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MICROBIOLOGY and PARASITOLOGY - Microbes are important as decomposers or

CHAPTER 1 saprophytes since they aid in fertilization by
- advance course in biology dealing with small returning
living organisms or microbes inorganic nutrients into the soil
- UBIQUITOUS – virtually everywhere - Microbes are used in bioremediation to clean up
 since viruses are ACELLULAR [not or decompose industrial wastes like oil spills
composed of cells] they are often referred to - Microorganisms are involved in elemental cycles
as “infectious agents” or “infectious [carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus]
particles” rather than microorganisms - Microbes serve as food for smaller animals;
important part of the food chain
 Microbiology Includes the Study of…  - Microbes aid in food digestion and some
BACTERIA – produces beneficial substances or solutions
BACTERIOLOGY - Microbes are used in various industries such as
FUNGI – MYCOLOGY food, beverage, chemical and antibiotic industries
VIRUSES – VIROLOGY It is known as BIOTECHNOLOGY [examples are
ALGAE – yogurt, yakult drink, wine and cheese]
PHYCOLOGY ḯ small bacteria and fungi produce
PROTOZOAN OR PROTOZOA’S – antibiotics
PROTOZOOLOGY - Microbes are used in genetic engineering
- Microbes are used as cell models
 Reasons for Studying Microbiology  - Microbes cause either infection diseases or
- to get to know the indigenous micro flora intoxication
[beneficial bacteria]
▪ Lactobacilli – digestive tract  Historical Background 
▪ Ecoli [non-pathogenic] – prevent other MICROBIOLOGY  microscopy, staining procedures, laboratory
procedures, culture techniques
pathogenic microorganisms to get into our system
- develop awareness on the presence of
opportunistic pathogens or opportunists  People who Contributed to the Discovery of
- to know that photosynthetic algae and bacteria Microbiology 
[cyanobacteria] releases oxygen into the A. Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek
atmosphere - 1st to see bacteria [bacterium] and
protozoa [field of lenses]
 Importance of Microbes  - lens maker and in one of his production
he saw microorganisms
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B. Louis Pasteur Protozoolgy : Protozoologist

- Fermentation [eliminating bacteria]  Applied Microbiology [biotechnology, medical and
Pasteurization clinical microbiology]
- discovered anaerobes ḯ Medical Microbiology – the study of
- discovered infectious agents causing pathogens, the disease they cause and the body’s
silkworm diseases defenses against
- contributed to the germ theory of disease disease concerned with epidemiology
- championed changes in hospital practices
to minimize the spread of by pathogens  Classification of Bacteria based on DR. BERGEY
- developed vaccines to prevent chicken 
- Morphology
cholera, anthrax and swine erysipelas [skin
- Staining reactions
disease]
- Cultural characteristics
- Biochemical or Physiologic Behavior
C. Robert Koch
- Genetic analyses
- discovered the germ theory of disease
- Animal inoculations
[Koch’s postulates]
- Immunologic differences
- Bacillus anthracis produces spores
capable of resisting adverse conditions
 BERGEY’S MANUAL of determining
- developed method of fixing, staining and
BACTERIOLOGY [19 categories] 
photographing bacteria
1. Phototrophic Bacteria
- developed methods of cultivating bacteria
– produce own food
on solid media
– photosynthesis: green pigment -
- discovered mycobacterium tuberculosis
chlorophyll
and vibrio cholerae
2. Gliding Bacteria
- worked on tuberculin which led to the
development of a skin test valuable in diagnosing – flagella / cilia
3. Sheathed Bacteria
tuberculosis – encloses organism : facultitively
anaerobic
 Careers in Microbiology 
a. Escherichia rods
Microbiology : Microbiologist
b. Salmonella
Bacteriology : Bacteriologist
Virology : Virologist c. Shigella

Phycology : Phycologist d. Klebsiella

Mycology : Mycologist e. Proteus
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4. Budding or Appendaged b. Ecolli

– guides through budding [maturing] 11. Gram-Negative Anaerobic Cocci
5. Spirochetes 12. Gram-Negative Chemolithotrophic
6. Spiral and Curved Bacteria
7. Gram-Negative Aerobic Rods and Cocci a. Nitrobacter
a. Pseudomonas b. Nitosomonas
b. Azotobacter 13. Methane-Producing
c. Rhizobium 14. Gram-Positive Cocci
d. Halobacter a. Staphylococcus
e. Brucella b. Streptococcus
f. Bordetella c. Sarcina
g. Francisella 15. Endospore Forming Rods and Cocci
8. Gram-Negative Facultatively Anaerobic a. Bacillus  Clostridium –
Rods Sporosarcina [rod shaped
a. Escherichia bacteria]
b. Salmonella
c. Shigella - produce spore

d. Vibrio 16. Gram-Positive

e. Klebsiella a. Lactobacilli

f. Enterobacter 17. Actinomycetes and related organisms

g. Pasteurella a. Coryneloacterium

h. Serratia b. Actinomyces

i. Proteur c. Breribacterium

j. Yersinia d. Mycobacterium

k. Haemophilus e. Sterptomyces

9. Gram-Negative Anaerobic Bacteria 18. Ricketisias

a. Bacteriodes – ricketisms

b. Fusobacterium 19. Microplasmas

10. Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli – mycoplasmas

[aerobes]
a. Neisseria  ADAPTATION
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- variations that represent physiologic - those that attack lower animals and
adjustment to the environment transferable to man

 ATTENUATION
- important form of adaptation and also  Structural Components 
important in immunology 1. CELL WALL
– rigid; made up of peptidoglycan
 MUTATION [nurein/mucopeptide]
- sudden changes in the chemical – made up of alternating amino
constituent of bacteria due to error in sugars
replication by the
DNA strand Gram + bacteria = peptidoglycan
layer in 3 dimensions
Gram – bacteria = peptidoglycan
CHAPTER 2 layer forming 2 dimensional monolayer
 CELL Gram + cell walls = large amounts of
- PROKARYOTIC [undefined nucleus; primitive; teichoic acids
structures vary; have several functions] Gram – cell walls = no teichoic acids
- EUKARYOTIC [organelles (little organs) in plants
and animals] 2. PLASMA MEMBRANE
– made up of phospholipids and
 Distribution proteins
- widespread in the bodies of living organisms – site of important enzyme systems
[skin/alimentary tract] – assume function of mitochondria
- food, water, air, soil aided by respiratory enzymes
- adopted to every conceivable habitat [several – regulates passage of food or
thousand species] materials and metabolic by-
- about 100 species are pathogenic to man products
- 1:30,000 ratio of disease-producer to non- – blocks entry of toxic substances
pathogenic bacteria – catalyzes transport of substances
ḯ PATHOGENICY
- those that produce disease in man and
lower animals 3. CAPSULE
- those that attack lower animals alone made up of complex
–
- those that attack only plants polysaccharides
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a. slime layer – when the – presence of hair like appendages

mucilaginous envelope is indistinct
b. capsule – well-developed Types of Motility
mucilaginous envelope [protein/mucin] - monotrichou – 1 flag
– streptococcus pneumonia - peritrichous – several
clostridium petringens
 Salmonella typhi
– increases the virulence of organisms - lophotrichous – few to many flag
– gives the organisms its specific  arranged in a tuft like shape
immunologic nature  Proteus vulgaris
– Gram (+) positive  capsule
formers 7. PILI [HAIRS]
– hair-like structures; surface
4. METACHROMATIC GRANULES projection found in gram (-)
– enzymatically active negative bacteria
– reserves of inorganic phosphates – called fimbriae – made of a
stored as polymerized polymerized protein molecules
metaphosphate (volutin) called pili cell
– may be arranged or located in conjugation
irregularly in the bacterial cells
8. ENDOSPORES
 MYCOBACTERIUM – protective mechanisms
TUBERCULOSIS – resistant to adverse condition
– common in bacilli except in gram
(+) positive cocci sporosarcina
– 150 species of spore formers
5. NUCLEUS belonging to bacilli and clostridium
– contains the genetic codes that is – cause tetanus [clostridium tetani],
pass from generation to the next gas gangrene [perfringins], botulism
– governing force for the bacterial cell [botulinum] and anthrax [bacillus
in all its vital activist anthracis]
– spore formation is affected by
6. MOTILITY [FLAGELLA] temperature
– true motility
– seldom observed in cocci Phases in Spore formers
– Bacilli spirilla – generally motile
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a. vegetative phase – phase where - may be temporary or permanent

endospores are not forming
b. sporulating phase – phase where  Pathogenic 
spores are forming Clostridium tetani - tetanus
– spores are resistant to heat Clostridium botulinum - food poisoning
chemicals and drying Clostridium pertriogins - gas gangrene

 Bacterial Reproduction
- asexual process – simple transverse division  Biologic Attributes of Bacteria 
(binary fission) 1. Sufficient food of the proper kind
- example: staphyloco - 2. Moisture – provider of body fluids
staphylococ 3. Temperature suitable for the species
4. Proper degree of alkalinity or acidity
 Steps - Best pH for bacteria – slightly alkaline
- replication of nuclear chromosome [8.0 or 8.5]
- active membrane synthesis at the periphery 5. Oxygen requirements
- transverse membrane moves into the 6. Light availability
bacterium 7. Control of by-products of bacterial growth
- constriction of membrane along its short  Nutritional
axis Requirements:
- formation of 2 daughter cells formed by  Proteins – 50% of bacterial cell
deepening constrictions  Fats
- separated cell elongates to full size and in turn 2  Carbohydrates – determine
dividers important traits of organism
- 20 – 30 minutes regeneration period  Nitrogen – 10%
variation in microbes  Carbon
- deviation from the parent form in  Growth Factors
bacteria of the same species  Mineral Salts [Calcium, P, Fe, Mg, K,
- caused by external or internal influences Na]
(inherent)  Source of Energy
- type of culture medium
- length of time grown artificially  Kinds of Organisms according to where
-exposure to chemicals, radiation (x-rays) nourishment is obtained 
- affects cell biologic properties colonial  Saprophytes – from non-living
characteristic and physiologic organic matter
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 Parasites – depend on living matter - 42 – 45° C – highest temp. where bacteria can
for sustenance multiply [mesophiles]
 Facultative Saprophytes – usually
obtains nourishment from living Thermophiles [heat-loving species]
matter but may obtain it from dead – grow at temp. above 45° C or even higher
organic matter Psychrophiles / Cryophiles [cold-loving species]
 Facultative Parasites – usually obtain – grow at temp. just above the freezing
nourishment from dead organic point [20° C or less]
matter but may obtain it from living
matter  Cold Retards or stops bacterial
 Heterotrophs / Organotrophs – growth thus employed in the process of
obtain their nourishment by refrigeration
breaking down organic matter into in order to prolong the spoilage
simpler chemical substances of food.
 Autotrophs / Lithotrophs – obtain
nutrients by building the organic  pH / Hydrogen Ion Concentration:
compounds in the protoplasm from - bacteria prefer a slightly alkaline
simpler inorganic substances medium for growth

 Moisture:  Oxygen
- 75-80% of bacterial cell is water requirements:
- needed to dissolve food materials in the  Aerobes – grow in the presence of
environment for them to be absorbed free atmospheric oxygen
 Anaerobes – obtain there oxygen
- DRYING – detrimental to bacterial growth from oxygen-containing compounds
 Obligate aerobes – cannot develop
 Temperature: in the absence of free oxygen
 Optimum – best temp for growth  Obligate anaerobes – cannot
 Minimum – lowest temp at which the develop in the absence or free oxygen :
species will grow intermediate
 Maximum – highest temp; at which  Facultative organisms – adaptable
growth is still more possible. either to the presence or absence of
atmospheric
- 20° C – lowest temp. of which they can multiply oxygen
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 Microaerophiles – organisms that Electric light – inhibits bacterial growth

can grow even in lowered oxygen
content in the air : UV light  roentgen rays – harmful to bacteria
normal content –
16% lower  Chemicals:
 Caprophiles – need 3-10% increase - destroy
in oxygen content in the air to initiate - inhibits growth
development - attract/repel -positive or negative chemo
taxis

 Osmotic Pressure:
- most bacteria persist small changes in osmotic
pressure
 Light - killed / inhibited by high concentration of salt
requirements: and sugar
Red/Yellow – little bactericidal effect - employed in food preservation
Green – less killing action - Osmophiles – prefer high salt content classified
Violet as Halophiles (salt lovers)
Ultraviolet Highly - can tolerate high concentration
destructive to bacteria of salt
Blue

