2.

Network Models
1.1 Introduction to Data Communication:
Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source
and a receiver. The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The
device that transmits the data is known as source and the device that receives
the transmitted data is known as receiver. The rules and regulations are called
protocols and standards in Data Communications.

1.2 Components of Data Communication System:

A Communication system has following components: 
1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of
text, numbers, pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The
location of receiver computer is generally different from the sender computer.
The distance between sender and receiver depends upon the types of network
used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is
carried from sender to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair
wire, coaxial cable, fibre-optic cable or wireless like laser, radio waves, and
microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the
devices. Both sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with
each other.
1.3 Data Flow:
Data Flow in Communication means flow data between two devices.
Data Flow in communication have the following types:

1. Simplex

2. Half duplex

3. Full duplex
1. Simplex:
                   In simplex data flow only in one direction. Its mean in simplex if two
devices are connected only one device will send data the other device will only
receive data it cannot send.

Example of this type is: Mouse, Radio (it can only input data etc.)

2. Half duplex:
                      In this type of data flow, data will flow in both directions but not at
the same time.i.e.data flow in both directions but only one at a time. Two
devices are connected both of them can send information to each other but
not at the same time. When one device will send data the other will receive it
cannot send back at the same time after receiving it can send data.

Example of this type is: Walkie Talkies.

3. Full Duplex:
                      In Full Duplex data will flow in both directions at the same time.
For Example: If two devices are connected in communication both of them can
send and receive data at the same time.

Example of Full Duplex is: calling on mobile phone etc.        

 
1.4 Design issues of Layers:
The following are the design issues for the layers:

1. Reliability

Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits

while data transfer. It is a design issue of making a network that operates
correctly even when it is made up of unreliable components.

2. Scalability
When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus scalability is important so
that network can continue to work well when it gets large.
3. Addressing
There are multiple processes running on one machine. Every layer needs a
mechanism to identify senders and receivers.
4. Error Control
Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors produced. So, the layers
need to agree upon common error detection and error correction methods so
as to protect data packets while they are transferred.
5. Flow Control
If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at
which data is received by the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the
receiver. So, a proper flow control mechanism needs to be implemented.
6. Routing
When there are multiple paths between source and destination, only one
route must be chosen. This decision is made on the basis of several routing
algorithms, which chooses optimized route to the destination.
7. Security
A major factor of data communication is to prevent unauthorized access to
data through authentication and cryptography.

1.5 Protocol Hierarchies:

1) Most networks are organized as a stack of layers, one on the top of another.
2) The number of layers and their names vary from network to network.
3) Each layer has a specified function and adheres to specified protocols.
4) The above figure represents communication between Device A and Device
B.
5) The data stream from one device to the other is not sent directly but has to
pass through a number of layers.
6) The layers in the same levels are called peers and have a set of protocols for
communication.
7) Between each adjacent layer is an interface that defines the services that
are being offered by a lower layer to the next higher layer.
8) The dotted arrows depict virtual communication between peer layers, while
the solid arrows represent the physical communications between the adjacent
layers.
The following figure illustrates a four-layer network –

Example:
1) Let us consider a situation where Device A wants to send a message to
Device B.
2) Device A passes its information to the highest layer. As soon as a data
stream reaches a layer, it performs some specified functions on it and passes it
to the layer below.
3) This continues until the data stream reaches the lowest layer. Layer 1 passes
a bit stream of 0s and 1s to the physical medium that communicates it to the
Layer 1 of the receiving end.
4) Each layer in the receiving end performs certain functions on the data
stream adhering to the protocol with its peer and passes it to the layer above.
5) This continues until the information reaches the highest layer. The highest
layer then conveys the message to Device B in the same format sent by Device
A.

1.6 Connection-Oriented and Connection less Service:

Connection-Oriented service: In connection-oriented service, connections are
establishment and termination.
Example of connection-oriented system is: telephone system.
Connection less service: In connection less service, connections are not
establishment and termination.
Example of connection-oriented system is: postal system.
Difference between Connection-oriented and Connection-less Services:

S.N

O CONNECTION-ORIENTED SERVICE CONNECTION-LESS SERVICE

1. Connection-oriented Connection-less service is

service is related to the related to the postal

telephone system. system.

