combustion of Terylene, CO2,

CO and H2O are formed.

Nylon Terylene
 Made from a dicarboxylic acid and diamine.  Made from a dicarboxylic acid and diol.
 Contains amide linkages.  Contains ester linkages.
 On combustion, nitrogen dioxide, carbon  On combustion, carbon dioxide, carbon
dioxide and water vapour are formed. monoxide and water vapour are formed.

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