 Some saprophytic species use light  Bacterial Interrelations 

autotrophic activity 1. Symbiosis – bacteria growing well together;
both parties are benefited
 BY-PRODUCTS OF BACTERIAL GROWTH: - Synergistic relationship
- Bacterial metabolism – deplete food between staphylococci and Influenza bacilli
supply & release products that - Legumes and Nitrogen –
inhibit further fixing bacteria
bacterial growth - Nitrosumonas
Ex.: production of organic acids as - Nitrobacter
in the pickling industry 2. Antagonism – presence of organisms that
inhibits other major metabolic activities or
 ELECTRICITY & RADIANT ENERGY: it
Electricity – heat
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produces toxic materials Fermentation – H2 acceptor is an organic

that will kill organism compound
- uses organic compounds as both
donor & electron acceptors
 Major Metabolic Activities 
° Enzymes - 2,000 to 3,000 enzymes Medically Related Activities:
- under the control of the DNA A. Toxin Production – toxigenicity – toxicity –
apparatus / controls activity of the cell potency of toxins
° Chemosynthesis – processing of energy is
produced through chemical alteration of some Characteristics of exotoxins
Substances - protein in nature
- antigenic produce antitoxin
- specific cause 1 disease / nothing else
 Anatoxins / Toxoids – modified toxins
1. Bacterial Digestion that can still procedure immunity to the disease
- Hydrolases  Endotoxins - complex
- Hydrolysis – addition to H20 lipopolysaccharides
2. Absorption - do not promote antitoxin
- diffusion formation
- active transport – physiologic - non-specific
pumps - can’t be converted into
3. Oxidation toxoids
- preparing molecules for a possible Ex: Salmonella typhi :
bonding Neisseria meningitides

*oxidases / dehydrogenases / coenzymes  Harmful metabolic products 

cytochrome system 1. Hemolysing – cause lysis / break
*transfer to electrons up / destruction of RBC

Classes of Biologic Oxidation:  Types 

Aerobic – ultimate H2 acceptor is molecular a. Filterable
oxygen b. Those that are demonstrated
Anaerobic – H2 acceptor is inorganic nitrate, about the bacterial colones on a
sulfate O2 carbonate culture medium containing RBC.
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* Hemolysis are named after the bacteria 2. Heat production – example: heating of
that give rise to them damp hay
Ex: staphylolysin: steptolysin 3. Light production – biolumineneace :
bacteria that live in water (salt) : light
B. Leukocidins – destroy polynorphonuclear producers on
neutrophilic leukocytes non-pathogenic
- formed by pneumococci, 4. Odors – due to decomposition of
streptococci and prophylococci material where bacteria is growing
C. Coagulase – accelerate coagulation of blood
- exemplified by
staphylococci CHAPTER 3
- Coagulase Test – used to  Role in Disease
differentiate pathogenic from non-  INFECTION – microbes enter the human
pathogenic bacteria body or any plant or animal multiply in the
D. Bacterial Kinases – act on certain host and
components of blood to liquefy fibrin produces a reaction
Ex: streptokinase / fibronolysin  CONTAMINATION – mere presence of
E. Hyaluronidase – make tissues more infectious material or constitutes normal
permeable to the bacteria elaborating it flora of the
- produced by body
pneumococci and streptococci Infectious Diseases
F. Bacteriocins – bacterial protein may be
G. Colicins – produced by the family COMMUNICABLE or
enterobacteriaceae NONCOMMUNICAB
- act on the bacterial membrane LE
 Other effects: [based on the
1. Pigment production – important in manner in which the causative agent
identification of organisms not related reaches the body]
to disease
production  COMMUNICABLE – causative agent
 Stapco aureus (gold) directly or indirectly transmitted from host
 Pseudonas aeruginosa (blue-green) to host
 Halobacterium halobium (red) - example: diphtheria,
 Serratia marcescens (red) tuberculosis, A(H1N1)
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 NONCOMMUNICABLE – agent normally  dysentery bacilli or cholera vibrios

inhibits the body; produces the disease only or amoebas of dysentery
when  most often contacted thru food and
introduced into drinks
the body 4. Genitourinary system
- example:  STD’s [gonorrhea or syphilis]
tetanus – not communicable but infectious 5. Placenta
 CONTAGIOUS – applied to diseases that are  spirochete of syphilis or virus of
easily spread from person to person smallpox

 INFECTIOUS DISEASES MAY BE:  Factors Influencing Occupance of Infection 

 EXOGENOUS – causative agent 1. portal of entry
comes from outside and enters the  organisms may fail to produce a
body thru one of the disease when introduced into the
portable of entry body by some other route or
 ENDOGENOUS – caused by pathway
organisms normally present in the  typhoid bacilli – to be
body swallowed to cause infection
- occurs when - produces
defensive power of host are weakened or increased inflammation only when
virulence of the rubbed on the skin
organisms  streptococci
2. virulence of the organisms
 ability of the microbes to produce
 Portals of Entry  the disease by overcoming the
1. Skin defensive powers of the host
 staphylococci or fungi  microbes are most violent when
2. Respiratory Apparatus freshly discharged from an ailing
 pulmonary tuberculosis or person
pneumonia or influenza 3. number of microbes
 viruses of measles or smallpox and  crucial to infection
German measles 4. defensive powers of the host
3. Alimentary tract
 How Microbes causes Disease 
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° mechanical means - occlusion of vital 1. FECES – salmonella, vibrio cholera, amoeba,

organs or areas shigella, viruses of poliomyelitis and type A
° production of biochemical effects like hepatitis
toxin production 2. URINE – pyelonephritis, TB of genitourinary
tract and undulant fever
ELECTIVE LOCALIZATION 3. DISCHARGES FROM MOUTH, NOSE AND
- favored part of the body for infections RESPIRATORY PASSAGES – tuberculin,
 dysentery bacilli – large bowel whooping cough, epidemic meningitis
 pneumococci – lungs [pneumonia], viruses of measles [scarlet
 maningo cocci – leptomeninges [brain] fever], small pox, mumps, polio, influenza
 tissue affinity - toxins of tetanus – act on and epidemic encephalitis
central nervous system 4. SALIVA – viruses of rabies
- toxins of diphtheria – affect 5. BLOOD – protozoa of malaria, bacteria of
heart and central nervous system tularemia, ricketisias of typhoid fever, virus
of yellow
LOCAL EFFECTS fever
- inflammation  body’s answer to injury;
designed to halt the invasion and destroy the  Patterns of Infection 
invaders 1. INCUBATION PERIOD – infection is
- pain, water restoration, reddening received to the appearance of disease
- affected by the
GENERAL EFFECTS following factors:
- fever – tachycardia  increased pulse a. nature of
rate the agent
- increased metabolic rate b. virulence of
host
Signs of Toxicity c. resistance of
- ANEMIA – results from prolonged and severe host
infections d. Resistance
- INFECTIONS – LEUKOCYTOSIS – increased white from the site of entrance to the focus of action
blood cells e. number of
- LEUKOPHENIA – decreased infectious agents invading the body
white blood cells 2. PRODROMAL PERIOD – short interval that
follows the period of incubation
 Portals of Exit 
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- with headache E. INAPPARENT / SUBCLINICAL – doesn’t

and malaise cause any detectable manifestations
3. INVASION PERIOD – disease reaching its F. LATENT – infection held in check by the
full development and maximum intensity defensive forces of the body but activated
regions when body’s
and chills and fever resistance is reduced
- skin is pale and dry G. INOCULATION INFECTION – infection
- decreased heat loss caused by accidental or surgical
4. FASTIGIUM or ACME – disease at its height penetration of the skin
or peak or mucous
5. DEFERVESCENCE OR DECLINE – phase membranes
where manifestations of disease subside H. BACTERMIA – bacteria enters the blood but
- do not multiply
profuse sweating I. SEPTICEMIA – bacteria enters the blood and
- heat multiply causing infection of the blood
loss in exceeding heat production [blood
6. SELF-LIMITING INFECTIONS poisoning]
J. PYEMIA – pyrogenic bacteria pus formers
in blood spreads to different parts of the
 Types of Infection  body and
A. LOCALIZED – microbes remain confined to focus on a new form of disease
a particular part of the body K. TOXEMIA – toxins liberated by bacteria
- example: boils, abscesses enters the blood stream to cause disease
B. GENERALIZED – microorganisms and their - example: diphtheria
products are spread generally over the body L. SAPREMIA – saprophytic bacteria may
by the grow in dead tissues and produce poison
blood or lymphatic’s which might
C. MIXED – caused by 2 or more organisms be absorbed by the body
[primary infection + secondary infection]
D. FOCAL – confined to a restricted area from
which infectious material spreads to other  Terminal – chronic wasting diseases
parts of  Sporadic – occurring occasionally in a
the body [infections of teeth, community
sinuses, prostate glands]  Endemic – constantly present in a
community
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 Epidemic – disease attacking a large

number of people in the community in a
short time

 SPREAD OF INFECTION 
 DIRECT CONTACT
- droplet infection, placental transmission,
bodily contacts
[STD’s, blood transfusions from person to
person in close association]
 INDIRECT CONTACT
- spread indirectly using conveyers like
milk, food, water, air, contaminated hands,
inanimate objects [formites], filth, insects
[mechanically or biologically (insect bites)]