2. Connection-oriented Connection-less Service is

service is preferred by long preferred by bursty

and steady communication. communication.

Connection-oriented Connection-less Service is

3. Service is necessary. not compulsory.

 Connection-oriented Connection-less Service is

4. Service is feasible. not feasible.

In connection-oriented In connection-less

Service, Congestion is not Service, Congestion is

5. possible. possible.

Connection-oriented Connection-less Service

Service gives the guarantee does not give the

6. of reliability. guarantee of reliability.

In connection-oriented In connection-less

Service, Packets follow the Service, Packets do not

7. same route. follow the same route.

1.7 Network Models:

1.7.1. ISO-OSI Reference Model:

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –

‘International Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1974. OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) is a reference model for how applications
communicate over a network. OSI provides a standard for different computer
systems to be able to communicate with each other.

The 7 layers in OSI Model as following:

 Layer 7 - Application
 Layer 6 - Presentation
 Layer 5 - Session
 Layer 4 - Transport
 Layer 3 - Network
 Layer 2 - Data Link
 Layer 1 - Physical
 Diagrams for OSI model is following:

The main functions of each of the layers are as follows:

Layer 1: Physical Layer:

1. Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
4.  Its function is to transmit individual bits from one node to another over
a physical medium.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer:

1. The main function of this layer is to reliable transfer of data frames from
one node to another connected by the physical layer.
2. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this
layer.
3. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and
sent respectively.

Layer 3: Network Layer:

1. Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one

node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.

Layer 4: Transport Layer:

1. .Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path

or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are
done by this layer
3. It is responsible for delivery of the entire message from the source host
to destination host.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network
requirements.

Layer 5: Session Layer:

1. Session Layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two

different applications.
2. It establishes sessions between users and offers services like dialog
control and synchronization.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer:

1. Languages (syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems.

2. Under this condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
3. It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.
 Layer 7: Application Layer:

1. Application Layer is the topmost layer.

2. It provides high-level APIs (application program interface) to the users.

Merits of OSI reference model

1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and

protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless services.

Demerits of OSI reference model

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.

1.7.2. TCP/IP Reference Model:

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. These

protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination
or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model.  TCP/IP Reference
Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. These layers are
followings:

 Layer 4-Application
 Layer 3-Transport
 Layer 2-Network/Internet
 Layer 1-Host-to-Network/Network Access

Diagrams for TCP/IP model is following

The main functions of each of the layers are as follows:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent
over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Network layer

1. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.

2. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
3. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are
sent.
4. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
5. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
 o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is
done by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of
the protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting

to a remote machine and run applications on it.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol that allows File transfer
amongst computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple
and efficient.
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a
route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address
for Hosts connected over a network
5. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-
oriented protocol.
2. UDP (User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less
protocol that does not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control.
Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

Difference between OSI reference model and TCP/IP reference model

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /

Internet Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard

independent standard, acting as a protocols around which the Internet has
communication gateway between the developed. It is a communication protocol,
network and end user. which allows connection of hosts over a
network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
guarantees the delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP
model is more reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate
Presentation layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.

5. Transport Layer is Connection 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented

Oriented. and Connection less.

6. Network Layer is both Connection 6. Network Layer is Connection less.

Oriented and Connection less.

7. OSI is a reference model around 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of

which the networks are built. the OSI model.
Generally it is used as a guidance tool.

8. Network layer of OSI model 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
provides both connection oriented connectionless service.
and connectionless service.

9. OSI model has a problem of fitting 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
the protocols into the model.

10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
and are easily replaced as the
technology changes.

11. OSI model defines services, 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and
interfaces and protocols very clearly protocols are not clearly separated. It is also
and makes clear distinction between protocol dependent.
them. It is protocol independent.

12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers